Brood Cell Microcosm - Revision history

Jpkloste: /* Members of Brood Cell Microcosm: */

2021-05-05T21:58:01Z

Members of Brood Cell Microcosm:

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:58, 5 May 2021
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	==Members of Brood Cell Microcosm:==		==Members of Brood Cell Microcosm:==

	This section is a brief window into the understudied [[diversity]] of the solitary bee brood cell. There are many non-bee solitary wasp brood cell associates but most research has been on the economically important bee species.		This section is a brief window into the understudied [[diversity]] of the solitary bee brood cell. There are many non-bee solitary wasp brood cell associates but most research has been focused on the economically important bee species.

Jpkloste: /* Bacteria: */

2021-05-05T21:57:23Z

Bacteria:

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:57, 5 May 2021
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	Most studies of microbial associates living inside the food provision of wasp brood cells come from work done on the non-solitary bee species such as honey or bumblebees. Early research was done using culture-based techniques by Gilliam et al. in 1984 and 1989 that demonstrated spore-forming bacteria in the genus ''Baccilus'' are not only found in the pollen provisions of social honeybee and bumblebee colonies, but also in 3 species of ~~'''~~solitary bees~~'''~~ spanning across 2 different families (Apidae and Colletidae). This genus of bacteria is known to produce enzymes that are used by honey bees as microbial agents in their pollen and nectar provisions. Gilliam states: "The production of both antibiotics and fatty acids by Bacillus spp. in larval provisions could limit the types of microbes that are able to survive, inhibit competition by other microbes for this food source, and protect the food from spoilage." [4]		Most studies of microbial associates living inside the food provision of wasp brood cells come from work done on the non-solitary bee species such as honey or bumblebees. Early research was done using culture-based techniques by Gilliam et al. in 1984 and 1989 that demonstrated spore-forming bacteria in the genus ''Baccilus'' are not only found in the pollen provisions of social honeybee and bumblebee colonies, but also in 3 species of solitary bees spanning across 2 different families (Apidae and Colletidae). This genus of bacteria is known to produce enzymes that are used by honey bees as microbial agents in their pollen and nectar provisions. Gilliam states: "The production of both antibiotics and fatty acids by Bacillus spp. in larval provisions could limit the types of microbes that are able to survive, inhibit competition by other microbes for this food source, and protect the food from spoilage." [4]

	Recent work using modern techniques such as metagenomic sequencing has revealed other bacterial species such as ''Burkolderia sp.'' ubiquitously inhabit the midgut of most bee families and some families of the closely related apoid wasps. This bacteria may be an important member of the digestive tract microbiota of solitary bee and wasp species and may be transferred into pollen provisions that are eaten by larvae. [3]		Recent work using modern techniques such as metagenomic sequencing has revealed other bacterial species such as ''Burkolderia sp.'' ubiquitously inhabit the midgut of most bee families and some families of the closely related apoid wasps. This bacteria may be an important member of the digestive tract microbiota of solitary bee and wasp species and may be transferred into pollen provisions that are eaten by larvae. [3]
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	Other species of bacteria such as the American and European foulbrood ('' Paenicacillus larvae'' and ''Melissococcus plutonius'' respectively) cause serious disease in honeybees colonies. Bacterial-borne pathogens that affect wild solitary bees are largely unknown and need to be researched with more depth. [3]		Other species of bacteria such as the American and European foulbrood ('' Paenicacillus larvae'' and ''Melissococcus plutonius'' respectively) cause serious disease in honeybees colonies. Bacterial-borne pathogens that affect wild solitary bees are largely unknown and need to be researched with more depth. [3]

	More research is needed on all fronts to determine the microbial diversity associated with brood cells to determine what roles they play in solitary bee and wasp community [[ecology]].		More research is needed on all fronts to determine the microbial diversity associated with brood cells to determine what roles they play in solitary bee and wasp community [[ecology]].



	===Fungi and Yeasts:===		===Fungi and Yeasts:===

Jpkloste at 21:57, 5 May 2021

2021-05-05T21:57:05Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:57, 5 May 2021
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	==Members of Brood Cell Microcosm:==		==Members of Brood Cell Microcosm:==

	This section is a brief window into the understudied [[diversity]] of the ~~'''~~solitary bee~~'''~~ brood cell. There are many non-bee solitary wasp brood cell associates but most research has been on the economically important bee species.		This section is a brief window into the understudied [[diversity]] of the solitary bee brood cell. There are many non-bee solitary wasp brood cell associates but most research has been on the economically important bee species.

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

2021-04-29T17:03:36Z

The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles">https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles</a>).

Jpkloste at 13:05, 23 April 2021

2021-04-23T13:05:25Z

Show changes

Celiaphi at 18:21, 22 April 2021

2021-04-22T18:21:08Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:21, 22 April 2021
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	----		----

	Solitary wasps are any of the Aculeate Hymenoptera that are not social, meaning they don't have a reproductive division of labor with queens laying eggs and workers, working. Instead, female individuals create their own nests (broods) and provision these nests with a food source on their own. The food sources that each species of solitary wasps collect are highly variable. Some individual species or groups of closely related species can be extremely specialized to one type of food item. Examples of this are the clade Anthophila (the bees) which all provision their brood cells exclusively with pollen, or the family Pompilidae (the spider wasps) which only provision their nests with spiders, to extreme cases like in ''Bicyrtes quadrifasciatus'' or the "Stink bug" hunter that exclusively collects prey from the true bug family Pentatomidae. Once a brood cell is provisioned to perfection the solitary wasp mother will lay a single egg and seal the cell. She will build and provision brood cells until she dies. The eggs laid will hatch into larvae and begin to eat the food provision and grow. Larvae of many species undergo a period of diapause during the winter months before they pupate and exit as adults in the spring/summer. The focus of this page will take place in the part of the life cycle after the mother wasp seals her preciously provisioned cell and before her offspring emerges the following year.		Solitary wasps are any of the Aculeate Hymenoptera that are not social, meaning they don't have a reproductive division of labor with queens laying eggs and workers working. Instead, female individuals create their own nests (broods) and provision these nests with a food source on their own. The food sources that each species of solitary wasps collect are highly variable. Some individual species or groups of closely related species can be extremely specialized to one type of food item. Examples of this are the clade Anthophila (the bees) which all provision their brood cells exclusively with pollen, or the family Pompilidae (the spider wasps) which only provision their nests with spiders, to extreme cases like in ''Bicyrtes quadrifasciatus'' or the "Stink bug" hunter that exclusively collects prey from the true bug family Pentatomidae. Once a brood cell is provisioned to perfection the solitary wasp mother will lay a single egg and seal the cell. She will build and provision brood cells until she dies. The eggs laid will hatch into larvae and begin to eat the food provision and grow. Larvae of many species undergo a period of diapause during the winter months before they pupate and exit as adults in the spring/summer. The focus of this page will take place in the part of the life cycle after the mother wasp seals her preciously provisioned cell and before her offspring emerges the following year.

Mmlemere: /* Nematodes: */

2021-04-15T14:26:19Z

Nematodes:

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:26, 15 April 2021
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	In-nest nematodes are an extremely understudied, and therefore, poorly understood group of solitary bee and wasp associates. These nematodes can be found inhabiting the reproductive tracts and brood cells of bees across all but one family (the Australian continent restricted Stenotritidae). Nematode genera known to live inside bees and their brood cells are: ''Arcostiphelenchus'', ''Aduncospiculum'', ''Bursaphelenchus'', ''Aphelenchoides'', and ''Koerneria''. There are likely others to be discovered. Surprisingly, studies like McFredrick et al. (2013) "Evolution of conflict and cooperation of nematodes associated with solitary and social sweat bees" show that many of these nematodes are commensal and have no effects on the reproduction/ survival of their solitary bee hosts.		In-nest nematodes are an extremely understudied, and therefore, poorly understood group of solitary bee and wasp associates. These nematodes can be found inhabiting the reproductive tracts and brood cells of bees across all but one family (the Australian continent restricted Stenotritidae). Nematode genera known to live inside bees and their brood cells are: ''Arcostiphelenchus'', ''Aduncospiculum'', ''Bursaphelenchus'', ''Aphelenchoides'', and ''Koerneria''. There are likely others to be discovered. Surprisingly, studies like McFredrick et al. (2013) "Evolution of conflict and cooperation of nematodes associated with solitary and social sweat bees" show that many of these nematodes are commensal and have no effects on the reproduction/ survival of their solitary bee hosts.

	Most species of bee-inhabiting nematode follow a life history trajectory similar to species in the genera ''Acrostichus''. Species in this genus of nematode inhabit the reproductive tract of social and solitary bees in the family Halictidae. Transmission of nematodes between hosts is mostly done vertically. This means that nematodes are passed through individuals from mother to daughter or son. Transmission also happens less frequently through sexual reproduction, in this case, male bees transport the resting stage of the nematode called the "dauer" to the female through reproduction. Once the dauers are in females they congregate in the ~~Dufours~~ gland, where they are secreted onto the walls a brood cell as the female is building her nest. They will then grow and reproduce as "non-dauer" adults in the brood cell (pictured to the right) and once the host bee completes its development and molts into adulthood, juvenile nematodes will enter the freshly hatched female bees dufour gland or males genitalia to start their life cycle over again.		Most species of bee-inhabiting nematode follow a life history trajectory similar to species in the genera ''Acrostichus''. Species in this genus of nematode inhabit the reproductive tract of social and solitary bees in the family Halictidae. Transmission of nematodes between hosts is mostly done vertically. This means that nematodes are passed through individuals from mother to daughter or son. Transmission also happens less frequently through sexual reproduction, in this case, male bees transport the resting stage of the nematode called the "dauer" to the female through reproduction. Once the dauers are in females they congregate in the dufours gland, where they are secreted onto the walls a brood cell as the female is building her nest. They will then grow and reproduce as "non-dauer" adults in the brood cell (pictured to the right) and once the host bee completes its development and molts into adulthood, juvenile nematodes will enter the freshly hatched female bees dufour gland or males genitalia to start their life cycle over again.

	===Mites:===		===Mites:===

Mmlemere at 14:17, 15 April 2021

2021-04-15T14:17:48Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:17, 15 April 2021
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	----		----

	Solitary wasps are any of the Aculeate Hymenoptera that are not social, meaning they don't have a reproductive division of labor with queens laying eggs and workers.. working. Instead, female individuals create their own nests (broods) and provision these nests with a food source on their own. The food sources that each species of solitary wasps collect are highly variable. Some individual species or groups of closely related species can be extremely specialized to one type of food item. Examples of this are the clade Anthophila (the bees) which all provision their brood cells exclusively with pollen, or the family Pompilidae (the spider wasps) which only provision their nests with spiders, to extreme cases like in ''Bicyrtes quadrifasciatus'' or the "Stink bug" hunter that exclusively collects prey from the true bug family Pentatomidae. Once a brood cell is provisioned to perfection the solitary wasp mother will lay a single egg and seal the cell. She will build and provision brood cells until she dies. The eggs laid will hatch into larvae and begin to eat the food provision and grow. Larvae of many species undergo a period of diapause during the winter months before they pupate and exit as adults in the spring/summer. The focus of this page will take place in the part of the life cycle after the mother wasp seals her preciously provisioned cell and before her offspring emerges the following year.		Solitary wasps are any of the Aculeate Hymenoptera that are not social, meaning they don't have a reproductive division of labor with queens laying eggs and workers, working. Instead, female individuals create their own nests (broods) and provision these nests with a food source on their own. The food sources that each species of solitary wasps collect are highly variable. Some individual species or groups of closely related species can be extremely specialized to one type of food item. Examples of this are the clade Anthophila (the bees) which all provision their brood cells exclusively with pollen, or the family Pompilidae (the spider wasps) which only provision their nests with spiders, to extreme cases like in ''Bicyrtes quadrifasciatus'' or the "Stink bug" hunter that exclusively collects prey from the true bug family Pentatomidae. Once a brood cell is provisioned to perfection the solitary wasp mother will lay a single egg and seal the cell. She will build and provision brood cells until she dies. The eggs laid will hatch into larvae and begin to eat the food provision and grow. Larvae of many species undergo a period of diapause during the winter months before they pupate and exit as adults in the spring/summer. The focus of this page will take place in the part of the life cycle after the mother wasp seals her preciously provisioned cell and before her offspring emerges the following year.

Jpkloste: /* Mutualists */

2021-04-15T14:08:09Z

Mutualists

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:08, 15 April 2021
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	Other bees that provision their nests with a liquid provision such as members of the subfamilies Hylaeinae, Diphaglossinae, Oxaeinae, and the tribe Eucerini also have anecdotal evidence of yeast mutualists through researchers taking note of a fermenting smell when processing their brood cells.		Other bees that provision their nests with a liquid provision such as members of the subfamilies Hylaeinae, Diphaglossinae, Oxaeinae, and the tribe Eucerini also have anecdotal evidence of yeast mutualists through researchers taking note of a fermenting smell when processing their brood cells.

	More research is needed to investigate the role that yeast mutualists play in the development of larvae in solitary bee lineages that provision their brood cells with liquid nectar and pollen. Evidence of species of bees that have switched from pollen-collecting to yeast-farming is not improbable and has yet to be discovered.		More research is needed to investigate the role that yeast mutualists play in the development of larvae in solitary bee lineages that provision their brood cells with liquid nectar and pollen. Evidence of species of bees that have switched from pollen-collecting to yeast-farming (or [[fungal farming]]) is not improbable and has yet to be discovered.

	====Pathogens====		====Pathogens====

Jpkloste: /* Nematodes: */

2021-04-15T14:04:12Z

Nematodes:

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:04, 15 April 2021
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	In-nest nematodes are an extremely understudied, and therefore, poorly understood group of solitary bee and wasp associates. These nematodes can be found inhabiting the reproductive tracts and brood cells of bees across all but one family (the Australian continent restricted Stenotritidae). Nematode genera known to live inside bees and their brood cells are: ''Arcostiphelenchus'', ''Aduncospiculum'', ''Bursaphelenchus'', ''Aphelenchoides'', and ''Koerneria''. There are likely others to be discovered. Surprisingly, studies like McFredrick et al. (2013) "Evolution of conflict and cooperation of nematodes associated with solitary and social sweat bees" show that many of these nematodes are commensal and have no effects on the reproduction/ survival of their solitary bee hosts.		In-nest nematodes are an extremely understudied, and therefore, poorly understood group of solitary bee and wasp associates. These nematodes can be found inhabiting the reproductive tracts and brood cells of bees across all but one family (the Australian continent restricted Stenotritidae). Nematode genera known to live inside bees and their brood cells are: ''Arcostiphelenchus'', ''Aduncospiculum'', ''Bursaphelenchus'', ''Aphelenchoides'', and ''Koerneria''. There are likely others to be discovered. Surprisingly, studies like McFredrick et al. (2013) "Evolution of conflict and cooperation of nematodes associated with solitary and social sweat bees" show that many of these nematodes are commensal and have no effects on the reproduction/ survival of their solitary bee hosts.

	Most species of bee-inhabiting nematode follow a life history trajectory similar to species in the genera ''Acrostichus''. Species in this genus of nematode inhabit the reproductive tract of social and solitary bees in the family Halictidae. Transmission of nematodes between hosts is mostly done vertically. This means that nematodes are passed through individuals from mother to daughter or son. Transmission also happens less frequently through sexual reproduction, in this case, male bees transport the resting stage of the nematode called the "dauer" to the female through reproduction. Once the dauers are in females they congregate in the Dufours gland, where they are secreted onto the walls a brood cell as the female is building her nest. They will then grow and reproduce as "non-dauer" adults in the brood cell (pictured to the right) and once the host bee completes its development and molts into adulthood, juvenile nematodes will enter the ~~females~~ dufour gland or males genitalia to start their life cycle over again.		Most species of bee-inhabiting nematode follow a life history trajectory similar to species in the genera ''Acrostichus''. Species in this genus of nematode inhabit the reproductive tract of social and solitary bees in the family Halictidae. Transmission of nematodes between hosts is mostly done vertically. This means that nematodes are passed through individuals from mother to daughter or son. Transmission also happens less frequently through sexual reproduction, in this case, male bees transport the resting stage of the nematode called the "dauer" to the female through reproduction. Once the dauers are in females they congregate in the Dufours gland, where they are secreted onto the walls a brood cell as the female is building her nest. They will then grow and reproduce as "non-dauer" adults in the brood cell (pictured to the right) and once the host bee completes its development and molts into adulthood, juvenile nematodes will enter the freshly hatched female bees dufour gland or males genitalia to start their life cycle over again.


	===Mites:===		===Mites:===

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:03, 29 April 2021
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	[[File:BCM_1.jpeg\|right\|300px\|"Photo scanned from Danforth et al. "The Solitary Bees"]]		[[File:BCM_1.jpeg\|right\|300px\|"Photo scanned from Danforth et al. "The Solitary Bees"]]

	The nests of solitary wasp species (including everybody's favorite pollen-collecting solitary wasps "the bees") are known as brood cells. Depending on the species observed these cells can be found in underground chambers, hollow twigs, sculpted with mud, or even crammed inside abandoned snail shells. These cells that female wasps provision with a food source (prey or pollen) and lay an egg in, don't stop interacting with the environment once they are sealed. The microcosm formed when a mother wasp seals a finished brood cell is home to a plethora of co-evolved relationships that can beneficially or negatively affect the health of the egg/larvae found in the nest. Brood cell mutualists and parasites span across many taxa; from yeasts and bacteria that negatively affect the health of the occupant, all of the way to mutualistic prostigmatic mites that fend off/eat infectious fungi.[3]		The nests of solitary wasp species (including everybody's favorite pollen-collecting solitary wasps "the bees") are known as brood cells. Depending on the species observed these cells can be found in underground chambers, hollow twigs, sculpted with mud, or even crammed inside abandoned snail shells. These cells that female wasps provision with a food source (prey or pollen) and lay an egg in, don't stop interacting with the environment once they are sealed. The microcosm formed when a mother wasp seals a finished brood cell is home to a plethora of co-evolved relationships that can beneficially or negatively affect the health of the egg/larvae found in the nest. Brood cell mutualists and parasites span across many taxa; from yeasts and bacteria that negatively affect the health of the occupant, all of the way to mutualistic prostigmatic [[mites]] that fend off/eat infectious fungi.[3]


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	----		----

	Solitary wasps are any of the Aculeate Hymenoptera that are not social, meaning they don't have a reproductive division of labor with queens laying eggs and workers working. Instead, female individuals create their own nests (broods) and provision these nests with a food source on their own. The food sources that each species of solitary wasps collect are highly variable. Some individual species or groups of closely related species can be extremely specialized to one type of food item. Examples of this are the clade Anthophila (the bees) which all provision their brood cells exclusively with pollen, or the family Pompilidae (the spider wasps) which only provision their nests with spiders, to extreme cases like in ''Bicyrtes quadrifasciatus'' or the "Stink bug" hunter that exclusively collects prey from the true bug family Pentatomidae. Once a brood cell is provisioned to perfection the solitary wasp mother will lay a single egg and seal the cell. She will build and provision brood cells until she dies. The eggs laid will hatch into larvae and begin to eat the food provision and grow. Larvae of many species undergo a period of diapause during the winter months before they pupate and exit as adults in the spring/summer. The focus of this page will take place in the part of the life cycle after the mother wasp seals her preciously provisioned cell and before her offspring emerges the following year. [3]		Solitary wasps are any of the Aculeate [[Hymenoptera]] that are not social, meaning they don't have a reproductive division of labor with queens laying eggs and workers working. Instead, female individuals create their own nests (broods) and provision these nests with a food source on their own. The food sources that each species of solitary wasps collect are highly variable. Some individual species or groups of closely related species can be extremely specialized to one type of food item. Examples of this are the clade Anthophila (the bees) which all provision their brood cells exclusively with pollen, or the family Pompilidae (the spider wasps) which only provision their nests with spiders, to extreme cases like in ''Bicyrtes quadrifasciatus'' or the "Stink bug" hunter that exclusively collects prey from the true bug family Pentatomidae. Once a brood cell is provisioned to perfection the solitary wasp mother will lay a single egg and seal the cell. She will build and provision brood cells until she dies. The eggs laid will hatch into larvae and begin to eat the food provision and grow. Larvae of many species undergo a period of diapause during the winter months before they pupate and exit as adults in the spring/summer. The focus of this page will take place in the part of the life cycle after the mother wasp seals her preciously provisioned cell and before her offspring emerges the following year. [3]


	==Members of Brood Cell Microcosm:==		==Members of Brood Cell Microcosm:==

	This section is a brief window into the understudied diversity of the '''solitary bee''' brood cell. There are many non-bee solitary wasp brood cell associates but most research has been on the economically important bee species.		This section is a brief window into the understudied [[diversity]] of the '''solitary bee''' brood cell. There are many non-bee solitary wasp brood cell associates but most research has been on the economically important bee species.


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	Other species of bacteria such as the American and European foulbrood ('' Paenicacillus larvae'' and ''Melissococcus plutonius'' respectively) cause serious disease in honeybees colonies. Bacterial-borne pathogens that affect wild solitary bees are largely unknown and need to be researched with more depth. [3]		Other species of bacteria such as the American and European foulbrood ('' Paenicacillus larvae'' and ''Melissococcus plutonius'' respectively) cause serious disease in honeybees colonies. Bacterial-borne pathogens that affect wild solitary bees are largely unknown and need to be researched with more depth. [3]

	More research is needed on all fronts to determine the microbial diversity associated with brood cells to determine what roles they play in solitary bee and wasp community ecology.		More research is needed on all fronts to determine the microbial diversity associated with brood cells to determine what roles they play in solitary bee and wasp community [[ecology]].


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	===Nematodes:===		===Nematodes:===
	[[File:BCM_3.jpg\|right\|thumb\|300px\|"Photo scanned from Danforth et al. "The Solitary Bees"]]		[[File:BCM_3.jpg\|right\|thumb\|300px\|"Photo scanned from Danforth et al. "The Solitary Bees"]]
	In-nest nematodes are an extremely understudied, and therefore, poorly understood group of solitary bee and wasp associates. These nematodes can be found inhabiting the reproductive tracts and brood cells of bees across all but one family (the Australian continent restricted Stenotritidae). Nematode genera known to live inside bees and their brood cells are: ''Arcostiphelenchus'', ''Aduncospiculum'', ''Bursaphelenchus'', ''Aphelenchoides'', and ''Koerneria''. There are likely others to be discovered. Surprisingly, studies like McFredrick et al. (2013) "Evolution of conflict and cooperation of nematodes associated with solitary and social sweat bees" show that many of these nematodes are commensal and have no effects on the reproduction/ survival of their solitary bee hosts. [3]		In-nest [[nematodes]] are an extremely understudied, and therefore, poorly understood group of solitary bee and wasp associates. These nematodes can be found inhabiting the reproductive tracts and brood cells of bees across all but one family (the Australian continent restricted Stenotritidae). Nematode genera known to live inside bees and their brood cells are: ''Arcostiphelenchus'', ''Aduncospiculum'', ''Bursaphelenchus'', ''Aphelenchoides'', and ''Koerneria''. There are likely others to be discovered. Surprisingly, studies like McFredrick et al. (2013) "Evolution of conflict and cooperation of nematodes associated with solitary and social sweat bees" show that many of these nematodes are commensal and have no effects on the reproduction/ survival of their solitary bee hosts. [3]

	Most species of bee-inhabiting nematode follow a life history trajectory similar to species in the genera ''Acrostichus''. Species in this genus of nematode inhabit the reproductive tract of social and solitary bees in the family Halictidae. Transmission of nematodes between hosts is mostly done vertically. This means that nematodes are passed through individuals from mother to daughter or son. Transmission also happens less frequently through sexual reproduction, in this case, male bees transport the resting stage of the nematode called the "dauer" to the female through reproduction. Once the dauers are in females they congregate in the dufours gland, where they are secreted onto the walls a brood cell as the female is building her nest. They will then grow and reproduce as "non-dauer" adults in the brood cell (pictured to the right) and once the host bee completes its development and molts into adulthood, juvenile nematodes will enter the freshly hatched female bees dufour gland or males genitalia to start their life cycle over again. [3]		Most species of bee-inhabiting nematode follow a life history trajectory similar to species in the genera ''Acrostichus''. Species in this genus of nematode inhabit the reproductive tract of social and solitary bees in the family Halictidae. Transmission of nematodes between hosts is mostly done vertically. This means that nematodes are passed through individuals from mother to daughter or son. Transmission also happens less frequently through sexual reproduction, in this case, male bees transport the resting stage of the nematode called the "dauer" to the female through reproduction. Once the dauers are in females they congregate in the dufours gland, where they are secreted onto the walls a brood cell as the female is building her nest. They will then grow and reproduce as "non-dauer" adults in the brood cell (pictured to the right) and once the host bee completes its development and molts into adulthood, juvenile nematodes will enter the freshly hatched female bees dufour gland or males genitalia to start their life cycle over again. [3]