https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Yuanshao 2026-04-14T15:12:54Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.43.0 https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=3130 2018-05-17T23:29:30Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming arbuscular mycorrhizal.<br /> ([[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction by produce the spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have the symbiotic relationship with plants, and they have many evidence shows, the glomeromycota must survive depend on carbon and energy which plants produced. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of AM fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some air dispersal capabilities are also known. <br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly correlated to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that AM fungi host plants also secrete chemical factors which attract and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2974 2018-05-11T00:51:07Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming arbuscular mycorrhizal.<br /> ([[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction by produce the spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have the symbiotic relationship with plants, and they have many evidence shows, the glomeromycota must survive depend on carbon and energy which plants produced. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of AM fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some air dispersal capabilities are also known. <br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly correlated to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that AM fungi host plants also secrete chemical factors which attract and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2973 2018-05-11T00:50:30Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> [[File:apple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Pollination is one type of ecosystem service]]<br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.The more details about the four services shows in [[Essential ecosystem services]].<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Regulating services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...<br /> <br /> == Other Use ==<br /> === Economics ===<br /> There are questions regarding the environmental and economic values of ecosystem services. Although environmental awareness is rapidly improving in our contemporary world, ecosystem capital and its flow are still poorly understood, threats continue to impose.<br /> <br /> === Management and police ===<br /> Although monetary pricing continues with respect to the valuation of ecosystem services, the challenges in policy implementation and management are significant and multitudinous.<br /> <br /> === Maintain Biovdiversity ===<br /> Ecosystem not only provides all kinds of biological breeding ground, the more important is provides the necessary conditionsfor for biological evolution and biodiversity. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1]Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;Conservation of ecosystem services&quot;. Adam Purcell. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014<br /> <br /> [3]Raudsepp-Hearne, C. et al. 2010. Untangling the Environmentalist's Paradox: Why is Human Well-being Increasing as Ecosystem Services Degrade? Bioscience 60(8) 576–589.<br /> <br /> [4]Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.<br /> <br /> [5]MOlnar, Michelle; Clarke-Murray, Cathryn; Whitworth, Jogn &amp; Tam, Jordan. &quot; 1 December 2014.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2972 2018-05-11T00:48:42Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming arbuscular mycorrhizal.<br /> ([[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction by produce the spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have the symbiotic relationship with plants, and they have many evidence shows, the glomeromycota must survive depend on carbon and energy which plants produced. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of AM fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some air dispersal capabilities are also known. <br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly correlated to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that AM fungi host plants also secrete chemical factors which attract and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> &quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> &quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2971 2018-05-11T00:42:50Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming arbuscular mycorrhizal.<br /> ([[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction by produce the spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have the symbiotic relationship with plants, and they have many evidence shows, the glomeromycota must survive depend on carbon and energy which plants produced. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of AM fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some air dispersal capabilities are also known. <br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly correlated to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that AM fungi host plants also secrete chemical factors which attract and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2970 2018-05-11T00:38:14Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming arbuscular mycorrhizal.<br /> ([[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction by produce the spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have the symbiotic relationship with plants, and they have many evidence shows, the glomeromycota must survive depend on carbon and energy which plants produced. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2967 2018-05-11T00:30:00Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming arbuscular mycorrhizal.<br /> ([[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]]).<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction by produce the spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> Because Glomeromycota forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]], they have Many evidence shows, in this symbiotic relationship, the glomeromycota must depend on the of carbon and energy plants to survive<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2965 2018-05-11T00:29:42Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming arbuscular mycorrhizal.[[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction by produce the spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> Because Glomeromycota forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]], they have Many evidence shows, in this symbiotic relationship, the glomeromycota must depend on the of carbon and energy plants to survive<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2958 2018-05-11T00:19:39Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction by produce the spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2957 2018-05-11T00:19:27Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction by produce the spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2955 2018-05-11T00:19:09Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction by produce the spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2952 2018-05-11T00:17:51Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The photograph above shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction by produce the spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2946 2018-05-11T00:09:00Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The photograph above shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2945 2018-05-11T00:08:25Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The photograph above shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.<br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2942 2018-05-11T00:06:09Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The photograph above shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.<br /> There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2940 2018-05-11T00:03:27Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The photograph above shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> Traditionally, taxonomy of AM fungi has been based on characteristics of the relatively large (40 to 800 µm diameter) multinucleate spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> The Glomeromycota have generally coenocytic (occasionally sparsely septate) mycelia and reproduce asexually through blastic development of the hyphal tip to produce spores (Glomerospores) with diameters of 80–500 μm. In some, complex spores form within a terminal saccule.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2936 2018-05-11T00:02:35Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the Zygomycota for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Palaeontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The photograph above shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the soil surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from some fossil collections.<br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> Traditionally, taxonomy of AM fungi has been based on characteristics of the relatively large (40 to 800 µm diameter) multinucleate spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> The Glomeromycota have generally coenocytic (occasionally sparsely septate) mycelia and reproduce asexually through blastic development of the hyphal tip to produce spores (Glomerospores) with diameters of 80–500 μm. In some, complex spores form within a terminal saccule.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2933 2018-05-11T00:01:21Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota are not as diverse as other phyla of fungi nor are there as many species. However they make up for this uniformity by being among the most abundant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know, all species of Glomeromycota are mutualistic with plants, forming [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> Traditionally, taxonomy of AM fungi has been based on characteristics of the relatively large (40 to 800 µm diameter) multinucleate spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> The Glomeromycota have generally coenocytic (occasionally sparsely septate) mycelia and reproduce asexually through blastic development of the hyphal tip to produce spores (Glomerospores) with diameters of 80–500 μm. In some, complex spores form within a terminal saccule.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2927 2018-05-10T23:43:33Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> Glomeromycota is one of eight currently recognized divisions within the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 230 described species. Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizas ([[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]]) with the thalli of bryophytes) and the roots of vascular land plants. The majority of evidence shows that the Glomeromycota are dependent on land plants (Nostoc in the case of Geosiphon) for carbon and energy, but there is recent circumstantial evidence that some species may be able to lead an independent existence. The arbuscular mycorrhizal species are terrestrial and widely distributed in soils worldwide where they form symbioses with the roots of the majority of plant species (&gt;80%). They can also be found in wetlands, including salt-marshes, and associated with epiphytic plants. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi have generally been classified in the Zygomycota (Order Glomales), but they do not form the zygospores characteristic of zygomycota, and all ‘glomalean’ fungi form mutualistic symbioses. Recent molecular studies have suggested a separate phylum is appropriate for the AM fungi, the Glomeromycota.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> Traditionally, taxonomy of AM fungi has been based on characteristics of the relatively large (40 to 800 µm diameter) multinucleate spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> The Glomeromycota have generally coenocytic (occasionally sparsely septate) mycelia and reproduce asexually through blastic development of the hyphal tip to produce spores (Glomerospores) with diameters of 80–500 μm. In some, complex spores form within a terminal saccule.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2926 2018-05-10T23:37:14Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>In the pedosphere, the physical and chemical properties of water regulate the flow of energy and solutes, making soil water a crucial component of terrestrial ecosystems. Many of the familiar properties of water that result in its behavior in soils can be directly related to its molecular structure.<br /> <br /> == '''Chemical Properties''' ==<br /> <br /> === As a solvent ===<br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).which is a measure of a substance's ability to minimize the force of attraction between oppositely charged species.<br /> This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.Water acts to dissipate the attractive force of ions by forming solvation spheres around them. The polar nature of the water molecules allow them to surround and stabilize the charges of both anions and cations, preventing their association.<br /> <br /> [[File:Water_liquor.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> === PH reguliation ===<br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> === Water distribution in soil ===<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.Liquid water is held in soil under tension arising from the adhesive and cohesive forces associated with water's molecular structure<br /> <br /> [[File:Tube.png|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,Liquid water at the water-gas interface exhibits a meniscus. The inward pull of liquid water molecules from hydrogen bonding (cohesion) is unbalanced at the liquid-gas interface, which is referred to as surface tension. In combination with the polar attraction of water molecules for a wettable soil solid matrix (adhesion to the capillary tube wall), this cohesion creates concave curvature. Water rises in the tube to reach equilibrium between the attractive upward force at the interface and the weight of water pulling downward on the meniscus.<br /> The analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> === Temperature regulation ===<br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics. When liquid water enters the soil matrix, it displaces the soil gas phase. Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules. Alternately, weak intermolecular interactions in soil gases allow soil temperatures to change readily with a small energy input or loss. Furthermore, because soil water can exist in liquid, gas (vapor) and solid (ice) phases, latent heat loss or gain from soil associated with phase change also impacts the thermal regime. In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2925 2018-05-10T23:35:36Z

<p>Yuanshao: /* Water distribution in soil */</p> <hr /> <div>In the pedosphere, the physical and chemical properties of water regulate the flow of energy and solutes, making soil water a crucial component of terrestrial ecosystems. Many of the familiar properties of water that result in its behavior in soils can be directly related to its molecular structure.<br /> <br /> == '''Chemical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils''' ==<br /> <br /> === As a solvent ===<br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).which is a measure of a substance's ability to minimize the force of attraction between oppositely charged species.<br /> This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.Water acts to dissipate the attractive force of ions by forming solvation spheres around them. The polar nature of the water molecules allow them to surround and stabilize the charges of both anions and cations, preventing their association.<br /> <br /> [[File:Water_liquor.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> === PH reguliation ===<br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> === Water distribution in soil ===<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.Liquid water is held in soil under tension arising from the adhesive and cohesive forces associated with water's molecular structure<br /> <br /> [[File:Tube.png|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,Liquid water at the water-gas interface exhibits a meniscus. The inward pull of liquid water molecules from hydrogen bonding (cohesion) is unbalanced at the liquid-gas interface, which is referred to as surface tension. In combination with the polar attraction of water molecules for a wettable soil solid matrix (adhesion to the capillary tube wall), this cohesion creates concave curvature. Water rises in the tube to reach equilibrium between the attractive upward force at the interface and the weight of water pulling downward on the meniscus.<br /> The analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> === Temperature regulation ===<br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics. When liquid water enters the soil matrix, it displaces the soil gas phase. Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules. Alternately, weak intermolecular interactions in soil gases allow soil temperatures to change readily with a small energy input or loss. Furthermore, because soil water can exist in liquid, gas (vapor) and solid (ice) phases, latent heat loss or gain from soil associated with phase change also impacts the thermal regime. In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2923 2018-05-10T23:35:05Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>In the pedosphere, the physical and chemical properties of water regulate the flow of energy and solutes, making soil water a crucial component of terrestrial ecosystems. Many of the familiar properties of water that result in its behavior in soils can be directly related to its molecular structure.<br /> <br /> == '''Chemical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils''' ==<br /> <br /> === As a solvent ===<br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).which is a measure of a substance's ability to minimize the force of attraction between oppositely charged species.<br /> This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.Water acts to dissipate the attractive force of ions by forming solvation spheres around them. The polar nature of the water molecules allow them to surround and stabilize the charges of both anions and cations, preventing their association.<br /> <br /> [[File:Water_liquor.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> === PH reguliation ===<br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> <br /> === Water distribution in soil ===<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.Liquid water is held in soil under tension arising from the adhesive and cohesive forces associated with water's molecular structure<br /> <br /> <br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,Liquid water at the water-gas interface exhibits a meniscus. The inward pull of liquid water molecules from hydrogen bonding (cohesion) is unbalanced at the liquid-gas interface, which is referred to as surface tension. In combination with the polar attraction of water molecules for a wettable soil solid matrix (adhesion to the capillary tube wall), this cohesion creates concave curvature. Water rises in the tube to reach equilibrium between the attractive upward force at the interface and the weight of water pulling downward on the meniscus.<br /> [[File:Tube.png|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> The analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> === Temperature regulation ===<br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics. When liquid water enters the soil matrix, it displaces the soil gas phase. Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules. Alternately, weak intermolecular interactions in soil gases allow soil temperatures to change readily with a small energy input or loss. Furthermore, because soil water can exist in liquid, gas (vapor) and solid (ice) phases, latent heat loss or gain from soil associated with phase change also impacts the thermal regime. In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2921 2018-05-10T23:32:54Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>In the pedosphere, the physical and chemical properties of water regulate the flow of energy and solutes, making soil water a crucial component of terrestrial ecosystems. Many of the familiar properties of water that result in its behavior in soils can be directly related to its molecular structure.<br /> <br /> == '''Chemical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils''' ==<br /> <br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).which is a measure of a substance's ability to minimize the force of attraction between oppositely charged species.<br /> This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.Water acts to dissipate the attractive force of ions by forming solvation spheres around them. The polar nature of the water molecules allow them to surround and stabilize the charges of both anions and cations, preventing their association.<br /> <br /> [[File:Water_liquor.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.Liquid water is held in soil under tension arising from the adhesive and cohesive forces associated with water's molecular structure<br /> <br /> <br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,Liquid water at the water-gas interface exhibits a meniscus. The inward pull of liquid water molecules from hydrogen bonding (cohesion) is unbalanced at the liquid-gas interface, which is referred to as surface tension. In combination with the polar attraction of water molecules for a wettable soil solid matrix (adhesion to the capillary tube wall), this cohesion creates concave curvature. Water rises in the tube to reach equilibrium between the attractive upward force at the interface and the weight of water pulling downward on the meniscus.<br /> [[File:Tube.png|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> The analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> <br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics. When liquid water enters the soil matrix, it displaces the soil gas phase. Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules. Alternately, weak intermolecular interactions in soil gases allow soil temperatures to change readily with a small energy input or loss. Furthermore, because soil water can exist in liquid, gas (vapor) and solid (ice) phases, latent heat loss or gain from soil associated with phase change also impacts the thermal regime. In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=2920 2018-05-10T23:30:41Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> Glomeromycota is one of eight currently recognized divisions within the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 230 described species. Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizas (AMs) with the thalli of bryophytes) and the roots of vascular land plants. The majority of evidence shows that the Glomeromycota are dependent on land plants (Nostoc in the case of Geosiphon) for carbon and energy, but there is recent circumstantial evidence that some species may be able to lead an independent existence. The arbuscular mycorrhizal species are terrestrial and widely distributed in soils worldwide where they form symbioses with the roots of the majority of plant species (&gt;80%). They can also be found in wetlands, including salt-marshes, and associated with epiphytic plants. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi have generally been classified in the Zygomycota (Order Glomales), but they do not form the zygospores characteristic of zygomycota, and all ‘glomalean’ fungi form mutualistic symbioses. Recent molecular studies have suggested a separate phylum is appropriate for the AM fungi, the Glomeromycota.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> Traditionally, taxonomy of AM fungi has been based on characteristics of the relatively large (40 to 800 µm diameter) multinucleate spores. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker genes have detected little or no genetic recombination so it is assumed generally that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> The Glomeromycota have generally coenocytic (occasionally sparsely septate) mycelia and reproduce asexually through blastic development of the hyphal tip to produce spores (Glomerospores) with diameters of 80–500 μm. In some, complex spores form within a terminal saccule.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> AM fungi are obligate symbionts and none of these fungi has been cultivated without their plant hosts. Pure fungal biomass can be obtained only from cultures in transformed plant roots that can be cultivated in tissue culture, but only a small number of AM species are available in this form. Most samples can be contaminated by numerous other microorganisms, including fungi from other phyla, so progress with multigene phylogenies has been slow and the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes have remained the only widely accessible molecular markers. <br /> <br /> Yet, in ecological terms, this is possibly the most important group of fungi because AM fungi form endomycorrhizal associations with about 80% of land plants. The association is essential for plant ecosystem function because the plants depend on it for their mineral nutrient uptake, which is efficiently performed by the mycelium of the fungal symbionts that extends outside the roots. Within root cells AM fungi form hyphal coils or the typical tree-like structures, the arbuscules.<br /> <br /> Some also produce storage organs, termed vesicles (hence, another frequently used name for them – vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas or VAM-fungi). In phylogenetic terms they are important because they are the oldest unambiguous fungi known from the fossil record (see the Fossil Fungi section in Chapter 2). Put these two facts together and you get the suggestion that early colonisation of the land surface on Earth was promoted by the success of this plant-fungal symbiosis.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2919 2018-05-10T23:21:46Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chemical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils''' ==<br /> <br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).which is a measure of a substance's ability to minimize the force of attraction between oppositely charged species.<br /> This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.Water acts to dissipate the attractive force of ions by forming solvation spheres around them. The polar nature of the water molecules allow them to surround and stabilize the charges of both anions and cations, preventing their association.<br /> <br /> [[File:Water_liquor.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.Liquid water is held in soil under tension arising from the adhesive and cohesive forces associated with water's molecular structure<br /> <br /> <br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,Liquid water at the water-gas interface exhibits a meniscus. The inward pull of liquid water molecules from hydrogen bonding (cohesion) is unbalanced at the liquid-gas interface, which is referred to as surface tension. In combination with the polar attraction of water molecules for a wettable soil solid matrix (adhesion to the capillary tube wall), this cohesion creates concave curvature. Water rises in the tube to reach equilibrium between the attractive upward force at the interface and the weight of water pulling downward on the meniscus.<br /> [[File:Tube.png|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> The analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> <br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics. When liquid water enters the soil matrix, it displaces the soil gas phase. Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules. Alternately, weak intermolecular interactions in soil gases allow soil temperatures to change readily with a small energy input or loss. Furthermore, because soil water can exist in liquid, gas (vapor) and solid (ice) phases, latent heat loss or gain from soil associated with phase change also impacts the thermal regime. In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Tube.png&diff=2918 2018-05-10T23:21:23Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2917 2018-05-10T23:21:01Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chemical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils''' ==<br /> <br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).which is a measure of a substance's ability to minimize the force of attraction between oppositely charged species.<br /> This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.Water acts to dissipate the attractive force of ions by forming solvation spheres around them. The polar nature of the water molecules allow them to surround and stabilize the charges of both anions and cations, preventing their association.<br /> <br /> [[File:Water_liquor.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.Liquid water is held in soil under tension arising from the adhesive and cohesive forces associated with water's molecular structure<br /> <br /> <br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,Liquid water at the water-gas interface exhibits a meniscus. The inward pull of liquid water molecules from hydrogen bonding (cohesion) is unbalanced at the liquid-gas interface, which is referred to as surface tension. In combination with the polar attraction of water molecules for a wettable soil solid matrix (adhesion to the capillary tube wall), this cohesion creates concave curvature. Water rises in the tube to reach equilibrium between the attractive upward force at the interface and the weight of water pulling downward on the meniscus.<br /> [[File:Water_liquor.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> The analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> <br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics. When liquid water enters the soil matrix, it displaces the soil gas phase. Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules. Alternately, weak intermolecular interactions in soil gases allow soil temperatures to change readily with a small energy input or loss. Furthermore, because soil water can exist in liquid, gas (vapor) and solid (ice) phases, latent heat loss or gain from soil associated with phase change also impacts the thermal regime. In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2916 2018-05-10T23:20:27Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chemical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils''' ==<br /> <br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).which is a measure of a substance's ability to minimize the force of attraction between oppositely charged species.<br /> This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.Water acts to dissipate the attractive force of ions by forming solvation spheres around them. The polar nature of the water molecules allow them to surround and stabilize the charges of both anions and cations, preventing their association.<br /> <br /> [[File:Water_liquor.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.Liquid water is held in soil under tension arising from the adhesive and cohesive forces associated with water's molecular structure<br /> <br /> <br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,Liquid water at the water-gas interface exhibits a meniscus. The inward pull of liquid water molecules from hydrogen bonding (cohesion) is unbalanced at the liquid-gas interface, which is referred to as surface tension. In combination with the polar attraction of water molecules for a wettable soil solid matrix (adhesion to the capillary tube wall), this cohesion creates concave curvature. Water rises in the tube to reach equilibrium between the attractive upward force at the interface and the weight of water pulling downward on the meniscus.<br /> The analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> <br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics. When liquid water enters the soil matrix, it displaces the soil gas phase. Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules. Alternately, weak intermolecular interactions in soil gases allow soil temperatures to change readily with a small energy input or loss. Furthermore, because soil water can exist in liquid, gas (vapor) and solid (ice) phases, latent heat loss or gain from soil associated with phase change also impacts the thermal regime. In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2915 2018-05-10T22:54:29Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chemical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils''' ==<br /> <br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).which is a measure of a substance's ability to minimize the force of attraction between oppositely charged species.<br /> This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.Water acts to dissipate the attractive force of ions by forming solvation spheres around them. The polar nature of the water molecules allow them to surround and stabilize the charges of both anions and cations, preventing their association.<br /> <br /> [[File:Water_liquor.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.<br /> <br /> <br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,the analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> <br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics.Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules.In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2914 2018-05-10T22:46:11Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chemical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils''' ==<br /> <br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.<br /> <br /> [[File:Water_liquor.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.<br /> <br /> <br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,the analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> <br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics.Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules.In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2913 2018-05-10T22:45:23Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chemical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils''' ==<br /> <br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.<br /> <br /> [[File:waterliquor.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.<br /> <br /> <br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,the analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> <br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics.Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules.In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2912 2018-05-10T22:45:14Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chemical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils''' ==<br /> <br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.<br /> <br /> [[File:waterliquor.png|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.<br /> <br /> <br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,the analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> <br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics.Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules.In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Water_Behavior_in_Soils&diff=2911 2018-05-10T22:44:46Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chemical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils''' ==<br /> <br /> The chemical properties of water govern its behavior in the environment and control many key processes occurring in soils as the aqueous phase interacts with organisms, mineral surfaces, and air spaces.As a result of its nonlinear structure and dipole moment, water has a high dielectric constant (80.1 at 20°C).This unique property of water also makes it a powerful solvent, allowing it to readily dissolve ionic solids.<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> <br /> Another particularly important chemical property of water that impacts processes occurring within the soil solution is that it is amphoteric, meaning that it can act as either an acid or a base. Due to its polarity, water readily undergoes ionic dissociation into protons and hydroxide ions. Accordingly, when it reacts with a strong base, water acts as an acid, releasing protons; When it reacts with a strong acid, water acts as a base, accepting protons.<br /> <br /> The amphoteric behavior of water facilitates the acid-base chemistry and dictates the potential pH range of aqueous solutions, thereby imparting soil pH — a &quot;master variable&quot; of soils that influences soil formation, plant growth, and environmental quality.<br /> <br /> The ability of water to stabilize charged species in solution allows it to support the flow of electrons in soils. As such, water helps mediate oxidation and reduction (redox) reactions within the soil solution. Water itself may participate in these processes, and it is a product of cellular respiration in soils. In aerobic soils, water is produced from the oxidation of carbon in organic matter for energy production by microorganisms.<br /> <br /> =='''Physical Properties of Water and Behavior in Soils'''==<br /> <br /> [[File:watersoil.png|200px|thumb|left|]]<br /> Liquid water is a key component of the three-phase (solid, liquid, gas) soil system, possibly occupying 50% or more of the total soil volume under saturated conditions. Even under relatively dry conditions, water held at large tensions within soil pores occupies approximately 5–10% of the soil volume.<br /> <br /> <br /> The interaction between water and the soil solid matrix is often visualized with a capillary tube model,the analog of the capillary tube for soil pores also has been used to understand wetting above the water table and how management practices that alter pore size distribution, such as agricultural tillage, can affect soil's water holding capacity.<br /> <br /> <br /> The prevalence of water within the soil system also drives terrestrial temperature dynamics.Water requires a relatively large energy input or loss (heat capacity, 4.18 kJ kg-1 K-1) to change its temperature because of strong interactions (hydrogen bonding) between dipolar water molecules.In moist environments with ample soil water, water vapor loss from soil through evaporation requires a large energy input (heat of vaporization, 2449 kJ kg-1) without accompanying temperature change because of the large energy input required to disrupt the hydrogen bonds between liquid water molecules. Similarly, a large latent heat loss is required for soil freezing due to the high heat of fusion (334 kJ kg-1) associated with the more rigid, low-density structure of ice. Thermal properties of water within soil mediate environmental conditions for the biological community and regulate the thermodynamics of biogeochemical reactions.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]Eisenberg, D. &amp; Kauzmann, W. The Structure and Properties of Water. 296 Oxford University Press, 1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Sparks, D. L. Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Academic Press, 2003.<br /> <br /> [3]Frank, H. S. in Water: A Comprehensive Treatise Vol. 1 (ed F. Franks) Ch. 14, 515-543 Plenum, 1972.<br /> <br /> [4]Campbell, G. S. &amp; Norman, J. M. An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics. Vol. second 286 Springer-Verlag, 1998.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Water_liquor.jpg&diff=2910 2018-05-10T22:44:03Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2909 2018-05-10T22:33:16Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> [[File:apple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Pollination is one type of ecosystem service]]<br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.The more details about the four services shows in [[Essential ecosystem services]].<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Regulating services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...<br /> <br /> == Other Use ==<br /> === Economics ===<br /> There are questions regarding the environmental and economic values of ecosystem services. Although environmental awareness is rapidly improving in our contemporary world, ecosystem capital and its flow are still poorly understood, threats continue to impose.<br /> <br /> === Management and police ===<br /> Although monetary pricing continues with respect to the valuation of ecosystem services, the challenges in policy implementation and management are significant and multitudinous.<br /> <br /> === Maintain Biovdiversity ===<br /> Ecosystem not only provides all kinds of biological breeding ground, the more important is provides the necessary conditionsfor for biological evolution and biodiversity. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis<br /> <br /> &quot;Conservation of ecosystem services&quot;. Adam Purcell. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014<br /> <br /> Raudsepp-Hearne, C. et al. 2010. Untangling the Environmentalist's Paradox: Why is Human Well-being Increasing as Ecosystem Services Degrade? Bioscience 60(8) 576–589.<br /> <br /> Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.<br /> <br /> MOlnar, Michelle; Clarke-Murray, Cathryn; Whitworth, Jogn &amp; Tam, Jordan. &quot; 1 December 2014.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2908 2018-05-10T22:32:04Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> [[File:apple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Pollination is one type of ecosystem service]]<br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.The more details about the four services shows in [[Essential ecosystem services]].<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Regulating services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...<br /> <br /> == Other Use ==<br /> === Economics ===<br /> There are questions regarding the environmental and economic values of ecosystem services. Although environmental awareness is rapidly improving in our contemporary world, ecosystem capital and its flow are still poorly understood, threats continue to impose.<br /> <br /> === Management and police ===<br /> Although monetary pricing continues with respect to the valuation of ecosystem services, the challenges in policy implementation and management are significant and multitudinous.<br /> <br /> === Maintain Biovdiversity ===<br /> Ecosystem not only provides all kinds of biological breeding ground, the more important is provides the necessary conditionsfor for biological evolution and biodiversity. <br /> <br /> === Climate Regulation ===<br /> Ecosystem through photosynthesis can effectively slow down the global warming trend.Forest ecological system can effectively decrease the loss of regional water, and also can weaken the function of rapidly temperature change.<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis<br /> <br /> &quot;Conservation of ecosystem services&quot;. Adam Purcell. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014<br /> <br /> Raudsepp-Hearne, C. et al. 2010. Untangling the Environmentalist's Paradox: Why is Human Well-being Increasing as Ecosystem Services Degrade? Bioscience 60(8) 576–589.<br /> <br /> Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.<br /> <br /> MOlnar, Michelle; Clarke-Murray, Cathryn; Whitworth, Jogn &amp; Tam, Jordan. &quot; 1 December 2014.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2907 2018-05-10T22:19:01Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> [[File:apple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Pollination is one type of ecosystem service]]<br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.The more details about the four services shows in [[Essential ecosystem services]].<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Regulating services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...<br /> <br /> == Other Use ==<br /> === Economics ===<br /> There are questions regarding the environmental and economic values of ecosystem services. Although environmental awareness is rapidly improving in our contemporary world, ecosystem capital and its flow are still poorly understood, threats continue to impose, and we suffer from the so-called 'tragedy of the commons'.<br /> <br /> === Management and police ===<br /> Although monetary pricing continues with respect to the valuation of ecosystem services, the challenges in policy implementation and management are significant and multitudinous.<br /> <br /> === Maintain Biovdiversity ===<br /> Ecosystem not only provides all kinds of biological breeding ground, what is more important for biological evolution and biodiversity, provides the necessary conditions.At the same time, the ecological system created jointly by the biological community is suitable for biological survival environment.<br /> <br /> === Climate Regulation ===<br /> Ecosystem through photosynthesis can effectively slow down the global warming trend.Forest ecological system can effectively decrease the loss of regional water, but also weaken the function of rapid temperature change.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2906 2018-05-10T22:07:35Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> [[File:apple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Pollination is one type of ecosystem service]]<br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.The more details about the four services shows in [[Essential ecosystem services]].<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Regulating services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...<br /> <br /> == Other Use ==<br /> There are questions regarding the environmental and economic values of ecosystem services.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2905 2018-05-10T22:05:17Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> [[File:apple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Pollination is one type of ecosystem service]]<br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.The more details about the four services shows in [[Essential ecosystem services]].<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Regulating services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...<br /> <br /> == Environmental economics ==<br /> There are questions regarding the environmental and economic values of ecosystem services.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2904 2018-05-10T22:04:26Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> [[File:apple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Pollination is one type of ecosystem service]]<br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.[[Essential ecosystem services]]<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Regulating services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...<br /> <br /> == Environmental economics ==<br /> There are questions regarding the environmental and economic values of ecosystem services.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2903 2018-05-10T22:02:11Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> [[File:apple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Pollination is one type of ecosystem service]]<br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Regulating services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...<br /> <br /> == Environmental economics ==<br /> There are questions regarding the environmental and economic values of ecosystem services.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2374 2018-05-09T04:01:30Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> [[File:apple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Pollination is one type of ecosystem service]]<br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...<br /> <br /> == Environmental economics ==<br /> There are questions regarding the environmental and economic values of ecosystem services.</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2369 2018-05-09T03:56:26Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> [[File:apple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Pollination is one type of ecosystem service]]<br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2366 2018-05-09T03:55:42Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> [[File:apple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Apple.jpg&diff=2364 2018-05-09T03:54:06Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2361 2018-05-09T03:47:33Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> <br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories.<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2359 2018-05-09T03:45:25Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> <br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> :waste decomposition<br /> :purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2357 2018-05-09T03:44:14Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> <br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> === Supporting services ===<br /> These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> === Provisioning services ===<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> waste decomposition<br /> purification of water and air<br /> <br /> === Cultural services ===<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2353 2018-05-09T03:41:55Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> <br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> :'''Supporting services'''<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> :'''Provisioning services'''<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> :'''Provisioning services'''<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> waste decomposition<br /> purification of water and air<br /> <br /> :'''Cultural services'''<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...</div>

Yuanshao https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ecosystem_Services&diff=2351 2018-05-09T03:41:09Z

<p>Yuanshao: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.<br /> <br /> == Denfinition ==<br /> <br /> Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are &quot;the benefits people obtain from ecosystems&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Four categories ==<br /> <br /> :Supporting services<br /> :These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation, and water purification.<br /> <br /> :Provisioning services<br /> :Food, Materials, Water, Energy...<br /> <br /> :Provisioning services<br /> :carbon sequestration and climate regulation<br /> waste decomposition<br /> purification of water and air<br /> <br /> :Cultural services<br /> :Move, Outdoor sport...</div>

Yuanshao