Serpentine Barrens: Difference between revisions

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[[File:SBW-1.jpg|right|450px|"Goat Hill Serpentine Barrens in SE Pennsylvania. Photo taken by Josh Klostermann"]]
[[File:SBW-1.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Goat Hill Serpentine Barrens in SE Pennsylvania. Photo by Josh Klostermann]]


Serpentine Barrens are unique ecoregions that can be found globally, in small patchy pockets of land with serpentine [[bedrock]] and [[soil]]. The term "serpentine barren" generally refers to a serpentine outcrop and its associated vegetation. These habitats are notable for their distinct vegetation with high rates of endemism. The difference in vegetative communities is the product of chemical, physical, and biotic edaphic factors but is primarily driven by the toxic chemical composition of the serpentine bedrock and soil. These systems are used to study edaphic endemism and plant speciation. [ ] They are also used as an analog to brownfields in restoration [[ecology]] because of the high heavy metal content in the soil. [ ]
Serpentine Barrens are unique ecoregions that can be found globally, in small patchy pockets of land with serpentine [[bedrock]] and [[soil]]. The term "serpentine barren" generally refers to a serpentine outcrop and its associated vegetation. These habitats are notable for their distinct flora with high rates of endemism. The difference in vegetative communities is the product of chemical, physical, and biotic edaphic factors but is primarily driven by the toxic chemical composition of the serpentine bedrock and soil. These systems are used to study edaphic endemism and plant speciation. [2] They are also used as an analog to brownfields in restoration [[ecology]] because of the high heavy metal content in the soil.


==Rock formation:==
==Rock formation:==
Serpentine is not the name of a single mineral. Instead it is a name used for a large group of minerals that fit this generalized formula:
[[File:SBW-16.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Serpentine talus. Photo by Josh Klostermann]]
 
Serpentine is not the name of a single mineral. Instead, it is a name used for a large group of minerals that fit this generalized formula:
(X)2-3(Y)2O5(OH)4.
(X)2-3(Y)2O5(OH)4.


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During hydrothermal metamorphism, olivine and pyroxene minerals are transformed into or are replaced by serpentine minerals. Some of the metamorphic rocks produced here are composed almost entirely of serpentine minerals. These serpentine-rich rocks are known as "serpentinites."
During hydrothermal metamorphism, olivine and pyroxene minerals are transformed into or are replaced by serpentine minerals. Some of the metamorphic rocks produced here are composed almost entirely of serpentine minerals. These serpentine-rich rocks are known as "serpentinites."


Extensive areas of Earth's surface are underlain by serpentinites. These areas occur near present or ancient convergent plate boundaries. They are locations where remnants of an oceanic plate is exposed at the surface. The remnant portion of the plate was either thrusted up onto land, accreted onto the edge of a land mass, or exposed by uplift and deep weathering.
Extensive areas of Earth's surface are underlain by serpentinites. These areas occur near present or ancient convergent plate boundaries. They are locations where remnants of an oceanic plate are exposed at the surface. The remnant portion of the plate was either thrust up onto land, accreted onto the edge of a landmass, or exposed by uplift and deep weathering.


These areas of exposed oceanic plate are known as ophiolites. They are often the source of valuable minerals that might include magnetite, chromite, chrysoprase, jade, and serpentine. Article by: Hobart M. King, PhD, RPG []
These areas of exposed oceanic plate are known as ophiolites. They are often the source of valuable minerals that might include magnetite, chromite, chrysoprase, jade, and serpentine.  


==Evolution and soil edaphic endemism:==
Article by: Hobart M. King, PhD, RPG [6]


Vegetative communities growing in serpentine barrens differ from surrounding areas by having a notably distinct physiognomy and community structure, high rates of endemism, low species richness, a dominance of specific taxa, a predominance of xerophytic species, low productivity, and the co-existence of high and low ph-tolerant species.
==Edaphic endemism:==


==East Coast Serpentine Barrens:==
"Although speciation has been a central focus in evolutionary biology for more than a century, there are very few case studies where we have a good understanding of the exact forces that may have acted in the diversification of a group of [[organisms]]. In order to examine such forces, botanists have often focused on closely related plants that are found under contrasting soil conditions. The study of such edaphically differentiated plants has provided valuable insight to the role of natural selection in evolution. " - Nishanta Rajakaruna, The Edaphic Factor in the Origin of Plant Species [5]
  Add map of barrens. Briefly describe history + formation


===Flora:===
Edaphic endemics are plants or [[animals]] that are endemic (or restricted) to a certain type of soil. Some examples of edaphic endemics include; [[sand]] wasps (Bembix sp.) on sandy soils, the serpentine aster (Symphyotrichum depauperatum) on ultramafic soils, and many others on various different soil substrates.


Division '''[[Magnoliophyta]]''' - [[Angiosperms]]
Together the chemical, physical, and biological factors that characterize serpentine soils culminate in the term coined by (our lord and savior) Hans Jenny in 1980, known as the "Serpentine Syndrome". This term is an expression used to indicate the cumulative effect that these 3 factors have on the development of vegetative communities growing in serpentine soil. [2] The "Serpentine syndrome" is a classic and well-studied case of edaphic plant endemism.


Class '''[[Magnoliopsida]]''' - Dicotyledons
Serpentine soils are characterized by their harsh chemical composition. They contain metals such as iron, nickel, chromium, and cobalt which are toxic to most plants. They are also deficient in essential plant nutrients such as N, P, K, have low Mg:Ca ratios, and steep ph gradients. [1] Their physical conditions also make it tough for plants to adapt. Outcrops are often found on steep rocky slopes, with high rates of erosion and therefore shallow topsoils. These physical conditions create an environment that holds little moisture and low nutrient levels. The biota found using these soils is generally sparse and the little plant life leads to further erosion, which also increases soil temperatures. [2]


list|Name='''[[Amaranthaceae]]''' - ([[Amaranth]] Family)}}
From a birds-eye view, serpentine areas look like islands with steep vegetative gradients as boundaries. They are like archipelagoes of specialized habitat for species with disjunct or endemic distributions. This makes them a textbook example for the study of plant speciation and island biogeography. Vegetative communities growing in serpentine barrens differ from surrounding areas by having a notably distinct physiognomy and community structure, low species richness, a dominance of specific taxa, a predominance of xerophytic species, low productivity, and the co-existence of high and low ph-tolerant species. [1]
*''[[Amaranthus retroflexus]]'' L. - Pigweed<ref name="M"/>


'''[[Apiaceae]]''' - ([[Carrot]] Family)
==Pennsylvannia and Maryland Serpentine Barrens:==
*''[[Daucus carota]]'' L. - [[Daucus carota|Queen Anne's Lace]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
[[File:SBW-2.png|right|thumb|200px|Taken from Brooks, R. R. 1987. Serpentine and its Vegetation: a Multi-disciplinary Approach. Dioscorides Press, Portland]]


'''[[Apocynaceae]]''' - ([[Dogbane]] Family)
The serpentine barrens of Eastern North America are found in thin, patchy, sinusoidal-bands, that work their way down the coast. Historically, the barrens of Pennsylvania and Maryland were maintained as grasslands for hunting grounds by the Susquehannock and other unknown Native American Tribes. Fires deliberately set by Native Americans were responsible for maintaining the grassland/savannah communities found in the serpentine barrens of the piedmont plateau. Post european invasion and settlement, these areas were used for grazing due to their "barrenness". Barrens that were not grazed by livestock transitioned into a forest habitat. By 1930 almost all grazing in this area had ceased and conifer invasion and expansion began. Presently, afforestation has occurred in more than 90% of undeveloped serpentine barrens due to fire suppression. [1]
*'''[[Apocynoideae]]''' - Subfamily
===Flora:===
**''[[Apocynum androsaemifolium]]'' L. - [[Spreading Dogbane]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
**''[[Apocynum cannabinum]]'' L. - Indian Hemp<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*'''[[Asclepiadoideae]]''' - Subfamily
**''[[Asclepias amplexicaulis]]'' Sm. - [[Blunt-leaved Milkweed]]<ref name="Wo"/>
**''[[Asclepias incarnata]]'' L. - [[Swamp Milkweed]]<ref name="Wo"/>
**''[[Asclepias syriaca]]'' L. - [[Common Milkweed]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/>
**''[[Asclepias verticillata]]'' L. - Whorled Milkweed<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
**''[[Asclepias viridiflora]]'' Raf. - Green Milkweed<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/>


'''[[Asteraceae]]''' - ([[Aster (genus)|Aster]] Family)
Below are compiled lists of the flora found at Soldiers Delight Serpentine Barrens. These species are typical of the Eastern Serpentine Region of SE Pennsylvania and Maryland.  
*''[[Achillea millefolium]]'' L. - [[Yarrow]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Ambrosia artemisiifolia]]'' L. - Common Ragweed<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Ambrosia trifida]]'' L. - Giant Ragweed [M, Wo]<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Anaphalis margaritacea]]'' (L.) Benth. & Hook. - Pearly Everlasting<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Antennaria plantaginifolia]]'' (L.) Richardson - Plantain-leaf Pussytoes<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Anthemis arvensis]]'' L. - [[Field Chamomile]]<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Anthemis cotula]]'' L. - Mayweed, Dogfennel<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Aster tataricus]]'' L.f. - Tatarian Aster<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Bidens bipinnata]]'' L. - Spanish Needles<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Bidens frondosa]]'' L. - [[Devil's beggartick]]<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Bidens polylepis]]'' Blake - Tickseed Sunflower<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Carduus nutans]]'' L. - [[Musk thistle]]<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Leucanthemum vulgare]]'' L. - Ox-eye Daisy<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Chrysanthemum parthenium]]'' (L.) Bernh. - Feverfew<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Chrysopsis mariana]]'' (L.) Ell. - Maryland Golden Aster<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Cichorium intybus]]'' L. – [[Chicory]]<ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Cirsium arvense]]'' (L.) Scop. - [[Canada Thistle]]<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Cirsium discolor]]'' (Muhl.) Sprengel - Field Thistle [Hand-out]
*''[[Cirsium horridulum]]'' Michx. - Yellow Thistle<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Cirsium muticum]]'' Michx. - Swamp Thistle<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/>
*''[[Conyza canadensis]]'' (L.) Cronq. - [[Conyza canadensis|Horseweed]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Erechtites hieracifolia]]'' (L.) Raf. - [[Pilewort]], [[Fireweed]]<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Erigeron annuus]]'' (L.) Pers. - Daisy or Annual Fleabane<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Erigeron pulchellus]]'' Michx. - Robin's Plantain<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Erigeron strigosus]]'' Muhl. ''ex'' Wild - Daisy Fleabane<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Eupatorium altissimum]]'' L.  - Tall Thoroughwort <ref name="R"/>
*''[[Eupatorium aromaticum]]'' L.  - Aromatic Thoroughwort <ref name="R"/>
*''[[Eupatorium fistulosum]]'' Barratt - [[Joe-Pye Weed]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/>
*''[[Eupatorium perfoliatum]]'' L. - [[Boneset]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Eupatorium rugosum]]'' Houttuyn. - [[Eupatorium rugosum|White Snakeroot]] <ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Eupatorium sessilifolium]]'' L.  - Upland Boneset<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Eurybia divaricata]]'' (L.) G.L. Nesom (Syn. ''Aster divaricatus'') - White Wood Aster<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Eurybia schreberi]]'' (Nees) Nees (Syn. ''Aster schreberi'') - Schreber's Aster<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Euthamia graminifolia]]'' (L.) Nutt. (Syn. ''[[Solidago]] graminifolia'') - Lance-leaf Goldenrod<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Galinsoga quadriradiata]]'' Ruiz & Pavon - Galinsoga <ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Helenium autumnale]]'' L. - Yellow Sneezeweed <ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Helianthus annuus]]'' L. - [[Sunflower]] <ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Helianthus decapetalus]]'' L. - Thin-leaf Sunflower<ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Heliopsis helianthoides]]'' (L.) Sweet - Ox-eye<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Hieracium caespitosum]]'' Dumort - Yellow King Devil<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Hieracium gronovii]]'' L. - Hairy Hawkweed<ref name="R"/>
*''[[Hieracium paniculatum]]'' L. - Panicled Hawkweed<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Hieracium scabrum]]'' Michx. - Rough Hawkweed<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Hieracium venosum]]'' L. - Rattlesnake Weed<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Ionactis linariifolia]]'' (L.) Greene (Syn. ''Aster linariifolius'') - Flax-leaf White-top Aster<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Krigia virginica]]'' (L.) Willd. – Dwarf Dandelion<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Lactuca saligna]]'' L. – Willow-leaf Lettuce<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Lactuca serriola]]'' L. – [[Prickly Lettuce]]<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Liatris]] graminifolia'' Willd. – [[Grass-leaf Blazing-star]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Liatris spicata]]'' (L.) Willd. - [[Spiked Blazing-star]]<ref name="F"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/> {G5, S1}
*''[[Matricaria discoidea]]'' D.C. – Pineapple Weed<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Mikania scandens]]'' (L.) Willd. – Climbing Hempweed<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Oclemena acuminata]]'' (Michx.) Greene (Syn. ''Aster acuminatus'') - Whorled Wood Aster<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Packera anonyma]]'' (A. Wood) W.A. Weber & A. Löve (Syn. ''Senecio smallii, Senecio anonymus'') - Southern Ragwort<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Packera paupercula]]'' (Michx.) A. Löve & D. Löve (Syn. ''Senecio balsamitae, Senecio pauperculus'') - Balsam Ragwort, Balsam Groundsel<ref name="F"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Pseudognaphalium obtusifolium]]'' (L.) Hilliard & Burtt (Syn. ''Gnaphalium obtusifolium'') - Rabbit-tobacco, Sweet Everlasting, Fragrant Cudweed<ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Rudbeckia hirta]]'' L. – Black-eyed Susan<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Rudbeckia laciniata]]'' L. – [[Cutleaf coneflower]], Green-head Coneflower<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Rudbeckia triloba]]'' L. – Three-lobed Coneflower<ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Sericocarpus]] asteroides'' (L.) B.S.P. (Syn. ''Aster paternus'') - Toothed White-top Aster<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago bicolor]]'' L. - Silver-rod<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago caesia]]'' L. - Blue-stemmed Goldenrod<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago canadensis]]'' L. - Canada Goldenrod<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago canadensis]]'' L. var. ''scabra'' T. & G. - Tall Goldenrod<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago gigantea]]'' Ait. - Late Goldenrod<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago hispida]]'' Muhl. - Hispid Goldenrod<ref name="R"/>{G5, SH, X}
*''[[Solidago juncea]]'' Aiton - Early Goldenrod<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago nemoralis]]'' Aiton - Gray Goldenrod<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago patula]]'' Muhl. - Rough-leaved Goldenrod<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago rigida]]'' L. - Stiff Goldenrod<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago rugosa]]'' Mill. - Wrinkle-leaf Goldenrod<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago stricta]]'' Ait. - Willow-leaf Goldenrod<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Solidago ulmifolia]]'' Muhl. ''ex'' Willd. - Elm-leaf Goldenrod<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Taraxacum officinale]]'' Weber - [[Dandelion]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Symphyotrichum cordifolium]]'' (L.) G.L. Nesom (Syn. ''Aster cordifolius'') - Common Blue Wood Aster<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Symphyotrichum depauperatum]]'' ([[Fern]].) G.L. Nesom (Syn. ''Aster depauperatus'') - Eastern Serpentine Aster<ref name="F"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/> {G2, S1, E}
*''[[Symphyotrichum dumosum]]'' (L.) G.L. Nesom (Syn. ''Aster dumosum'') - Rice Button Aster<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Symphyotrichum ericoides]]'' (L.) G.L. Nesom (Syn. ''Aster ericoides'') - White Heath Aster<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Symphyotrichum laeve]]'' (L.) A. Löve & D. Löve (Syn. ''Aster laevis'') - Smooth Blue Aster<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Symphyotrichum lateriflorum]]'' (L.) A. Löve & D. Löve (Syn. ''Aster lateriflorus'') - Calico Aster<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Symphyotrichum novae-angliae]]'' (L.) G.L. Nesom (Syn. ''Aster novae-angliae'') - New England Aster<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Symphyotrichum novi-belgii]]'' (L.) G.L. Nesom (Syn. ''Aster novi-belgii'') - New York Aster<ref name="F"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Symphyotrichum]] patens'' (Ait.) G.L. Nesom (Syn. ''Aster patens'') - Late Purple Aster<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Symphyotrichum pilosum]]'' (Willd.) G.L. Nesom (Syn. ''Aster pilosus'') - Hairy White Heath Aster<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Symphyotrichum]] racemosum'' (Ell.) G.L. Nesom (Syn. ''Aster racemosus'') - Smooth White Oldfield Aster<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Symphyotrichum]] undulatum'' (L.) G.L. Nesom (Syn. ''Aster undulatus'') - Wavy-leaf Aster<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Verbesina alternifolia]]'' (L.) Britton - Wingstem<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Vernonia noveboracensis]]'' (L.) Michx. - New York Ironweed<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>


'''[[Balsaminaceae]]''' - (Touch-me-not Family)
List of Wildflowers of Soldiers Delight [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wildflowers_of_Soldiers_Delight]
*''[[Impatiens capensis]]'' Meerb. – Common Jewelweed<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/>


'''[[Boraginaceae]]''' - ([[Borage]] Family)
List of Woody Plants of Soldiers Delight [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_woody_plants_of_Soldiers_Delight]
*''[[Echium vulgare]]'' L. - [[Viper's Bugloss]]<ref name="M"/>


'''[[Brassicaceae]]''' - ([[Mustard plant|Mustard]] Family)
List of Ferns of Soldiers Delight [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ferns_and_fern_allies_of_Soldiers_Delight]
*''[[Arabidopsis lyrata]]'' L. - Lyre-leaved Rock Cress<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'' (L.) Heynh. - Mouse-ear Cress<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Barbarea vulgaris]]'' R. Br. - Winter Cress<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Camelina microcarpa]]'' Andrz. - Small-fruited False-flax<ref name="R"/>
*''[[Cardamine angustata]]'' O.E. Schulz (Syn. ''Dentaria heterophylla'') - Slender Toothwort<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Cardamine hirsuta]]'' L. - Hairy Bitter-cress
*''[[Draba verna]]'' L. - Spring Draba, Whitlow-grass
*''[[Lepidium campestre]]'' (L.) R.Br. - Field Peppergrass<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/>
*''[[Lepidium virginicum]]'' L. - Wild Peppergrass<ref name="M"/>


'''[[Campanulaceae]]''' - (Bellflower family)
List of Lichens of Soldiers Delight [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lichens_of_Soldiers_Delight]
*''[[Lobelia cardinalis]]'' L. - [[Cardinal flower]]<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Lobelia inflata]]'' L. - Indian Tobacco<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/>
*''[[Lobelia siphilitica]]'' L. - Great Lobelia  [F, M, We]
*''[[Lobelia spicata]]'' Lam. - Spiked Lobelia<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Triodanis perfoliata]]'' (L.) Nieuwl. (Syn. ''Specularia perfoliata'') - Clasping Venus' Looking-glass<ref name="M"/>


'''[[Caryophyllaceae]]''' - (Pink Family)
===Threats and Conservation:===
*''[[Cerastium arvense]]'' L. var. ''villosissimum'' (Muhl. ''ex'' Darl.) Hollick & Britt. (Syn. ''Cerastium arvense'' L. var. ''villosissimum'' Pennell - Serpentine Chickweed<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Cerastium vulgatum]]'' L. - Common Mouse-ear Chickweed<ref name="R"/>
*''[[Dianthus armeria]]'' L. - [[Deptford Pink]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Silene antirrhina]]'' L. - Sleepy Catchfly<ref name="R"/>
*''[[Silene caroliniana]]'' Walter - Wild Pink<ref name="F"/>
*''[[Silene latifolia]]'' Poiret - White Campion<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Stellaria media]]'' (L.) Vill. - [[Common Chickweed]]


'''[[Chenopodiaceae]]''' - ([[Goosefoot]] Family)
Major threats to the eastern serpentine barrens are afforestation, invasive species, and development. Current restoration efforts such as prescribed burns and tree removals are being used to improve the health and quality of these globally important habitats. [7]
*''[[Chenopodium album]]'' L. - Lamb's quarters<ref name="M"/>


'''[[Cistaceae]]''' - ([[Rockrose]] Family)
===Gallery:===
*''[[Helianthemum]] bicknellii'' Fern. - Hairy Frostweed<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/> {G5, S1, E}
*''Lechea minor'' L. - Thyme-leaved Pinweed<ref name="Wo"/>


'''[[Clusiaceae]]''' - ([[Mangosteen]] Family)
<gallery mode="slideshow">
*''[[Hypericum canadense]]'' L. - Canadian St. John's Wort<ref name="Wo"/>
SBW-3.jpg
*''[[Hypericum denticulatum]]'' Walt. - Coppery St. John's Wort<ref name="M"/> {G5, S2, T}
SBW-4.jpg
*''[[Hypericum gentianoides]]'' (L.) BSP. - Pinweed [F, M]
SBW-5.jpg
*''[[Hypericum mutilum]]'' L. - Dwarf St. John's Wort<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
SBW-6.jpg
*''[[Hypericum perforatum]]'' L. - [[St. John's Wort]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
SBW-7.jpg
*''[[Hypericum punctatum]]'' Lam. - Spotted St. John's Wort<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
SBW-8.jpg
*''[[Hypericum virginicum]]'' L. - Marsh St. John's Wort<ref name="Wo"/>
SBW-9.jpg
SBW-10.jpg
SBW-11.jpg
SBW-12.jpg
SBW-13.jpg
SBW-14.jpg
SBW-15.jpg
SBW-17.jpg
</gallery>


'''[[Convolvulaceae]]''' - ([[Morning glory]] Family)
==Citations:==
*''[[Calystegia]] spithamea'' (L.) Pursh. - Low Bindweed<ref name="M"/> {G4, S2}
*''[[Convolvulus arvensis]]'' L. - Field Bindweed<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Cuscuta gronovii]]'' Willd. - Common Dodder<ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Ericaceae]]''' - (Heath Family)
*''[[Chimaphila maculata]]'' (L.) Pursh. - [[Spotted Wintergreen]]<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Chimaphila umbellata]]'' (L.) Barton - [[Chimaphila umbellata|Pipsissewa]]<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Epigaea repens]]'' L. - Trailing Arbutus<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Monotropa uniflora]]'' L. - [[Indian Pipe]]<ref name="M"/>
 
'''[[Fabaceae]]''' - ([[Bean]] Family)
*''[[Baptisia tinctoria]]'' (L.) R. Brown - Wild Indigo<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Chamaecrista fasciculata]]'' (Michx.) Greene (Syn. ''[[Cassia (legume)|Cassia]] fasciculata'') - Large-flowered Partridge Pea<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Chamaecrista nictitans]]'' (L.) Moench. (Syn. ''[[Cassia (legume)|Cassia]] nictitans'') - Wild Sensitive Plant<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Crotalaria]] sagittalis'' L. - Rattlebox<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Desmodium]] canadense'' (L.) DC. - Showy Tick-trefoil<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Desmodium]] ciliare'' (Muhl.) DC. - Hairy Small-leaf Tick-trefoil<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/>
*''[[Desmodium]] cuspidatum'' (Muhl.) Loudon - Large-bracted Tick-trefoil<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Desmodium]] lineatum'' (Michx.) DC. - Linear-leaved Tick-trefoil<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/> {G5, S1, E}
*''[[Desmodium]] marilandicum'' (L.) DC. - Smooth Small-leaved Tick-trefoil<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Desmodium]] nudiflorum'' (L.) DC. - Naked-flowered Tick-trefoil<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Desmodium]] paniculatum'' (L.) DC. - Panicled Tick-trefoil<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Desmodium]] rigidum'' (Ell.) DC. - Rigid Tick-trefoil<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/> {G?, S1, E}
*''[[Lathyrus latifolius]]'' L. - Everlasting pea<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/>
*''[[Lespedeza]] cuneata'' (Dumont) G. Don - Chinese Lespedeza<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/>
*''[[Lespedeza]] stipulacea'' Maxim. - Korean Bushclover<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Lespedeza]] virginica'' L.  - Slender Bushclover<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Medicago]] lupulina'' L.  - Black Medic<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Melilotus albus]]'' Desr. - [[White Sweet Clover]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Melilotus officinalis]]'' Desr. - [[Yellow Sweet Clover]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''Strophostyles umbellata'' (Muhl.) Britton - Pink Wild Bean<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Trifolium aureum]]'' Pollich - [[Large Hop Trefoil]]<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Trifolium]] dubium'' Sibth. - Little Hop Clover<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Trifolium pratense]]'' L. - [[Red Clover]]<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Vicia]] angustifolia'' Reichard - Narrow-leaved Vetch<ref name="M"/>
 
'''[[Gentianaceae]]''' - ([[Gentian]] Family)
*''Gentianopsis crinita'' (Froelich) Ma (Syn. ''[[Gentiana crinita]]'') - [[Gentianopsis crinita|Fringed gentian]]<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/> {G5, S1, E}
*''Sabatia angularis'' (L.) Pursh. - Rose Pink<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/>
*''Sabatia calycina'' (Lam.) A.A. Heller  -<ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Lamiaceae]]''' - (Mint Family)
*''[[Cunila origanoides]]'' (L.) Britton - Common Dittany<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Glechoma hederacea]]'' L. - Ground-ivy<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/>
*''[[Lamium amplexicaule]]'' L.- [[Lamium amplexicaule|Henbit]]
*''[[Lamium purpureum]]'' L. - [[Red Deadnettle]]
*''[[Prunella vulgaris]]'' L. - Heal-all, Self-heal<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Pycnanthemum]] flexuosum'' (Walter) BSP - Mountain-mint<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Pycnanthemum tenuifolium]]'' Schrader - Narrow-leaved Mountain-mint<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Scutellaria]] integrifolia'' L. - Hyssop Skullcap<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Trichostema]] brachiatum'' L. (Syn. ''Isanthus brachiatus'') - False Pennyroyal, Fluxweed <ref name="Wo"/>


'''[[Linaceae]]''' - ([[Flax]] Family)
[1] Anderson, R. C., J. S. Fralish, and J. M. Baskin, editors. 1999. Savannas, barrens, and rock outcrop plant communities of North America.  Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK ; New York, NY, USA.
*''[[Linum]] medium'' (Planch.) Britton - Common Yellow Flax<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Linum]] sulcatum'' Riddel - Grooved Yellow Flax<ref name="We"/> {G5, S1, E}
*''[[Linum]] virginianum'' L. - Virginia Yellow Flax<ref name="F"/>


'''[[Lythraceae]]''' - ([[Lythrum|Loosestrife]] Family)
[2] Brady, K. U., A. R. Kruckeberg, and H. D. Bradshaw Jr. 2005. Evolutionary Ecology of Plant Adaptation to Serpentine Soils. Annual Review
*''[[Cuphea viscosissima]]'' Jacq. - Clammy Cuphea<ref name="Wo"/>
of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36:243–266.


'''[[Melastomataceae]]''' - (Meadow-beauty Family)
[3] Jenny, H. 1980. The Soil Resource. Springer New York, New York, NY.
*''[[Rhexia]] mariana'' L. - Maryland Meadow Beauty<ref name="Wo"/>


'''[[Onagraceae]]''' - ([[Evening Primrose]] Family)
[4] Nottingham_Evaluation_Review.pdf. (n.d.). .
*''[[Epilobium]] coloratum'' Biehler - Purple-leaved Willow-herb<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Oenothera biennis]]'' L. - Common Evening Primrose<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/>
*''[[Oenothera]] fruticosa'' L. - Sundrops<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Oenothera]] perennis'' L. - Small Sundrops<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Oenothera]] tetragona'' Roth - Northern Sundrops<ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>


'''[[Orobanchaceae]]''' - ([[Broomrape]] Family)
[[[5]]] Rajakaruna, N. 2004. The Edaphic Factor in the Origin of Plant Species. International Geology Review 46:471–478.
*''[[Agalinis acuta]]'' Pennell - Sandplain [[Agalinis|Gerardia]]<ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/> {G1, S1, E, LE}
*''[[Agalinis]] fasciculata'' (Ell.) Raf. - Fascicled Agalinis<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/> {G5, S1, E}
*''[[Agalinis]] obtusifolia'' Raf. - Blunt-leaf Agalinis<ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/> {G4, S1, E}
*''[[Agalinis purpurea]]'' (L.) Pinnell - Purple [[Agalinis|Gerardia]]<ref name="F"/><ref name="We"/>
*''[[Agalinis tenuifolia]]'' (M. Vahl) Raf. - Slender [[Agalinis|Gerardia]]<ref name="F"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/>
*''[[Aureolaria pedicularia]]'' (L.) Raf. - Fern-leaved False-foxglove<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>


'''[[Oxalidaceae]]''' - (Wood-sorrel Family)
[6]Serpentine: mineral, gem, ornamental stone, asbestos source. (n.d.). . https://geology.com/minerals/serpentine.shtml.
*''[[Oxalis]] dillenii'' Jacquin - Southern Yellow Wood-sorrel<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Oxalis stricta]]'' L. - Common Yellow Wood-sorrel<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Oxalis]] violacea'' L. - Violet Wood-sorrel [EU]


'''[[Papaveraceae]]''' - ([[Poppy (flower)|Poppy]] Family)
[7] Latham, R. E. 1993. The Serpentine Barrens of Temperate Eastern North America: Critical Issues in the Management of Rare Species and Communities. Bartonia:61–74.
*''[[Sanguinaria canadensis]]'' L. - [[Bloodroot]]<ref name="We"/>
 
'''[[Phrymaceae]]''' - ([[Lopseed]] Family)
*''[[Mimulus ringens]]'' L. - Square-stemmed Monkey Flower<ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/>
 
'''[[Phytolaccaceae]]''' - ([[Pokeweed]] Family)
*''[[Phytolacca americana]]'' L. - [[Pokeweed]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/>
 
'''[[Plantaginaceae]]''' - ([[Plantago|Plantain]] Family)
*''[[Chelone glabra]]'' L. - White Turtlehead<ref name="F"/>
*''[[Linaria vulgaris]]'' Hill. - Butter and eggs<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Penstemon digitalis]]'' Nutt. - Foxglove, Tall White Beard-tongue<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Plantago aristata]]'' Michx. - Bracted Plantain<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/>
*''[[Plantago lanceolata]]'' L. - [[Ribwort Plantain]]<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Plantago rugelii]]'' Dcne. - Broad-leaved Plantain<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/>
*''[[Veronica arvensis]]'' L. - Corn Speedwell<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Veronica hederifolia]]'' L. - Ivy-leaf Speedwell
*''[[Veronica officinalis]]'' L. - [[Heath Speedwell]]<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Veronica peregrina]]'' L. - Purslane Speedwell<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Veronica persica]]'' Poiret - Persian Speedwell, Bird's-eye Speedwell
*''[[Veronica serpyllifolia]]'' L. - Thyme-leaf Speedwell<ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Polemoniaceae]]''' - ([[Phlox]] Family)
*''[[Phlox]] subulata'' L. - [[Moss]] Phlox, Moss Pink<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Polygalaceae]]''' - ([[Milkwort]] Family)
*''[[Polygala]] verticillata'' L. - Whorled Milkwort<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Polygonaceae]]''' - ([[Buckwheat]] Family)
*''[[Polygonum pensylvanicum]]'' L. - Pennsylvania Smartweed<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Polygonum]] tenue'' Michx. - Slender Knotweed<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Rumex crispus]]'' L. - [[Curley Dock]]<ref name="M"/>
 
'''[[Portulacaceae]]''' - ([[Portulacaceae|Purslane]] Family)
*''[[Claytonia virginica]]'' L. - [[Eastern spring beauty]]<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Talinum]] teretifolium'' Pursh - Flameflower<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/> {G4, S1}
 
'''[[Primulaceae]]''' - ([[Primulaceae|Primrose]] Family)
*''[[Anagallis arvensis]]'' L. - [[Scarlet Pimpernel]]<ref name="M"/>
 
'''[[Ranunculaceae]]''' - ([[Buttercup]] Family)
*''[[Anemone quinquefolia]]'' L. - Wood Anemone<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Cimicifuga racemosa]]'' (L.) Nutt. - [[Black cohosh]]<ref name="R"/>
*''[[Clematis virginiana]]'' L. - Virgin's Bower [Hand-out]
*''[[Hepatica]] americana'' (DC.) KerGawler - Round-lobed Hepatica<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Thalictrum thalictroides]]'' (L.) Eames & Boivin - [[Rue anemone]]<ref name="We"/>
 
'''[[Rosaceae]]''' - ([[Rose]] Family)
*''[[Potentilla]] canadensis'' L. - Dwarf Cinquefoil<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Potentilla]] norvegica'' L. - Rough Cinquefoil<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Potentilla]] recta'' L. - Rough-fruited Cinquefoil<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/>
*''[[Potentilla]] simplex'' Michx. - Common Cinquefoil<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Sanguisorba]] canadensis'' L. - Canadian Burnet<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/> {G5, S2, T}
 
'''[[Rubiaceae]]''' - ([[Rubia|Madder]] Family)
*''[[Houstonia caerulea]]'' L. (Syn. ''Hedyotis caerulea'') - Bluets, Quaker Ladies<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Houstonia purpurea]]'' L. (Syn. ''Hedyotis purpurea'') - Large Houstonia [Hand-out]
 
'''[[Santalaceae]]''' - ([[Sandalwood]] Family)
*''Comandra umbellata'' (L.) Nutt. - Bastard Toadflax<ref name="R"/>
 
'''[[Saxifragaceae]]''' - ([[Saxifrage]] Family)
*''[[Saxifraga virginiensis]]'' Michx. - Early Saxifrage<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Scrophulariaceae]]''' - ([[Figwort]] Family)
*''[[Verbascum blattaria]]'' L. - Moth Mullein<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Verbascum thapsus]]'' L. - [[Common Mullein]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Solanaceae]]''' - ([[Nightshade]] Family)
*''[[Solanum carolinense]]'' L. - [[Carolina horsenettle]]<ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/>
*''[[Solanum dulcamara]]'' L. - Bittersweet<ref name="M"/>
 
'''[[Urticaceae]]''' - ([[Urtica|Nettle]] Family)
*''[[Laportea canadensis]]'' (L.) Gray - Wood-nettle<ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Violaceae]]''' - ([[Violet (plant)|Violet]] Family)
*''[[Violet (plant)|Viola]] palmata'' L. - Palmate-leaved Violet<ref name="R"/>
*''[[Viola pedata]]'' L. - Bird's-foot Violet (lilac & bicolor)<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Viola rotundifolia]]'' Michx. - Yellow Violet<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Viola sagittata]]'' Aiton (Syn. ''V. fimbriatula'') - Arrow-leaf Violet<ref name="F"/><ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Viola sororia]]'' Willd. (Syn. ''V. papilionacea'') -  Common Blue Violet<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
 
Class '''[[Liliopsida]]''' - Monocotyledons
 
'''[[Amaryllidaceae]]''' - ([[Amaryllis]] Family)
*''[[Hypoxis hirsuta]]'' (L.) Coville - Yellow Stargrass<ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Araceae]]''' - ([[Arum]] Family)
*''[[Acorus calamus]]'' L. - [[Sweet Flag]], Calamus<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Arisaema triphyllum]]'' (L.) Schott - [[Arisaema triphyllum|Jack-in-the-Pulpit]]<ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Orontium aquaticum]]'' L. - Golden Club<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Symplocarpus foetidus]]'' (L.) Nutt.- [[Eastern Skunk Cabbage]]<ref name="We"/>
 
'''[[Commelinaceae]]''' - ([[Spiderwort]] Family)
*''[[Commelina communis]]'' L.- Asiatic Dayflower<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Tradescantia virginiana]]'' L. - Spiderwort<ref name="We"/>
 
'''[[Dioscoreaceae]]''' - ([[Yam (vegetable)|Yam]] Family)
*''[[Dioscorea villosa]]'' L. - [[Wild yam]]<ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Iridaceae]]''' - ([[Iris (plant)|Iris]] Family)
*''[[Sisyrinchium angustifolium]]'' Mill.- Stout Blue-eyed Grass<ref name="R"/>
*''[[Sisyrinchium]] atlanticum'' Bick. -<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Sisyrinchium]] mucronatum'' Michx. - Slender Blue-eyed Grass<ref name="M"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Lemnaceae]]''' - ([[Duckweed]] Family)
*''[[Lemna]] minor'' L. - Smaller Duckweed<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Spirodela]] polyrhiza'' (L.) Schleid. - Greater Duckweed<ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Liliaceae]]''' - ([[Lily]] Family)
*''[[Allium canadense]]'' L. - [[Meadow Garlic]]<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Allium vineale]]'' L. - [[Crow Garlic]]<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Asparagus officinalis]]'' L. - Garden [[Asparagus]]<ref name="M"/>
*''[[Hemerocallis fulva]]'' L. - Orange Daylily<ref name="M"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Lilium superbum]]'' L. - Turk's-cap Lily<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Ornithogalum umbellatum]]'' L. - Star-of-Bethlehem<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Polygonatum biflorum]]'' (Walt.) Ell. - Smooth Solomon's-seal<ref name="R"/>
*''[[Maianthemum racemosum]]'' (L.) Link &nbsp; Syn. ''Smilicina racemosa'' - False Solomon's Seal<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Veratrum viride]]'' Ait. - [[Green false hellebore]]<ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Orchidaceae]]''' - ([[Orchid]] Family)
*''[[Cypripedium acaule]]'' Aiton - Pink Lady's Slipper<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Galearis spectabilis]]'' L. - Showy Orchis<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Goodyera pubescens]]'' (Willd.) R. Br. - Downy Rattlesnake Plantain<ref name="We"/>
*''[[Liparis loeselii]]'' (L.) Richard - Loesel's Twayblade<ref name="R"/><ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Spiranthes cernua]]'' (L.) Richard - Nodding Ladies'-tresses<ref name="Wo"/>
*''[[Spiranthes lacera]]'' (Raf.) Raf. (Syn. ''S. gracilis'') - Slender Ladies'-tresses<ref name="F"/><ref name="R"/><ref name="We"/><ref name="Wo"/>
 
'''[[Smilacaceae]]''' - ([[Smilax|Greenbrier]] Family)
*''[[Smilax herbacea]]'' L. - Carrion Flower<ref name="Wo"/>
 
===Threats and Restoration Efforts:===
 
Invasive species, fire
 
==Citations:==

Latest revision as of 13:21, 7 May 2021

Goat Hill Serpentine Barrens in SE Pennsylvania. Photo by Josh Klostermann

Serpentine Barrens are unique ecoregions that can be found globally, in small patchy pockets of land with serpentine bedrock and soil. The term "serpentine barren" generally refers to a serpentine outcrop and its associated vegetation. These habitats are notable for their distinct flora with high rates of endemism. The difference in vegetative communities is the product of chemical, physical, and biotic edaphic factors but is primarily driven by the toxic chemical composition of the serpentine bedrock and soil. These systems are used to study edaphic endemism and plant speciation. [2] They are also used as an analog to brownfields in restoration ecology because of the high heavy metal content in the soil.

Rock formation:

Serpentine talus. Photo by Josh Klostermann

Serpentine is not the name of a single mineral. Instead, it is a name used for a large group of minerals that fit this generalized formula: (X)2-3(Y)2O5(OH)4.

In this formula, X will be one of the following metals: magnesium, iron, nickel, aluminum, zinc, or manganese; and, Y will be silicon, aluminum, or iron. The appropriate generalized formula is therefore as follows: (Mg,Fe,Ni, Mn,Zn)2-3(Si,Al,Fe)2O5(OH)4.

Chrysotile, antigorite, and lizardite are three of the primary serpentine minerals. There are many other serpentine minerals, most of which are rare.

Serpentine minerals form where peridotite, dunite, and other ultramafic rocks undergo hydrothermal metamorphism. Ultramafic rocks are rare at Earth's surface but are abundant at the oceanic moho, the boundary between the base of the oceanic crust and the upper mantle.

They are metamorphosed at convergent plate boundaries where an oceanic plate is pushed down into the mantle. This is where they are subjected to hydrothermal metamorphism. The source of water for this process is seawater entrained in the rocks and sediments of the oceanic slab.

During hydrothermal metamorphism, olivine and pyroxene minerals are transformed into or are replaced by serpentine minerals. Some of the metamorphic rocks produced here are composed almost entirely of serpentine minerals. These serpentine-rich rocks are known as "serpentinites."

Extensive areas of Earth's surface are underlain by serpentinites. These areas occur near present or ancient convergent plate boundaries. They are locations where remnants of an oceanic plate are exposed at the surface. The remnant portion of the plate was either thrust up onto land, accreted onto the edge of a landmass, or exposed by uplift and deep weathering.

These areas of exposed oceanic plate are known as ophiolites. They are often the source of valuable minerals that might include magnetite, chromite, chrysoprase, jade, and serpentine.

Article by: Hobart M. King, PhD, RPG [6]

Edaphic endemism:

"Although speciation has been a central focus in evolutionary biology for more than a century, there are very few case studies where we have a good understanding of the exact forces that may have acted in the diversification of a group of organisms. In order to examine such forces, botanists have often focused on closely related plants that are found under contrasting soil conditions. The study of such edaphically differentiated plants has provided valuable insight to the role of natural selection in evolution. " - Nishanta Rajakaruna, The Edaphic Factor in the Origin of Plant Species [5]

Edaphic endemics are plants or animals that are endemic (or restricted) to a certain type of soil. Some examples of edaphic endemics include; sand wasps (Bembix sp.) on sandy soils, the serpentine aster (Symphyotrichum depauperatum) on ultramafic soils, and many others on various different soil substrates.

Together the chemical, physical, and biological factors that characterize serpentine soils culminate in the term coined by (our lord and savior) Hans Jenny in 1980, known as the "Serpentine Syndrome". This term is an expression used to indicate the cumulative effect that these 3 factors have on the development of vegetative communities growing in serpentine soil. [2] The "Serpentine syndrome" is a classic and well-studied case of edaphic plant endemism.

Serpentine soils are characterized by their harsh chemical composition. They contain metals such as iron, nickel, chromium, and cobalt which are toxic to most plants. They are also deficient in essential plant nutrients such as N, P, K, have low Mg:Ca ratios, and steep ph gradients. [1] Their physical conditions also make it tough for plants to adapt. Outcrops are often found on steep rocky slopes, with high rates of erosion and therefore shallow topsoils. These physical conditions create an environment that holds little moisture and low nutrient levels. The biota found using these soils is generally sparse and the little plant life leads to further erosion, which also increases soil temperatures. [2]

From a birds-eye view, serpentine areas look like islands with steep vegetative gradients as boundaries. They are like archipelagoes of specialized habitat for species with disjunct or endemic distributions. This makes them a textbook example for the study of plant speciation and island biogeography. Vegetative communities growing in serpentine barrens differ from surrounding areas by having a notably distinct physiognomy and community structure, low species richness, a dominance of specific taxa, a predominance of xerophytic species, low productivity, and the co-existence of high and low ph-tolerant species. [1]

Pennsylvannia and Maryland Serpentine Barrens:

Taken from Brooks, R. R. 1987. Serpentine and its Vegetation: a Multi-disciplinary Approach. Dioscorides Press, Portland

The serpentine barrens of Eastern North America are found in thin, patchy, sinusoidal-bands, that work their way down the coast. Historically, the barrens of Pennsylvania and Maryland were maintained as grasslands for hunting grounds by the Susquehannock and other unknown Native American Tribes. Fires deliberately set by Native Americans were responsible for maintaining the grassland/savannah communities found in the serpentine barrens of the piedmont plateau. Post european invasion and settlement, these areas were used for grazing due to their "barrenness". Barrens that were not grazed by livestock transitioned into a forest habitat. By 1930 almost all grazing in this area had ceased and conifer invasion and expansion began. Presently, afforestation has occurred in more than 90% of undeveloped serpentine barrens due to fire suppression. [1]

Flora:

Below are compiled lists of the flora found at Soldiers Delight Serpentine Barrens. These species are typical of the Eastern Serpentine Region of SE Pennsylvania and Maryland.

List of Wildflowers of Soldiers Delight [1]

List of Woody Plants of Soldiers Delight [2]

List of Ferns of Soldiers Delight [3]

List of Lichens of Soldiers Delight [4]

Threats and Conservation:

Major threats to the eastern serpentine barrens are afforestation, invasive species, and development. Current restoration efforts such as prescribed burns and tree removals are being used to improve the health and quality of these globally important habitats. [7]

Gallery:

  • SBW-3.jpg
  • SBW-4.jpg
  • SBW-5.jpg
  • SBW-6.jpg
  • SBW-7.jpg
  • SBW-8.jpg
  • SBW-9.jpg
  • SBW-10.jpg
  • SBW-11.jpg
  • SBW-12.jpg
  • SBW-13.jpg
  • SBW-14.jpg
  • SBW-15.jpg
  • SBW-17.jpg

Citations:

[1] Anderson, R. C., J. S. Fralish, and J. M. Baskin, editors. 1999. Savannas, barrens, and rock outcrop plant communities of North America. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK ; New York, NY, USA.

[2] Brady, K. U., A. R. Kruckeberg, and H. D. Bradshaw Jr. 2005. Evolutionary Ecology of Plant Adaptation to Serpentine Soils. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36:243–266.

[3] Jenny, H. 1980. The Soil Resource. Springer New York, New York, NY.

[4] Nottingham_Evaluation_Review.pdf. (n.d.). .

[[[5]]] Rajakaruna, N. 2004. The Edaphic Factor in the Origin of Plant Species. International Geology Review 46:471–478.

[6]Serpentine: mineral, gem, ornamental stone, asbestos source. (n.d.). . https://geology.com/minerals/serpentine.shtml.

[7] Latham, R. E. 1993. The Serpentine Barrens of Temperate Eastern North America: Critical Issues in the Management of Rare Species and Communities. Bartonia:61–74.

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