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[[File:Screen Shot 2021-05-03 at 9.37.50 PM.png|thumb||right| Stinkwort (''Dittrichia graveolens'') [1]]]


== About ==
==Taxonomy==
Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell <ref name= "Phallaceae">{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}</ref>. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>.  Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance <ref name= "Stinkhorns">{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}</ref>.  It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>.  Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges <ref name= "Stinkhorns">{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}</ref>.  This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>.


== Habitat and Range ==
  '''Domain:''' Eukaryota
Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions <ref name= "Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns">{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}</ref>.  They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [<ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>.  These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>. Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country <ref name= "Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns">{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}</ref>.  Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source <ref name= "Stinkhorn">{{cite web |url:http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html |Title:Stinkhorns: 2005. |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}</ref>.  They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils <ref name= "Stinkhorns">{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}</ref>.
    '''Kingdom:''' Planteae
      '''Phylum:''' Tracheophyta
        '''Subphylum:''' [[Angiosperms]]
          '''Class:''' Magnoliopsida
            '''Order:''' Asterales
              '''Family:''' Asterceae
                '''Subfamily:''' Asteroideae
                  '''Genus:''' ''Dittrichia''
                    '''Species:''' ''D. graveolens''


== Growth and Toxicology==
==Description==
Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>.  These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>.  Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards <ref name= "Phallaceae">{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}</ref>.  The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba <ref name= "Phallaceae">{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}</ref>.  The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>.  After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle.  While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>.  In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>.
''Dittrichia graveolens'' or stinkwort belongs to the Asteraceae family which consist of flowering plants [1]. Stinkwort is an invasive species that has found its way into many areas. It is considered a highly invasive plant since it has the potential to harm horticultural crops, natural habitats, ecosytems, humans, and livestock [1,2,4,5]. Annually flowering in the fall, stinkwort is erect growing up to 2.5 feet [1,2,3,4,5] with sticky glandular hairs that give off a strong aromatic odor that is easily recognizable [1,2,4]. Stinkwort has flowers with short yellow rays on the outer edge and yellow to red disk flowers in the center [1,2,4]. Stinkwort which is native to the Mediterranean is rapidly invading other areas; it has found its way into many other areas including Central Europe, Australia, South Africa, and the United States [1].


== Ecosystem Function ==
[[File:stinkwort PM.png|thumb||left| a. Stinkwort b. Zoomed in stinkwort c. Flower head d. Habitat along a road [3]]]
Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>.  They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates <ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics.


== References ==
==Habitat==
{{Reflist|refs=
Stinkwort can be found in a variety of habitats in its native area. It is known to be prevalent in riparian woodlands, margins of tidal marshes, [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], and alluvial floodplains [1]. However, in areas where stinkwort is not native, it grows in disturbed areas such as overgrazed rangelands, roadsides, pastures, wastelands, vineyard edges, [[gravel]] mines, levees, washes, and mining sites [1,2]. Well-drained, sandy and gravelly soils are where Stinkwort thrives. Hot and dry climate is its preferred area, but grows well on the outskirts of wetlands.


<ref name= "Phallaceae">{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}</ref>
==Seed Dispersal==
There are a few different ways in which stinkwort seeds can be dispersed. The seeds have small fine hairs which allow for wind dispersal [3]. The fine hairs also stick to clothing, wool, hair, and machinery [3]. Stinkwort seeds have high viability with about 90% of the seeds being capable of germination at the time of dispersal [1].


<ref name= "Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns">{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}</ref>
==Negative Impacts==
Stinkwort is not an edible species so it can cause problems within livestock. If consumed by livestock, stinkwort can poison them leading to increased mortality rates [1,4]. The fine hairs of the seed can induce enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) or release fatal bacterium if the livestock have chosen to graze on it [4]. Not only does it cause problems in [[animals]], but it is also problematic for humans. When stinkwort is flowering and makes contact with bare skin, it can cause severe dermatitis [4,5].


<ref name= "Stinkhorn Mushrooms">{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}</ref>
==Control==
There are several different ways in which stinkwort can be controlled. For smaller areas of invasions, mechanical practices like pulling, hoeing, and mowing can be used [1,4]. When hand pulling and hoeing, gloves should be worn to avoid dermatitis. Mowing is only a partial control and should be done multiple times late in the season [1]. The buds remaining may grow back, which is why this should be repeated more than once [1]. For larger areas two different types of herbicides can be used, either post or preemergence herbicides. Postemergence herbicides are applied to young plants and target visibly infested areas [1]. Preemergence herbicides are used for larger areas before seeds are allowed to germinate [1].


<ref name= "Stinkhorns">{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}</ref>
==References==
[1] Brownsey, R., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2013. Stinkwort is rapidly expanding its range in California. Cal Ag 67, 110–115. https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.v067n02p110


<ref name= "Stinkhorn">{{cite web |url:http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html |Title:Stinkhorns: 2005. |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}</ref>
[2] Brownsey, R.N., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2014. Growth and phenology of Dittrichia graveolens, a rapidly spreading invasive plant in California. Biol Invasions 16, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-013-0501-4


}}
[3] Kocián, P., 2015. Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter – a new alien species in Poland. Acta Musei Silesiae, Scientiae Naturales 64, 193–197. https://doi.org/10.1515/cszma-2015-0027
 
[4] Stinkwort Guide [WWW Document], n.d. . HerbiGuide. URL http://www.herbiguide.com.au/Descriptions/hg_Stinkwort.htm
 
[5] Thong, H.-Y., Yokota, M., Kardassakis, D., Maibach, H.I., 2007. Allergic contact dermatitis from Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter (stinkwort). Contact Dermatitis 58, 51–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01154.x

Latest revision as of 13:31, 31 March 2023

Stinkwort (Dittrichia graveolens) [1]

Taxonomy

 Domain: Eukaryota
   Kingdom: Planteae
     Phylum: Tracheophyta 
       Subphylum: Angiosperms
         Class: Magnoliopsida 
           Order: Asterales
             Family: Asterceae
               Subfamily: Asteroideae
                 Genus: Dittrichia
                   Species: D. graveolens

Description

Dittrichia graveolens or stinkwort belongs to the Asteraceae family which consist of flowering plants [1]. Stinkwort is an invasive species that has found its way into many areas. It is considered a highly invasive plant since it has the potential to harm horticultural crops, natural habitats, ecosytems, humans, and livestock [1,2,4,5]. Annually flowering in the fall, stinkwort is erect growing up to 2.5 feet [1,2,3,4,5] with sticky glandular hairs that give off a strong aromatic odor that is easily recognizable [1,2,4]. Stinkwort has flowers with short yellow rays on the outer edge and yellow to red disk flowers in the center [1,2,4]. Stinkwort which is native to the Mediterranean is rapidly invading other areas; it has found its way into many other areas including Central Europe, Australia, South Africa, and the United States [1].

a. Stinkwort b. Zoomed in stinkwort c. Flower head d. Habitat along a road [3]

Habitat

Stinkwort can be found in a variety of habitats in its native area. It is known to be prevalent in riparian woodlands, margins of tidal marshes, vernal pools, and alluvial floodplains [1]. However, in areas where stinkwort is not native, it grows in disturbed areas such as overgrazed rangelands, roadsides, pastures, wastelands, vineyard edges, gravel mines, levees, washes, and mining sites [1,2]. Well-drained, sandy and gravelly soils are where Stinkwort thrives. Hot and dry climate is its preferred area, but grows well on the outskirts of wetlands.

Seed Dispersal

There are a few different ways in which stinkwort seeds can be dispersed. The seeds have small fine hairs which allow for wind dispersal [3]. The fine hairs also stick to clothing, wool, hair, and machinery [3]. Stinkwort seeds have high viability with about 90% of the seeds being capable of germination at the time of dispersal [1].

Negative Impacts

Stinkwort is not an edible species so it can cause problems within livestock. If consumed by livestock, stinkwort can poison them leading to increased mortality rates [1,4]. The fine hairs of the seed can induce enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) or release fatal bacterium if the livestock have chosen to graze on it [4]. Not only does it cause problems in animals, but it is also problematic for humans. When stinkwort is flowering and makes contact with bare skin, it can cause severe dermatitis [4,5].

Control

There are several different ways in which stinkwort can be controlled. For smaller areas of invasions, mechanical practices like pulling, hoeing, and mowing can be used [1,4]. When hand pulling and hoeing, gloves should be worn to avoid dermatitis. Mowing is only a partial control and should be done multiple times late in the season [1]. The buds remaining may grow back, which is why this should be repeated more than once [1]. For larger areas two different types of herbicides can be used, either post or preemergence herbicides. Postemergence herbicides are applied to young plants and target visibly infested areas [1]. Preemergence herbicides are used for larger areas before seeds are allowed to germinate [1].

References

[1] Brownsey, R., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2013. Stinkwort is rapidly expanding its range in California. Cal Ag 67, 110–115. https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.v067n02p110

[2] Brownsey, R.N., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2014. Growth and phenology of Dittrichia graveolens, a rapidly spreading invasive plant in California. Biol Invasions 16, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-013-0501-4

[3] Kocián, P., 2015. Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter – a new alien species in Poland. Acta Musei Silesiae, Scientiae Naturales 64, 193–197. https://doi.org/10.1515/cszma-2015-0027

[4] Stinkwort Guide [WWW Document], n.d. . HerbiGuide. URL http://www.herbiguide.com.au/Descriptions/hg_Stinkwort.htm

[5] Thong, H.-Y., Yokota, M., Kardassakis, D., Maibach, H.I., 2007. Allergic contact dermatitis from Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter (stinkwort). Contact Dermatitis 58, 51–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01154.x

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