https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=TrevorkeSoil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-07T11:16:59ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.0https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4759Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:30:06Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] One of the most problematic of these tends to be the synthetic fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates at which phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones''' [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4758Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:29:12Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] One of the most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones''' [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4757Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:27:12Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones''' [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4756Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:26:55Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones''' [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4755Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:26:19Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones''' [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
[[File:organic farming.jpg|200px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4754Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:25:47Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones''' [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
[[File:organic farming.jpg|200px|thumb|left]]<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4753Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:25:23Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones''' [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
[[File:organic farming.jpg|200px|thumb]]<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4752Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:24:19Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones''' [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] [[File:organic farming.jpg|200px|thumb]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4751Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:22:54Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones'''<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida. [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|200px|thumb|center]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] [[File:organic farming.jpg|200px|thumb]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4750Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:19:51Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones'''<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida. [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|200px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] [[File:organic farming.jpg|200px|thumb]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4749Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:19:08Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones'''<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida. [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] [[File:organic farming.jpg|300px|thumb]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4748Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:18:43Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones'''<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida. [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] [[File:organic farming.jpg|300px|thumb]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4747Eutrophication2019-05-08T12:18:22Z<p>Trevorke: /* Prevention & Reversal */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones'''<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida. [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG|300px|thumb]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] [[File:organic farming.jpg|300px|thumb]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4650Black Willow2019-05-07T22:32:03Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg|200px|thumb|left]] ''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow trees are a dioecious species which means the males and females are indistinguishable from one another with the only exceptions being during flowering season and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the southern range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. That being said, the pollen can still be carried by the wind as well. The seeds of ''Salix nigra'' are small, light brown to yellow, have a capsule shape, and begin to break open and release seedlings that are coated in little hairs.<br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
Various different vertebrate animals rely on the Black Willows as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves. The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and waterfowl species such as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds during the spring, when their other food sources are a little more scarce. Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willows also happen to be one of the tree species that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into in order to feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges.<br />
<br />
== Cultural Uses ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it contains salicin which happens to be the primary ingredient of aspirin. The wood of the Black Willow most commercially used of the different species of willow for its strength, shock resistance and also due to the fact that it doesn’t splinter that easily. It’s mostly used in the construction of boxes and crates as well as wood turning, table tops, wood carvings etc. <br />
<br />
== Soil Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all the cultural uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which this willow species can remove heavy metals from the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation efforts and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the tree's growth. Not only that, but these trees possess a resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors like that of [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by ''Salix nigra'' into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are also very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, which is why many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. [[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4647Black Willow2019-05-07T21:00:40Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg|200px|thumb|left]] ''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow trees are a dioecious species which means the males and females are indistinguishable from one another with the only exceptions being during flowering season and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the southern range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. That being said, the pollen can still be carried by the wind as well. The seeds of ''Salix nigra'' are small, light brown, and have a capsule shape, and begin to break open and release seedlings that are coated in little hairs.<br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
== Cultural Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
== Soil Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4646Black Willow2019-05-07T20:54:31Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg|200px|thumb|left]] ''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
== Cultural Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
== Soil Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4645Black Willow2019-05-07T20:53:45Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg|200px|thumb|left]] ''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
== Cultural Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
== Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4644Black Willow2019-05-07T20:50:24Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg|200px|thumb|left]] ''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
<br />
== Cultural Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
<br />
== Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4643Black Willow2019-05-07T20:49:25Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg|200px|thumb|left]] ''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4642Black Willow2019-05-07T20:49:01Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg|200px|thumb|left]]'Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4641Black Willow2019-05-07T20:47:20Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
== Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4640Black Willow2019-05-07T20:46:32Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
== Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4639Black Willow2019-05-07T20:46:05Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
== Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered” [[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4638Black Willow2019-05-07T20:45:48Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
== Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered” [[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4637Black Willow2019-05-07T20:45:21Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
== Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4636Black Willow2019-05-07T20:43:17Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
== Restoration Techniques ==<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. “Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4635Black Willow2019-05-07T20:38:10Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4634Black Willow2019-05-07T20:37:51Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4633Black Willow2019-05-07T20:33:15Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. <br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4632Black Willow2019-05-07T20:31:28Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. Black willow is a dioecious species meaning males and females are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. [[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4631Black Willow2019-05-07T20:28:46Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America and parts of California. Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. [[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
== Ecological Significance ==<br />
<br />
"Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4630Black Willow2019-05-07T20:15:42Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing yet short lived tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America and parts of California. [[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
== Uses ==<br />
<br />
Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, so many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4629Black Willow2019-05-07T20:08:41Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4628Black Willow2019-05-07T20:08:01Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:20180510_121332.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4627Black Willow2019-05-07T20:07:49Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:20180510_121332.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4626Black Willow2019-05-07T20:07:21Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|left]]''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]] [[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:20180510_121332.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4625Black Willow2019-05-07T20:04:56Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]] [[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|center]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:20180510_121332.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4624Black Willow2019-05-07T20:03:33Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. [[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]] [[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|center]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
[[File:20180510_121332.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4623Black Willow2019-05-07T20:00:05Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. [[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg]] [[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
[[File:20180510_121332.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png&diff=4622File:Salix nigra range map 1.png2019-05-07T19:40:09Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2_35557.1542957430.jpg&diff=4621File:BLACK WILLOW TREE2 35557.1542957430.jpg2019-05-07T19:39:27Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4620Black Willow2019-05-07T19:39:09Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. [[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg]] [[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
[[File:20180510_121332.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4618Black Willow2019-05-07T19:37:26Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. [[File:Black_willow.jpg|300px|thumb|right]] [[File:]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
[[File:20180510_121332.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4617Black Willow2019-05-07T19:34:58Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. [[File:Black_willow.jpg|300px|thumb|right] [[File:Range.png|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
[[File:20180510_121332.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4616Black Willow2019-05-07T19:34:26Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, or almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. [[File:Black_willow.jpg |300px|thumb|right] [[File:Range.png|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
[[File:20180510_121332.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Black_Willow&diff=4615Black Willow2019-05-07T19:29:09Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Overview ==<br />
<br />
''Salix nigra'' does the best in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks and drainage ditches, anywhere that there is adequate lighting, water, and the area is low or just below water level. It is a fast growing and short living tree that has a vast range throughout North America. [[File:Black_willow.jpg ]]<br />
<br />
Range [[File:Range.png]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Live_staking.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is very good at soil stabilization so many projects that need erosion control such as river restoration often use willow in their arsenals. It is also the very useful for treating minor aches and pains because it has salicin which is the basic ingredient of aspirin but now the salicylic acid is synthesized instead of being taken from the trees themselves. It is the most commercially used species of willow because of its strength, and shock resistance and also the fact that it doesn’t splinter with ease. It’s mostly used for boxes and crates as well as wood turning and table tops, wooden carvings etc. <br />
<br />
[[File:20180510_121332.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Black willow is a dioecious. Male and female are indistinguishable with the only exceptions being during flowering times and during the seed developmental process. The beginning of the flowering season begins in February in the south range and goes through the end of June in the north. The flowers do contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by insects. "Various vertebrate animals also rely on Black Willow as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves and/or catkins (Lagler, 1943). The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and such ducks as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds and/or catkins during the spring, when other food sources are scarce (Bennetts, 1900; Devore et al., 2004). Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willow is one of the trees that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into so that it can feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges (Martin et al., 1951/1961)."<br />
<br />
[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Pollen can also be carried by the wind. Sees are small light brown and capsule looking in nature, and begin to break open and release seedlings that have little hairs covering them. Another way of reproduction is through cutting post size stocks and placed in adequate moisture with very little effort, plant survival will be near 100 %. <br />
<br />
In addition to all of the uses for this species, we are now studying the ways in which willow has the ability to take heavy metals out of the [[soil]]. It is starting to be used in remediation and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the trees tissues are showing to have the capacity to enhance the trees growth and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors by things such as [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by plants into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere.<br />
<br />
“Heavy metals cannot be metabolized, therefore the only possible strategy to apply is their extraction from contaminated soil and transfer to the smaller volume of harvestable plants for their disposal biomass can also be used in producing energy and, if economically profitable, metals can be eventually recovered”<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/<br />
<br />
http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm<br />
<br />
Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.<br />
<br />
Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.<br />
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.<br />
<br />
McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.<br />
<br />
McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.<br />
<br />
Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.<br />
<br />
Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. Ecology 54(l):118-126.<br />
<br />
Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.<br />
<br />
Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.<br />
<br />
Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus<br />
<br />
http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004<br />
<br />
http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4614Eutrophication2019-05-07T19:20:22Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones and organic farming. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones'''<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida. [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] [[File:organic farming.jpg|300px|thumb]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4613Eutrophication2019-05-07T19:18:32Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones, organic farming, and dredging. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones'''<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida. [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] [[File:organic farming.jpg|300px|thumb]]<br />
<br />
'''Dredging''' <br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Organic_farming.jpg&diff=4612File:Organic farming.jpg2019-05-07T19:17:42Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Trevorkehttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eutrophication&diff=4611Eutrophication2019-05-07T19:17:25Z<p>Trevorke: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Definition ==<br />
'''Eutrophication''', sometimes known as hypertrophication, is the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) through the intense breakdown of soil sediments that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life. This will usually lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen which is known as hypoxia. [1] This phenomena is perfectly fine when it happens at normal rates, but not at the rates that we are currently witnessing. [[File:cultural_eutrophication.jpg|400px|thumb|left]]<br />
== Causes ==<br />
While eutrophication is usually a natural process that takes place over the course of hundreds of years, it has in recent decades been negatively influenced and accelerated due to human influence. Naturally occurring eutrophication happens on geologic time scales, [3] but as mentioned, that is no longer the case in most places of the world due to anthropogenic or cultural eutrophication. Cultural eutrophication occurs through either non-point source or point source pollution at the hands of humans. [2] Examples of point-source or non-point source pollution that increase the rates of eutrophication can include, detergents, fertilizers, or sewage which can come from almost anywhere whether it be parking lots and roads or agricultural fields. [3][4] The most problematic of these tends to be the fertilizers that are used primarily in the cultivation of agricultural fields and grass lawns. Not to mention, clearing of land as well as the building of cities and towns leads to sediment runoff which worsens the rates that phosphates and nitrates make their way into bodies of water. [5] [[File:126077-050-117592F5.jpg|200px|thumb|right]]<br />
== Consequences ==<br />
Because of this sudden flux of nutrients, plant life, especially algae, are permitted to flourish. It is when these organisms die though that they become decomposed and it is in this decomposition process that oxygen is consumed which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration in the water. The lack of oxygen in the water of course greatly reduces the number of fish and other animals in said aquatic ecosystem as well as the overall biodiversity. To make matters even worse, the dead algae and other plant material can settle at the bottom of the body of water where it will undergo anaerobic digestion. This anaerobic digestion releases greenhouse gases like that of methane and carbon dioxide which are incredibly harmful to the atmosphere and the Earth as a whole. [6] Because of the large scale displacement of sediment, cultural eutrophication is extremely detrimental to the integrity of terrestrial soil habitats as well. [[File:eutrofizzazione.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]<br />
<br />
== Prevention & Reversal == <br />
Despite its ability to devastate marine habitats, cultural eutrophication can be slowed and even reversed. There have been phosphorus removal measures taken in Finland which have been said to have had a 90% success rate. [7] Others have proposed encouraging the growth of shellfish populations due to the fact that these organisms take nitrogen out of the water, acting as natural filters and reducing the likelihood of algal blooms.[8] Reducing the harmful effects of non-point source pollution are some of the most widely supported methods of slowing the rates of eutrophication. Some of these methods include riparian buffer zones, organic farming, and dredging. <br />
<br />
'''Buffer Zones'''<br />
<br />
Buffer zones, specifically riparian buffer zones, are meant to act as a filter to prevent non-point source pollution from contaminating a water source in the first place. [9] Rather than being a man-made structure, a riparian buffer zone is an area of natural vegetation along the bank of the stream/river[10] like that of a mangrove forest in Southern Florida. [[File:220px-Riparian_buffer_on_Bear_Creek_in_Story_County,_Iowa.JPG]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Organic Farming''' <br />
<br />
Organic farming is said to be another very effective method of slowing the rates of anthropogenic eutrophication due the non-existent use of synthetic, nitrogen rich fertilizers. A study found that fields that were fertilized through organic means were not nearly as harmful as more conventional farming practices in terms of nitrate leaching.[11] [[File:organic farming.jpg]]<br />
<br />
'''Dredging''' <br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
1. Eutrophication. (n.d.). . Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eutrophication.<br />
<br />
2. Chislock, M. F., Doster, E., Zitomer, R. A. & Wilson, A. E. (2013) Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems. Nature Education Knowledge 4(4):10<br />
<br />
3. Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline and Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014) "Eutrophication of Lakes" in A. A. Ansari, S. S. Gill (eds.), Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6.<br />
<br />
4. Muir, P., 2012. Eutrophication [WWW Document]. Oregon State University. URL http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/eutrophi.htm<br />
<br />
5. Schindler, David W., Vallentyne, John R. (2008). The Algal Bowl: Overfertilization of the World's Freshwaters and Estuaries, University of Alberta Press, ISBN 0-88864-484-1.<br />
<br />
6. Tittmann, A., n.d. Climate gases from water bodies [WWW Document]. IGB. URL https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/climate-gases-water-bodies<br />
<br />
7. Räike, A.; Pietiläinen, O. -P.; Rekolainen, S.; Kauppila, P.; Pitkänen, H.; Niemi, J.; Raateland, A.; Vuorenmaa, J. (2003). "Trends of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll a concentrations in Finnish rivers and lakes in 1975–2000". Science of the Total Environment. 310 (1–3): 47–59. Bibcode:2003ScTEn.310...47R. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00622-8. PMID 12812730.<br />
<br />
8. Kroeger, Timm (2012) Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. TNC Report.<br />
<br />
9. Carpenter, S.R.; Caraco, N.F.; Smith, V.H. (1998). "Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.2307/2641247. hdl:1813/60811. JSTOR 2641247.<br />
<br />
10. Importance of Riparian Buffers. 2019. . https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/RiparianMagic.aspx.<br />
<br />
11. Kramer, S. B. (2006). "Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (12): 4522–4527. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.4522K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600359103. PMC 1450204. PMID 16537377.</div>Trevorke