Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Scutigerellidae

2025-04-17T19:50:59Z

Tmschin:

==Overview==
Scutigerellidae is a family belonging to the class [[Symphyla]] of Subphylum Myriapoda. Scutigerellidae are a moist [[soil]] dwelling pseudocentipede family. They are characterized by their 15 tergites (a special type of segment on their dorsal side) and having over 20 articles on their antennae [2].
[[File:Scut2.jpg|600px|thumb|right|[1]]]
==Taxonomy and Genera==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Subphylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Family
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| [[Animals|Animalia]]
| [[Arthropods|Arthropoda]]
| [[Myriapoda]]
| Symphyla
| Scutigerellidae
|}

There are 140 known species, as well as the following 5 Genera within the family Scutigerellidae:
Hanseniella
Millotellina
Scolopendrelloides
Scopoliella
Scutigerella
[2]
==Characteristics==
Scutigerellidae are characterized by their 15 tergites and 20+ antennae articles. They are usually a translucent white color with 15-24 bodily segments. They have 12 pairs of short legs and have cerci at their rear ends. They are most often between 2 and 8 mm in length [3]. Despite a resemblance to centipedes, Scutigerellidae are much smaller.
[[File:Scut1.jpg|600px|thumb|right|[1]]]

==Ecology and Behavior==
Scutigerellidae feed on decaying plant matter, fungi, and [[algae]], and are therefore characterized as [[detritivores]]. They are said to be primarily nocturnal and exceedingly fast, with movement aided by secreted mucus [3]. They rely on their long antennae to feel their way around, as they lack eyes [1].
==Habitat==
Scutigerellidae are found in upper layers moist soils, decaying wood, compost, and leaf litter [3].
==Life Cycle==
Adults can live for up to 4 years and have the ability to reproduce sexually and asexually [3]. They remain beneath the soil for their whole lives. Scutigerellidae spend 1-2 weeks as an egg, followed by a 6 legged nymph stage. With each molt, they gain legs and segments, eventually reaching 12 pairs of legs [1][3].

==Notable Members==
A notable member of the family, the garden symphylan (scutigerella immaculata) has been studied for its impact on plant health. It was found that tomato and spinach seedlings are particularly vulnerable to this species of symphya, whereas corn is more resilient [4]. Largely this species has been considered a garden pest for decades, with studies as early as 1937.
==References==

[1] Scutigerella agg. | NatureSpot. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2025, from https://www.naturespot.org/species/scutigerella-immaculata
[2] Scutigerellidae. (2025a). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scutigerellidae&oldid=1285273790
[3] Scutigerellidae. (2025b, April 17). Bugs With Mike. https://bugswithmike.com/factsheet/scutigerellidae
[4] Umble, J. R., & Fisher, J. R. (2003). Influence of Below-Ground Feeding by Garden Symphylans (Cephalostigmata: Scutigerellidae) on Plant Health. Environmental Entomology, 32(5), 1251–1261. https://doi.org/10.1603/0046-225X-32.5.1251

Scutigerellidae

2025-04-17T19:50:33Z

Tmschin:

==Overview==
Scutigerellidae is a family belonging to the class [[Symphyla]] of Subphylum Myriapoda. Scutigerellidae are a moist [[soil]] dwelling pseudocentipede family. They are characterized by their 15 tergites (a special type of segment on their dorsal side) and having over 20 articles on their antennae [2].
==Taxonomy and Genera==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Subphylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Family
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| [[Animals|Animalia]]
| [[Arthropods|Arthropoda]]
| [[Myriapoda]]
| Symphyla
| Scutigerellidae
|}

There are 140 known species, as well as the following 5 Genera within the family Scutigerellidae:
Hanseniella
Millotellina
Scolopendrelloides
Scopoliella
Scutigerella
[2]
==Characteristics==
Scutigerellidae are characterized by their 15 tergites and 20+ antennae articles. They are usually a translucent white color with 15-24 bodily segments. They have 12 pairs of short legs and have cerci at their rear ends. They are most often between 2 and 8 mm in length [3]. Despite a resemblance to centipedes, Scutigerellidae are much smaller.
[[File:Scut1.jpg|600px|thumb|right|[1]]]

==Ecology and Behavior==
Scutigerellidae feed on decaying plant matter, fungi, and [[algae]], and are therefore characterized as [[detritivores]]. They are said to be primarily nocturnal and exceedingly fast, with movement aided by secreted mucus [3]. They rely on their long antennae to feel their way around, as they lack eyes [1].
==Habitat==
Scutigerellidae are found in upper layers moist soils, decaying wood, compost, and leaf litter [3].
[[File:Scut2.jpg|600px|thumb|right|[1]]]
==Life Cycle==
Adults can live for up to 4 years and have the ability to reproduce sexually and asexually [3]. They remain beneath the soil for their whole lives. Scutigerellidae spend 1-2 weeks as an egg, followed by a 6 legged nymph stage. With each molt, they gain legs and segments, eventually reaching 12 pairs of legs [1][3].

==Notable Members==
A notable member of the family, the garden symphylan (scutigerella immaculata) has been studied for its impact on plant health. It was found that tomato and spinach seedlings are particularly vulnerable to this species of symphya, whereas corn is more resilient [4]. Largely this species has been considered a garden pest for decades, with studies as early as 1937.
==References==

[1] Scutigerella agg. | NatureSpot. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2025, from https://www.naturespot.org/species/scutigerella-immaculata
[2] Scutigerellidae. (2025a). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scutigerellidae&oldid=1285273790
[3] Scutigerellidae. (2025b, April 17). Bugs With Mike. https://bugswithmike.com/factsheet/scutigerellidae
[4] Umble, J. R., & Fisher, J. R. (2003). Influence of Below-Ground Feeding by Garden Symphylans (Cephalostigmata: Scutigerellidae) on Plant Health. Environmental Entomology, 32(5), 1251–1261. https://doi.org/10.1603/0046-225X-32.5.1251

Scutigerellidae

2025-04-17T19:49:38Z

Tmschin:

==Overview==
Scutigerellidae is a family belonging to the class [[Symphyla]] of Subphylum Myriapoda. Scutigerellidae are a moist [[soil]] dwelling pseudocentipede family. They are characterized by their 15 tergites (a special type of segment on their dorsal side) and having over 20 articles on their antennae [2].
==Taxonomy and Genera==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Subphylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Family
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| [[Animals|Animalia]]
| [[Arthropods|Arthropoda]]
| [[Myriapoda]]
| Symphyla
| Scutigerellidae
|}

There are 140 known species, as well as the following 5 Genera within the family Scutigerellidae:
Hanseniella
Millotellina
Scolopendrelloides
Scopoliella
Scutigerella
[2]
==Characteristics==
Scutigerellidae are characterized by their 15 tergites and 20+ antennae articles. They are usually a translucent white color with 15-24 bodily segments. They have 12 pairs of short legs and have cerci at their rear ends. They are most often between 2 and 8 mm in length [3]. Despite a resemblance to centipedes, Scutigerellidae are much smaller.
[[File:Scut1.jpg|600px|thumb|left|caption]] [1]

==Ecology and Behavior==
Scutigerellidae feed on decaying plant matter, fungi, and [[algae]], and are therefore characterized as [[detritivores]]. They are said to be primarily nocturnal and exceedingly fast, with movement aided by secreted mucus [3]. They rely on their long antennae to feel their way around, as they lack eyes [1].
==Habitat==
Scutigerellidae are found in upper layers moist soils, decaying wood, compost, and leaf litter [3].
[[File:Scut2.jpg|600px|thumb|right|caption]] [1]
==Life Cycle==
Adults can live for up to 4 years and have the ability to reproduce sexually and asexually [3]. They remain beneath the soil for their whole lives. Scutigerellidae spend 1-2 weeks as an egg, followed by a 6 legged nymph stage. With each molt, they gain legs and segments, eventually reaching 12 pairs of legs [1][3].

==Notable Members==
A notable member of the family, the garden symphylan (scutigerella immaculata) has been studied for its impact on plant health. It was found that tomato and spinach seedlings are particularly vulnerable to this species of symphya, whereas corn is more resilient [4]. Largely this species has been considered a garden pest for decades, with studies as early as 1937.
==References==

[1] Scutigerella agg. | NatureSpot. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2025, from https://www.naturespot.org/species/scutigerella-immaculata
[2] Scutigerellidae. (2025a). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scutigerellidae&oldid=1285273790
[3] Scutigerellidae. (2025b, April 17). Bugs With Mike. https://bugswithmike.com/factsheet/scutigerellidae
[4] Umble, J. R., & Fisher, J. R. (2003). Influence of Below-Ground Feeding by Garden Symphylans (Cephalostigmata: Scutigerellidae) on Plant Health. Environmental Entomology, 32(5), 1251–1261. https://doi.org/10.1603/0046-225X-32.5.1251

File:Scut2.jpg

2025-04-17T19:48:36Z

Tmschin:

File:Scut1.jpg

2025-04-17T19:48:00Z

Tmschin:

Scutigerellidae

2025-04-17T19:45:01Z

Tmschin: Created page with "==Overview== Scutigerellidae is a family belonging to the class Symphyla of Subphylum Myriapoda. Scutigerellidae are a moist soil dwelling pseudocentipede family. They are characterized by their 15 tergites (a special type of segment on their dorsal side) and having over 20 articles on their antennae [2]. ==Taxonomy and Genera== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"| |- | ! scope="col" | Kingdom ! scope="col" | Phylum ! scope="col" | Subphylum ! s..."

==Overview==
Scutigerellidae is a family belonging to the class [[Symphyla]] of Subphylum Myriapoda. Scutigerellidae are a moist [[soil]] dwelling pseudocentipede family. They are characterized by their 15 tergites (a special type of segment on their dorsal side) and having over 20 articles on their antennae [2].
==Taxonomy and Genera==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Subphylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Family
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| [[Animals|Animalia]]
| [[Arthropods|Arthropoda]]
| [[Myriapoda]]
| Symphyla
| Scutigerellidae
|}

There are 140 known species, as well as the following 5 Genera within the family Scutigerellidae:
Hanseniella
Millotellina
Scolopendrelloides
Scopoliella
Scutigerella
[2]
==Characteristics==
Scutigerellidae are characterized by their 15 tergites and 20+ antennae articles. They are usually a translucent white color with 15-24 bodily segments. They have 12 pairs of short legs and have cerci at their rear ends. They are most often between 2 and 8 mm in length [3]. Despite a resemblance to centipedes, Scutigerellidae are much smaller.

==Ecology and Behavior==
Scutigerellidae feed on decaying plant matter, fungi, and [[algae]], and are therefore characterized as [[detritivores]]. They are said to be primarily nocturnal and exceedingly fast, with movement aided by secreted mucus [3]. They rely on their long antennae to feel their way around, as they lack eyes [1].
==Habitat==
Scutigerellidae are found in upper layers moist soils, decaying wood, compost, and leaf litter [3].
==Life Cycle==
Adults can live for up to 4 years and have the ability to reproduce sexually and asexually [3]. They remain beneath the soil for their whole lives. Scutigerellidae spend 1-2 weeks as an egg, followed by a 6 legged nymph stage. With each molt, they gain legs and segments, eventually reaching 12 pairs of legs [1][3].

==Notable Members==
A notable member of the family, the garden symphylan (scutigerella immaculata) has been studied for its impact on plant health. It was found that tomato and spinach seedlings are particularly vulnerable to this species of symphya, whereas corn is more resilient [4]. Largely this species has been considered a garden pest for decades, with studies as early as 1937.
==References==

[1] Scutigerella agg. | NatureSpot. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2025, from https://www.naturespot.org/species/scutigerella-immaculata
[2] Scutigerellidae. (2025a). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scutigerellidae&oldid=1285273790
[3] Scutigerellidae. (2025b, April 17). Bugs With Mike. https://bugswithmike.com/factsheet/scutigerellidae
[4] Umble, J. R., & Fisher, J. R. (2003). Influence of Below-Ground Feeding by Garden Symphylans (Cephalostigmata: Scutigerellidae) on Plant Health. Environmental Entomology, 32(5), 1251–1261. https://doi.org/10.1603/0046-225X-32.5.1251

Holocellulose

2025-03-31T17:06:01Z

Tmschin: /* Uses */

== Description ==
""Holocellulose"" is defined as the carbohydrate or polysaccharide portion of biomass which is composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Holocellulose is obtained by removing [[lignin]] from said biomass [1]. This is done in a lab, as Holocellulose is not a naturally occurring compound. [2]. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are among the most important compounds found in plant cell walls, and can be used to inform [[decomposition]] and N2O emission rates in [[soil]] [4].

==Composition==
Holocellulose is created following the removal of lignin from biomass, leaving the cellulose and hemicellulose. This is done in a lab, often to separate hemicellulose from lignin [2]. In nature, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose occur together in a form called lignocellulose.
As a collective, lignocellulose can dictate and inform many [[properties]] of the soil. For example, a low lignin content compared to high cellulose and hemicellulose will predict high N2O emission rates and soil carbon decomposition [4].

==Ecological Significance==
Despite Holocellulose not existing in nature, it still may be used to inform soil properties. For example, cellulose and hemicellulose are more available to soil microbes than lignin is. This means that soil with a low lignin content as compared to cellulose and hemicellulose will have a higher decomposition rate. This can also be used to inform microbial biomass, [[soil pH]], soil carbon, Nitrogen retention, and nitrate content [4]. Cellulose and hemicellulose is easier for microbes to break down than lignin, and the resulting catabolism of cellulose and hemicellulose by bacteria and fungi makes energy sources and stored carbon available for soil [[organisms]] [1].

==Uses==
Holocellulose is established within the biofuel, food, and paper industries [1]. Delignification of wood can produce “holo-fibers”, which can be used in certain nanotechnology applications [3].
[[File:Holonano.jpg|1100px|thumb|right|3]]
In some cases, Holocellulose can be used to refer to a high cellulose and hemicellulose content and a low lignin content. It can be even used to refer to the cellulose and hemicellulose content of soil in isolation to lignin. While not technically a correct definition, this “faux holocellulose” can still be used to inform soil carbon decomposition rates as mentioned.

==References==
[1] Segato, F., Damásio, A. R. L., de Lucas, R. C., Squina, F. M., & Prade, R. A. (2014). Genomics Review of Holocellulose Deconstruction by Aspergilli. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews : MMBR, 78(4), 588–613. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00019-14
[2] Holocellulose—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2025, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/holocellulose
[3] Yang, X., & Berglund, L. A. (2021). Structural and Ecofriendly Holocellulose Materials from Wood: Microscale Fibers and Nanoscale Fibrils. Advanced Materials, 33(28), 2001118. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202001118
[4] Wei, J., Reichel, R., Islam, M. S., Wissel, H., Amelung, W., & Brüggemann, N. (2020). Chemical Composition of High Organic Carbon Soil Amendments Affects Fertilizer-Derived N2O Emission and Nitrogen Immobilization in an Oxic Sandy [[Loam]]. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.00015

Holocellulose

2025-03-31T17:05:51Z

Tmschin: /* Uses */

== Description ==
""Holocellulose"" is defined as the carbohydrate or polysaccharide portion of biomass which is composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Holocellulose is obtained by removing [[lignin]] from said biomass [1]. This is done in a lab, as Holocellulose is not a naturally occurring compound. [2]. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are among the most important compounds found in plant cell walls, and can be used to inform [[decomposition]] and N2O emission rates in [[soil]] [4].

==Composition==
Holocellulose is created following the removal of lignin from biomass, leaving the cellulose and hemicellulose. This is done in a lab, often to separate hemicellulose from lignin [2]. In nature, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose occur together in a form called lignocellulose.
As a collective, lignocellulose can dictate and inform many [[properties]] of the soil. For example, a low lignin content compared to high cellulose and hemicellulose will predict high N2O emission rates and soil carbon decomposition [4].

==Ecological Significance==
Despite Holocellulose not existing in nature, it still may be used to inform soil properties. For example, cellulose and hemicellulose are more available to soil microbes than lignin is. This means that soil with a low lignin content as compared to cellulose and hemicellulose will have a higher decomposition rate. This can also be used to inform microbial biomass, [[soil pH]], soil carbon, Nitrogen retention, and nitrate content [4]. Cellulose and hemicellulose is easier for microbes to break down than lignin, and the resulting catabolism of cellulose and hemicellulose by bacteria and fungi makes energy sources and stored carbon available for soil [[organisms]] [1].

==Uses==
Holocellulose is established within the biofuel, food, and paper industries [1]. Delignification of wood can produce “holo-fibers”, which can be used in certain nanotechnology applications [3].
[[File:Holonano.jpg|1100px|thumb|left|3]]
In some cases, Holocellulose can be used to refer to a high cellulose and hemicellulose content and a low lignin content. It can be even used to refer to the cellulose and hemicellulose content of soil in isolation to lignin. While not technically a correct definition, this “faux holocellulose” can still be used to inform soil carbon decomposition rates as mentioned.

==References==
[1] Segato, F., Damásio, A. R. L., de Lucas, R. C., Squina, F. M., & Prade, R. A. (2014). Genomics Review of Holocellulose Deconstruction by Aspergilli. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews : MMBR, 78(4), 588–613. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00019-14
[2] Holocellulose—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2025, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/holocellulose
[3] Yang, X., & Berglund, L. A. (2021). Structural and Ecofriendly Holocellulose Materials from Wood: Microscale Fibers and Nanoscale Fibrils. Advanced Materials, 33(28), 2001118. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202001118
[4] Wei, J., Reichel, R., Islam, M. S., Wissel, H., Amelung, W., & Brüggemann, N. (2020). Chemical Composition of High Organic Carbon Soil Amendments Affects Fertilizer-Derived N2O Emission and Nitrogen Immobilization in an Oxic Sandy [[Loam]]. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.00015

File:Holonano.jpg

2025-03-31T17:05:13Z

Tmschin:

Holocellulose

2025-03-29T20:22:55Z

Tmschin: /* Uses */

== Description ==
""Holocellulose"" is defined as the carbohydrate or polysaccharide portion of biomass which is composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Holocellulose is obtained by removing [[lignin]] from said biomass [1]. This is done in a lab, as Holocellulose is not a naturally occurring compound. [2]. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are among the most important compounds found in plant cell walls, and can be used to inform [[decomposition]] and N2O emission rates in [[soil]] [4].

==Composition==
Holocellulose is created following the removal of lignin from biomass, leaving the cellulose and hemicellulose. This is done in a lab, often to separate hemicellulose from lignin [2]. In nature, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose occur together in a form called lignocellulose.
As a collective, lignocellulose can dictate and inform many [[properties]] of the soil. For example, a low lignin content compared to high cellulose and hemicellulose will predict high N2O emission rates and soil carbon decomposition [4].

==Ecological Significance==
Despite Holocellulose not existing in nature, it still may be used to inform soil properties. For example, cellulose and hemicellulose are more available to soil microbes than lignin is. This means that soil with a low lignin content as compared to cellulose and hemicellulose will have a higher decomposition rate. This can also be used to inform microbial biomass, [[soil pH]], soil carbon, Nitrogen retention, and nitrate content [4]. Cellulose and hemicellulose is easier for microbes to break down than lignin, and the resulting catabolism of cellulose and hemicellulose by bacteria and fungi makes energy sources and stored carbon available for soil [[organisms]] [1].

==Uses==
Holocellulose is established within the biofuel, food, and paper industries [1]. Delignification of wood can produce “holo-fibers”, which can be used in certain nanotechnology applications [3].
[[File:Holocellulose_nano.webp|700px|thumb|left|3]]
In some cases, Holocellulose can be used to refer to a high cellulose and hemicellulose content and a low lignin content. It can be even used to refer to the cellulose and hemicellulose content of soil in isolation to lignin. While not technically a correct definition, this “faux holocellulose” can still be used to inform soil carbon decomposition rates as mentioned.

==References==
[1] Segato, F., Damásio, A. R. L., de Lucas, R. C., Squina, F. M., & Prade, R. A. (2014). Genomics Review of Holocellulose Deconstruction by Aspergilli. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews : MMBR, 78(4), 588–613. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00019-14
[2] Holocellulose—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2025, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/holocellulose
[3] Yang, X., & Berglund, L. A. (2021). Structural and Ecofriendly Holocellulose Materials from Wood: Microscale Fibers and Nanoscale Fibrils. Advanced Materials, 33(28), 2001118. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202001118
[4] Wei, J., Reichel, R., Islam, M. S., Wissel, H., Amelung, W., & Brüggemann, N. (2020). Chemical Composition of High Organic Carbon Soil Amendments Affects Fertilizer-Derived N2O Emission and Nitrogen Immobilization in an Oxic Sandy [[Loam]]. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.00015

Holocellulose

2025-03-29T20:22:40Z

Tmschin: /* Uses */

== Description ==
""Holocellulose"" is defined as the carbohydrate or polysaccharide portion of biomass which is composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Holocellulose is obtained by removing [[lignin]] from said biomass [1]. This is done in a lab, as Holocellulose is not a naturally occurring compound. [2]. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are among the most important compounds found in plant cell walls, and can be used to inform [[decomposition]] and N2O emission rates in [[soil]] [4].

==Composition==
Holocellulose is created following the removal of lignin from biomass, leaving the cellulose and hemicellulose. This is done in a lab, often to separate hemicellulose from lignin [2]. In nature, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose occur together in a form called lignocellulose.
As a collective, lignocellulose can dictate and inform many [[properties]] of the soil. For example, a low lignin content compared to high cellulose and hemicellulose will predict high N2O emission rates and soil carbon decomposition [4].

==Ecological Significance==
Despite Holocellulose not existing in nature, it still may be used to inform soil properties. For example, cellulose and hemicellulose are more available to soil microbes than lignin is. This means that soil with a low lignin content as compared to cellulose and hemicellulose will have a higher decomposition rate. This can also be used to inform microbial biomass, [[soil pH]], soil carbon, Nitrogen retention, and nitrate content [4]. Cellulose and hemicellulose is easier for microbes to break down than lignin, and the resulting catabolism of cellulose and hemicellulose by bacteria and fungi makes energy sources and stored carbon available for soil [[organisms]] [1].

==Uses==
Holocellulose is established within the biofuel, food, and paper industries [1]. Delignification of wood can produce “holo-fibers”, which can be used in certain nanotechnology applications [3].
[[File:Holocellulose_nano.webp (file).webp|700px|thumb|left|3]]
In some cases, Holocellulose can be used to refer to a high cellulose and hemicellulose content and a low lignin content. It can be even used to refer to the cellulose and hemicellulose content of soil in isolation to lignin. While not technically a correct definition, this “faux holocellulose” can still be used to inform soil carbon decomposition rates as mentioned.

==References==
[1] Segato, F., Damásio, A. R. L., de Lucas, R. C., Squina, F. M., & Prade, R. A. (2014). Genomics Review of Holocellulose Deconstruction by Aspergilli. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews : MMBR, 78(4), 588–613. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00019-14
[2] Holocellulose—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2025, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/holocellulose
[3] Yang, X., & Berglund, L. A. (2021). Structural and Ecofriendly Holocellulose Materials from Wood: Microscale Fibers and Nanoscale Fibrils. Advanced Materials, 33(28), 2001118. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202001118
[4] Wei, J., Reichel, R., Islam, M. S., Wissel, H., Amelung, W., & Brüggemann, N. (2020). Chemical Composition of High Organic Carbon Soil Amendments Affects Fertilizer-Derived N2O Emission and Nitrogen Immobilization in an Oxic Sandy [[Loam]]. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.00015

Holocellulose

2025-03-29T20:22:27Z

Tmschin: /* Uses */

== Description ==
""Holocellulose"" is defined as the carbohydrate or polysaccharide portion of biomass which is composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Holocellulose is obtained by removing [[lignin]] from said biomass [1]. This is done in a lab, as Holocellulose is not a naturally occurring compound. [2]. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are among the most important compounds found in plant cell walls, and can be used to inform [[decomposition]] and N2O emission rates in [[soil]] [4].

==Composition==
Holocellulose is created following the removal of lignin from biomass, leaving the cellulose and hemicellulose. This is done in a lab, often to separate hemicellulose from lignin [2]. In nature, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose occur together in a form called lignocellulose.
As a collective, lignocellulose can dictate and inform many [[properties]] of the soil. For example, a low lignin content compared to high cellulose and hemicellulose will predict high N2O emission rates and soil carbon decomposition [4].

==Ecological Significance==
Despite Holocellulose not existing in nature, it still may be used to inform soil properties. For example, cellulose and hemicellulose are more available to soil microbes than lignin is. This means that soil with a low lignin content as compared to cellulose and hemicellulose will have a higher decomposition rate. This can also be used to inform microbial biomass, [[soil pH]], soil carbon, Nitrogen retention, and nitrate content [4]. Cellulose and hemicellulose is easier for microbes to break down than lignin, and the resulting catabolism of cellulose and hemicellulose by bacteria and fungi makes energy sources and stored carbon available for soil [[organisms]] [1].

==Uses==
Holocellulose is established within the biofuel, food, and paper industries [1]. Delignification of wood can produce “holo-fibers”, which can be used in certain nanotechnology applications [3].
[[File:Holocellulose nano.webp (file).webp|700px|thumb|left|3]]
In some cases, Holocellulose can be used to refer to a high cellulose and hemicellulose content and a low lignin content. It can be even used to refer to the cellulose and hemicellulose content of soil in isolation to lignin. While not technically a correct definition, this “faux holocellulose” can still be used to inform soil carbon decomposition rates as mentioned.

==References==
[1] Segato, F., Damásio, A. R. L., de Lucas, R. C., Squina, F. M., & Prade, R. A. (2014). Genomics Review of Holocellulose Deconstruction by Aspergilli. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews : MMBR, 78(4), 588–613. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00019-14
[2] Holocellulose—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2025, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/holocellulose
[3] Yang, X., & Berglund, L. A. (2021). Structural and Ecofriendly Holocellulose Materials from Wood: Microscale Fibers and Nanoscale Fibrils. Advanced Materials, 33(28), 2001118. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202001118
[4] Wei, J., Reichel, R., Islam, M. S., Wissel, H., Amelung, W., & Brüggemann, N. (2020). Chemical Composition of High Organic Carbon Soil Amendments Affects Fertilizer-Derived N2O Emission and Nitrogen Immobilization in an Oxic Sandy [[Loam]]. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.00015

Holocellulose

2025-03-29T20:19:05Z

Tmschin: /* Uses */

== Description ==
""Holocellulose"" is defined as the carbohydrate or polysaccharide portion of biomass which is composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Holocellulose is obtained by removing [[lignin]] from said biomass [1]. This is done in a lab, as Holocellulose is not a naturally occurring compound. [2]. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are among the most important compounds found in plant cell walls, and can be used to inform [[decomposition]] and N2O emission rates in [[soil]] [4].

==Composition==
Holocellulose is created following the removal of lignin from biomass, leaving the cellulose and hemicellulose. This is done in a lab, often to separate hemicellulose from lignin [2]. In nature, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose occur together in a form called lignocellulose.
As a collective, lignocellulose can dictate and inform many [[properties]] of the soil. For example, a low lignin content compared to high cellulose and hemicellulose will predict high N2O emission rates and soil carbon decomposition [4].

==Ecological Significance==
Despite Holocellulose not existing in nature, it still may be used to inform soil properties. For example, cellulose and hemicellulose are more available to soil microbes than lignin is. This means that soil with a low lignin content as compared to cellulose and hemicellulose will have a higher decomposition rate. This can also be used to inform microbial biomass, [[soil pH]], soil carbon, Nitrogen retention, and nitrate content [4]. Cellulose and hemicellulose is easier for microbes to break down than lignin, and the resulting catabolism of cellulose and hemicellulose by bacteria and fungi makes energy sources and stored carbon available for soil [[organisms]] [1].

==Uses==
Holocellulose is established within the biofuel, food, and paper industries [1]. Delignification of wood can produce “holo-fibers”, which can be used in certain nanotechnology applications [3].
[[File:Holocellulose_nano.webp|700px|thumb|right|[3]]]
In some cases, Holocellulose can be used to refer to a high cellulose and hemicellulose content and a low lignin content. It can be even used to refer to the cellulose and hemicellulose content of soil in isolation to lignin. While not technically a correct definition, this “faux holocellulose” can still be used to inform soil carbon decomposition rates as mentioned.

==References==
[1] Segato, F., Damásio, A. R. L., de Lucas, R. C., Squina, F. M., & Prade, R. A. (2014). Genomics Review of Holocellulose Deconstruction by Aspergilli. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews : MMBR, 78(4), 588–613. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00019-14
[2] Holocellulose—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2025, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/holocellulose
[3] Yang, X., & Berglund, L. A. (2021). Structural and Ecofriendly Holocellulose Materials from Wood: Microscale Fibers and Nanoscale Fibrils. Advanced Materials, 33(28), 2001118. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202001118
[4] Wei, J., Reichel, R., Islam, M. S., Wissel, H., Amelung, W., & Brüggemann, N. (2020). Chemical Composition of High Organic Carbon Soil Amendments Affects Fertilizer-Derived N2O Emission and Nitrogen Immobilization in an Oxic Sandy [[Loam]]. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.00015

Holocellulose

2025-03-29T20:17:21Z

Tmschin: /* Uses */

== Description ==
""Holocellulose"" is defined as the carbohydrate or polysaccharide portion of biomass which is composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Holocellulose is obtained by removing [[lignin]] from said biomass [1]. This is done in a lab, as Holocellulose is not a naturally occurring compound. [2]. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are among the most important compounds found in plant cell walls, and can be used to inform [[decomposition]] and N2O emission rates in [[soil]] [4].

==Composition==
Holocellulose is created following the removal of lignin from biomass, leaving the cellulose and hemicellulose. This is done in a lab, often to separate hemicellulose from lignin [2]. In nature, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose occur together in a form called lignocellulose.
As a collective, lignocellulose can dictate and inform many [[properties]] of the soil. For example, a low lignin content compared to high cellulose and hemicellulose will predict high N2O emission rates and soil carbon decomposition [4].

==Ecological Significance==
Despite Holocellulose not existing in nature, it still may be used to inform soil properties. For example, cellulose and hemicellulose are more available to soil microbes than lignin is. This means that soil with a low lignin content as compared to cellulose and hemicellulose will have a higher decomposition rate. This can also be used to inform microbial biomass, [[soil pH]], soil carbon, Nitrogen retention, and nitrate content [4]. Cellulose and hemicellulose is easier for microbes to break down than lignin, and the resulting catabolism of cellulose and hemicellulose by bacteria and fungi makes energy sources and stored carbon available for soil [[organisms]] [1].

==Uses==
Holocellulose is established within the biofuel, food, and paper industries [1]. Delignification of wood can produce “holo-fibers”, which can be used in certain nanotechnology applications [3].
[[File:Holocellulose_nano.webp|700px|thumb|left|3]]
In some cases, Holocellulose can be used to refer to a high cellulose and hemicellulose content and a low lignin content. It can be even used to refer to the cellulose and hemicellulose content of soil in isolation to lignin. While not technically a correct definition, this “faux holocellulose” can still be used to inform soil carbon decomposition rates as mentioned.

==References==
[1] Segato, F., Damásio, A. R. L., de Lucas, R. C., Squina, F. M., & Prade, R. A. (2014). Genomics Review of Holocellulose Deconstruction by Aspergilli. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews : MMBR, 78(4), 588–613. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00019-14
[2] Holocellulose—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2025, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/holocellulose
[3] Yang, X., & Berglund, L. A. (2021). Structural and Ecofriendly Holocellulose Materials from Wood: Microscale Fibers and Nanoscale Fibrils. Advanced Materials, 33(28), 2001118. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202001118
[4] Wei, J., Reichel, R., Islam, M. S., Wissel, H., Amelung, W., & Brüggemann, N. (2020). Chemical Composition of High Organic Carbon Soil Amendments Affects Fertilizer-Derived N2O Emission and Nitrogen Immobilization in an Oxic Sandy [[Loam]]. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.00015

Holocellulose

2025-03-29T20:15:05Z

Tmschin: /* Uses */

== Description ==
""Holocellulose"" is defined as the carbohydrate or polysaccharide portion of biomass which is composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Holocellulose is obtained by removing [[lignin]] from said biomass [1]. This is done in a lab, as Holocellulose is not a naturally occurring compound. [2]. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are among the most important compounds found in plant cell walls, and can be used to inform [[decomposition]] and N2O emission rates in [[soil]] [4].

==Composition==
Holocellulose is created following the removal of lignin from biomass, leaving the cellulose and hemicellulose. This is done in a lab, often to separate hemicellulose from lignin [2]. In nature, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose occur together in a form called lignocellulose.
As a collective, lignocellulose can dictate and inform many [[properties]] of the soil. For example, a low lignin content compared to high cellulose and hemicellulose will predict high N2O emission rates and soil carbon decomposition [4].

==Ecological Significance==
Despite Holocellulose not existing in nature, it still may be used to inform soil properties. For example, cellulose and hemicellulose are more available to soil microbes than lignin is. This means that soil with a low lignin content as compared to cellulose and hemicellulose will have a higher decomposition rate. This can also be used to inform microbial biomass, [[soil pH]], soil carbon, Nitrogen retention, and nitrate content [4]. Cellulose and hemicellulose is easier for microbes to break down than lignin, and the resulting catabolism of cellulose and hemicellulose by bacteria and fungi makes energy sources and stored carbon available for soil [[organisms]] [1].

==Uses==
Holocellulose is established within the biofuel, food, and paper industries [1]. Delignification of wood can produce “holo-fibers”, which can be used in certain nanotechnology applications [3].
[[File:Holocellulose_nano.webp|600px|thumb|right|[3]]]
In some cases, Holocellulose can be used to refer to a high cellulose and hemicellulose content and a low lignin content. It can be even used to refer to the cellulose and hemicellulose content of soil in isolation to lignin. While not technically a correct definition, this “faux holocellulose” can still be used to inform soil carbon decomposition rates as mentioned.

==References==
[1] Segato, F., Damásio, A. R. L., de Lucas, R. C., Squina, F. M., & Prade, R. A. (2014). Genomics Review of Holocellulose Deconstruction by Aspergilli. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews : MMBR, 78(4), 588–613. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00019-14
[2] Holocellulose—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2025, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/holocellulose
[3] Yang, X., & Berglund, L. A. (2021). Structural and Ecofriendly Holocellulose Materials from Wood: Microscale Fibers and Nanoscale Fibrils. Advanced Materials, 33(28), 2001118. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202001118
[4] Wei, J., Reichel, R., Islam, M. S., Wissel, H., Amelung, W., & Brüggemann, N. (2020). Chemical Composition of High Organic Carbon Soil Amendments Affects Fertilizer-Derived N2O Emission and Nitrogen Immobilization in an Oxic Sandy [[Loam]]. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.00015

Holocellulose

2025-03-29T20:14:42Z

Tmschin: /* Uses */

== Description ==
""Holocellulose"" is defined as the carbohydrate or polysaccharide portion of biomass which is composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Holocellulose is obtained by removing [[lignin]] from said biomass [1]. This is done in a lab, as Holocellulose is not a naturally occurring compound. [2]. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are among the most important compounds found in plant cell walls, and can be used to inform [[decomposition]] and N2O emission rates in [[soil]] [4].

==Composition==
Holocellulose is created following the removal of lignin from biomass, leaving the cellulose and hemicellulose. This is done in a lab, often to separate hemicellulose from lignin [2]. In nature, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose occur together in a form called lignocellulose.
As a collective, lignocellulose can dictate and inform many [[properties]] of the soil. For example, a low lignin content compared to high cellulose and hemicellulose will predict high N2O emission rates and soil carbon decomposition [4].

==Ecological Significance==
Despite Holocellulose not existing in nature, it still may be used to inform soil properties. For example, cellulose and hemicellulose are more available to soil microbes than lignin is. This means that soil with a low lignin content as compared to cellulose and hemicellulose will have a higher decomposition rate. This can also be used to inform microbial biomass, [[soil pH]], soil carbon, Nitrogen retention, and nitrate content [4]. Cellulose and hemicellulose is easier for microbes to break down than lignin, and the resulting catabolism of cellulose and hemicellulose by bacteria and fungi makes energy sources and stored carbon available for soil [[organisms]] [1].

==Uses==
Holocellulose is established within the biofuel, food, and paper industries [1]. Delignification of wood can produce “holo-fibers”, which can be used in certain nanotechnology applications [3].
[[File:holocellulose_nano.webp|600px|thumb|right|[3]]]
In some cases, Holocellulose can be used to refer to a high cellulose and hemicellulose content and a low lignin content. It can be even used to refer to the cellulose and hemicellulose content of soil in isolation to lignin. While not technically a correct definition, this “faux holocellulose” can still be used to inform soil carbon decomposition rates as mentioned.

==References==
[1] Segato, F., Damásio, A. R. L., de Lucas, R. C., Squina, F. M., & Prade, R. A. (2014). Genomics Review of Holocellulose Deconstruction by Aspergilli. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews : MMBR, 78(4), 588–613. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00019-14
[2] Holocellulose—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2025, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/holocellulose
[3] Yang, X., & Berglund, L. A. (2021). Structural and Ecofriendly Holocellulose Materials from Wood: Microscale Fibers and Nanoscale Fibrils. Advanced Materials, 33(28), 2001118. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202001118
[4] Wei, J., Reichel, R., Islam, M. S., Wissel, H., Amelung, W., & Brüggemann, N. (2020). Chemical Composition of High Organic Carbon Soil Amendments Affects Fertilizer-Derived N2O Emission and Nitrogen Immobilization in an Oxic Sandy [[Loam]]. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.00015

File:Holocellulose nano.webp

2025-03-29T20:12:24Z

Tmschin: [3]

== Summary ==
[3]

Holocellulose

2025-03-29T20:11:24Z

Tmschin: Created page with "== Description == ""Holocellulose"" is defined as the carbohydrate or polysaccharide portion of biomass which is composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Holocellulose is obtained by removing lignin from said biomass [1]. This is done in a lab, as Holocellulose is not a naturally occurring compound. [2]. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are among the most important compounds found in plant cell walls, and can be used to inform decomposition and N2O emission rates in..."

== Description ==
""Holocellulose"" is defined as the carbohydrate or polysaccharide portion of biomass which is composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Holocellulose is obtained by removing [[lignin]] from said biomass [1]. This is done in a lab, as Holocellulose is not a naturally occurring compound. [2]. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are among the most important compounds found in plant cell walls, and can be used to inform [[decomposition]] and N2O emission rates in [[soil]] [4].

==Composition==
Holocellulose is created following the removal of lignin from biomass, leaving the cellulose and hemicellulose. This is done in a lab, often to separate hemicellulose from lignin [2]. In nature, lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose occur together in a form called lignocellulose.
As a collective, lignocellulose can dictate and inform many [[properties]] of the soil. For example, a low lignin content compared to high cellulose and hemicellulose will predict high N2O emission rates and soil carbon decomposition [4].

==Ecological Significance==
Despite Holocellulose not existing in nature, it still may be used to inform soil properties. For example, cellulose and hemicellulose are more available to soil microbes than lignin is. This means that soil with a low lignin content as compared to cellulose and hemicellulose will have a higher decomposition rate. This can also be used to inform microbial biomass, [[soil pH]], soil carbon, Nitrogen retention, and nitrate content [4]. Cellulose and hemicellulose is easier for microbes to break down than lignin, and the resulting catabolism of cellulose and hemicellulose by bacteria and fungi makes energy sources and stored carbon available for soil [[organisms]] [1].

==Uses==
Holocellulose is established within the biofuel, food, and paper industries [1]. Delignification of wood can produce “holo-fibers”, which can be used in certain nanotechnology applications [3].
In some cases, Holocellulose can be used to refer to a high cellulose and hemicellulose content and a low lignin content. It can be even used to refer to the cellulose and hemicellulose content of soil in isolation to lignin. While not technically a correct definition, this “faux holocellulose” can still be used to inform soil carbon decomposition rates as mentioned.

==References==
[1] Segato, F., Damásio, A. R. L., de Lucas, R. C., Squina, F. M., & Prade, R. A. (2014). Genomics Review of Holocellulose Deconstruction by Aspergilli. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews : MMBR, 78(4), 588–613. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00019-14
[2] Holocellulose—An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2025, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/holocellulose
[3] Yang, X., & Berglund, L. A. (2021). Structural and Ecofriendly Holocellulose Materials from Wood: Microscale Fibers and Nanoscale Fibrils. Advanced Materials, 33(28), 2001118. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202001118
[4] Wei, J., Reichel, R., Islam, M. S., Wissel, H., Amelung, W., & Brüggemann, N. (2020). Chemical Composition of High Organic Carbon Soil Amendments Affects Fertilizer-Derived N2O Emission and Nitrogen Immobilization in an Oxic Sandy [[Loam]]. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.00015

Vernal Pools

2025-03-10T20:02:37Z

Tmschin: /* Ecological Importance */

[[File:Vernalseason.jpg|300px|right|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff] Vernal pool changes throughout seasons ]]

==Overview==
Vernal pools are defined as isolated, seasonal wetlands that are characterized by being relatively small, shallow, and ephemeral. These features are filled in the spring by rain and snow melt, and they dry up near the end of summer when evaporation rates and temperatures are at their highest. They resist evaporation the longest when the depressions are lined with thick [[Clay]], which slows the percolation rate of precipitation into the soil. [[#4.|[4]]] These pools form not only near other wetlands, but also in low lying areas with [[Soil Structures|soil structures]] capable of holding water on top of the organic layer, or the [[Humus]] layer, of the [[Soil Horizons]].

These seasonal wetland bodies are vital ecosystems for various [[Organisms]] including but not limited to amphibians, [[Insects]], birds, and crustaceans. Vernal pools have been found on the tops of upland areas, woodlands, and urban areas. The key characteristic that contributes to the importance of these pools is that they are separated from other water bodies. Vernal pools are distinct, temporary wetland ecosystems due to their seasonal nature and isolation. [[#13.|[13]]]

==Formation==

In order for vernal pools to form, many factors must align. The topography, water table (in some cases), soil history, and [[Soil processes]] all have to be just right before a vernal pool will take shape. Most vernal pools occur only in the Western and Northeastern Regions of the United States. They will form however in many parts of Canada, and many other Mediterranean or Subtropical regions on earth. [[#14.|[14]]]

Most believe that the water table in a region is the sole reason behind vernal pool formation, but this is not the case. Although the water table in an area can be extremely important in vernal pool formation. If the area has a higher water table, vernal pool formation will be promoted because water is more likely to pool up on the surface in the spring months and create vernal pools; This is common in wetland areas and near stream beds. However, the water table does not have to be high in order for a vernal pool to form. Vernal pools can form due to the rock below and holding runoff in an area, creating a suspended water table or a lower infiltration rate in that area. [[#14.|[14]]]

[[File:GlacialVernalPool.jpg|275px|left|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff.] Glacial vernal pool formation]]

The soil is often the promoting factor causing vernal pools to form. Areas that promote vernal pool formation are or were affected by ''glacial action'', ''floodplains'', ''sag ponds'', and even areas with ''human activity''. ''Floodplains'' are common areas for vernal pools because during periods of high water or flooding, water pockets fill and remain full for a short period of time. This is most common in the spring during high periods of snow melt and rain. If there is a hard clay based layer in the soil, that will also assist in keeping the water pooled on top.

Areas that have been affected by ''glacial action'' often result in vernal pools. Glaciers create many depressions, scrapes, scours, and erosion in areas where they travel or melt away. The topography of the Northeastern United States and Canada was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet that covered the area from 11,700-2.6 MYA. These features left behind after glacier retreat can fill with precipitation resulting in ephemeral pools. A ''sag pond'' is created when there is an underlying rock susceptible to weathering. When the rock under the soil weathers, a depression will form in the soil above to fill the void of non-existent rock. This creates an area where water can collect and remain, retained by the remaining rock below the soil.

==Ecological Importance==
[[File:Vernalpoolwildflowers.jpg|250px|right|thumb| [https://www.tes.com/lessons/w4CKexdQnEoeAA/science] A community of wildflowers surrounding an ephemeral wetland]]

Vernal pools provide an ideal habitat for many insects, amphibians, and plants; although their lifespan before drying out may be short. The main advantage they have over other bodies of water is the lack of predatory aquatic species. Additionally, many birds will use larger vernal pools as seasonal water sources and migratory landing areas. Although much of the ecological importance tied to vernal pools is due to the overwhelming amount of [[biodiversity interactions]] in the systems, including rare [[invertebrates]], crustaceans, [[insects]], and plant species.

Various plant communities also play an important role in the vernal pool's sub-ecosystem. In the spring-time, wildflowers often bloom in circular patterns along the shoreline, and by time summer ends they're replaced with dry, cracked soil. [[#12.|[12]]] Plant species found in vernal pools are adapted to the high desiccation rate and stressful conditions present in the pools. These miniature wetlands thrive during and preceding the rainy season, with some staying dried for up to six months. [[#8.|[8]]] Some rare (and endangered) plant species that thrive in vernal pools are, '''Shumard's Oak''', '''Raven's-foot Sedge''', '''Squarrose Sedge''', and '''False Hop Sedge'''. [[#11.|[11]]] Some species that depend on vernal pools are, [[Tiger Salamander]], [[anostraca]], and specifically female bees of the genus ''Andrena''. [[#6.|[6]]]

[[File:FrogEggs.jpg|275px|thumb|right| [https://www.friendsofsligocreek.org/vernal-pools/]

Amphibian eggs covered in algae, found in a vernal pool of Sligo Creek Park]]

The hydrologic cycle of vernal pools is one of the key aspects making animal life in the pools so specific. This includes the time of inundation, size, depth change, evapotranspiration, and [[Water Behavior in Soils]]. Factors like water temperature, [[Soil]] chemistry, surrounding habitats, and [[Biodiversity interactions]] are what allows the wetlands to return annually. Many species that are found here will carry out their first few life stages and leave; others will stay put after the water evaporates. Fairy shrimp eggs can be laid as cysts for decades before they are exposed to a water source. These crustaceans will live typically for only a few months after they hatch because of natural reasons, including desiccation. [[#11.|[11]]]

==Declining Habitat==

Unfortunately, vernal pools have been in a state of decline since industrialization has become more frequent. Some of the earliest restoration efforts were made in 1980 by the Nature Conservancy, whose members started to buy areas in California containing the pools in order to preserve them.[[#2.|[2]]] Conservation efforts are difficult because of the ephemeral characteristic of the wetlands and the lack of education surrounding them.

Directly correlated with the rule of humans on Earth, vernal pools are in a serious decline. This poses a significant problem for many species that are entirely dependent on vernal pools for survival. Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems due of their biodiversity and [[ecosystem services]], vernal pools should not be excluded from this classification under wetlands. The biggest issue facing these sub ecosystems is development and destruction of forests, where most vernal pools can be located. Most real estate developers consider them to be obstacles in the development process; so regulation has been put into place in some areas that require fees to be paid in order to get a permit to build on these sites.[[#1.|[1]]] Vernal pools are abundant in forests in the Northeast and Western states, and when the forests are destroyed for human use, the vernal pools are ultimately succumbed as well. From 1800 to 2018, forest coverage in Michigan alone dropped from 89% to 45% and is continually approaching a lower percentage.[[#11.|[11]]]

Climate change has already shown affects on vernal pools in places like North Carolina[[#9.|[9]]], California[[#3.|[3]]] and others. With increasing temperatures and overall less precipitation, the pools will not get a chance to (i) properly form (ii) stay for over one season and (iii) support the soil [[Animals]] and microfauna that depend on these features for habitat.

===Lack of Research===
Vernal pools are not extensively studied, and as a result, humans are unintentionally destroying these important habitats. Research can help and may be the strongest advocate for these pools by demonstrating their ecological significance. Studying and researching all aspect of vernal pools is a necessity for their future conservation and restoration. Without the research, vernal pools will continue to face a serious decline, resulting in endangerment or extinction of fauna, plants, and natural services provided.

[[File: ArtificialPool.jpg|315px|right|thumb| [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/] A completed vernal pool restoration project ]]

===Restoration===
Beyond the efforts of lawmakers charging fees for building, some restoration ecologists are designing faux (man-made) vernal pools to mitigate impacts of the disappearing, naturally occurring ones. There is an adaptive management approach associated with man-made vernal pools, as there is no way to ensure proper working condition until they go through a subjective trial-and-error phase. These man-made pools are considered a last resort once the elimination of a natural pool becomes unavoidable.[[#5.|[5]]]

Documented projects and monitoring show that amphibian reproduction is severely inhibited and almost non-existent. The created wetlands tend to be more permanent than ephemeral, exposing larvae and breeders to more predators over time.[[#5.|[5]]] The improper hydrological regime in designed pools can be directly attributed to the failure of reproductive success with amphibians and other vernal pool breeders.[[#7.|[7]]]

==References==
1. Adams, Jill U. “Pooling Resources.” Science, vol. 350, no. 6256, 2 Oct. 2015, pp. 26–28., doi:10.1126/science.350.6256.26. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/350/6256/26]

2. Baskin, Yvonne. "California's ephemeral vernal pools may be a good model for speciation." BioScience, vol. 44, no. 6, 1994, p. 384+. Science In Context, http://link.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/apps/doc/A15536169/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&sid=SCIC&xid=203d3f61. [http://go.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=Journals&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=MultiTab&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CA15536169&docType=Article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZXBE-MOD1&prodId=SCIC&contentSet=GALE%7CA15536169&searchId=R2&userGroupName=sunybuff_main&inPS=true#]

3. Bauder, Ellen T. "Inundation effects on small-scale plant distributions in San Diego, California vernal pools." Aquatic [[Ecology]] 34.1 (2000): 43-61. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1009916202321]

4. Brown, Kathryn S. “Vanishing Pools Taking Species With Them.” Science, vol. 281, no. 5377, 1998, p. 626., doi:10.1126/science.281.5377.626a. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/281/5377/626.1]

5. Calhoun, A. J. K., et al. “Creating Successful Vernal Pools: A Literature Review and Advice for Practitioners.” Wetlands, vol. 34, no. 5, 17 July 2014, pp. 1027–1038., doi:10.1007/s13157-014-0556-8. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13157-014-0556-8#citeas]

6. “California Vernal Pools.” VernalPool.Org - Plants & Animals of Vernal Pools, [https://www.vernalpool.org/]

7. Denton, Robert D., and Stephen C. Richter. “Amphibian Communities in Natural and Constructed Ridge Top Wetlands with Implications for Wetland Construction.” The Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 77, no. 5, 2013, pp. 886–896., doi:10.1002/jwmg.543. [https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1002%2Fjwmg.543]

8. Hocking, Daniel J. “Creating Vernal Pools.” Daniel J. Hocking, 22 July 2014, danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/. [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/]

9. Montrone, Ashton, et al. “Climate Change Impacts on Vernal Pool Hydrology and Vegetation in Northern California.” Journal of Hydrology, 27 Apr. 2019, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.04.076. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169419304172]

10. Murtagh, Ed. “Vernal Pools.” Friends of Sligo Creek, Takoma Park Newsletter, Aug. 2004. [https://www.friendsofsligocreek.org/vernal-pools/]

11. Thomas, S.A., Y. Lee, M. A. Kost, & D. A. Albert. 2010. Abstract for vernal pool. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Lansing, MI. 24 pp [https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/abstracts/ecology/vernal_pool.pdf]

12. “Vernal Pools.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 6 July 2018, accessed 4 May 2019. [https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/vernal-pools]

13. “Vernal Pools.” Vernal Pools Animals, www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx. [https://www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx]

14. “Vernal Pool EarthCache.” GC2G67F Diamond Head Crater (Earthcache) in Hawaii, United States Created by Martin 5. [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff]

Vernal Pools

2025-03-10T20:01:11Z

Tmschin: /* Formation */

[[File:Vernalseason.jpg|300px|right|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff] Vernal pool changes throughout seasons ]]

==Overview==
Vernal pools are defined as isolated, seasonal wetlands that are characterized by being relatively small, shallow, and ephemeral. These features are filled in the spring by rain and snow melt, and they dry up near the end of summer when evaporation rates and temperatures are at their highest. They resist evaporation the longest when the depressions are lined with thick [[Clay]], which slows the percolation rate of precipitation into the soil. [[#4.|[4]]] These pools form not only near other wetlands, but also in low lying areas with [[Soil Structures|soil structures]] capable of holding water on top of the organic layer, or the [[Humus]] layer, of the [[Soil Horizons]].

These seasonal wetland bodies are vital ecosystems for various [[Organisms]] including but not limited to amphibians, [[Insects]], birds, and crustaceans. Vernal pools have been found on the tops of upland areas, woodlands, and urban areas. The key characteristic that contributes to the importance of these pools is that they are separated from other water bodies. Vernal pools are distinct, temporary wetland ecosystems due to their seasonal nature and isolation. [[#13.|[13]]]

==Formation==

In order for vernal pools to form, many factors must align. The topography, water table (in some cases), soil history, and [[Soil processes]] all have to be just right before a vernal pool will take shape. Most vernal pools occur only in the Western and Northeastern Regions of the United States. They will form however in many parts of Canada, and many other Mediterranean or Subtropical regions on earth. [[#14.|[14]]]

Most believe that the water table in a region is the sole reason behind vernal pool formation, but this is not the case. Although the water table in an area can be extremely important in vernal pool formation. If the area has a higher water table, vernal pool formation will be promoted because water is more likely to pool up on the surface in the spring months and create vernal pools; This is common in wetland areas and near stream beds. However, the water table does not have to be high in order for a vernal pool to form. Vernal pools can form due to the rock below and holding runoff in an area, creating a suspended water table or a lower infiltration rate in that area. [[#14.|[14]]]

[[File:GlacialVernalPool.jpg|275px|left|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff.] Glacial vernal pool formation]]

The soil is often the promoting factor causing vernal pools to form. Areas that promote vernal pool formation are or were affected by ''glacial action'', ''floodplains'', ''sag ponds'', and even areas with ''human activity''. ''Floodplains'' are common areas for vernal pools because during periods of high water or flooding, water pockets fill and remain full for a short period of time. This is most common in the spring during high periods of snow melt and rain. If there is a hard clay based layer in the soil, that will also assist in keeping the water pooled on top.

Areas that have been affected by ''glacial action'' often result in vernal pools. Glaciers create many depressions, scrapes, scours, and erosion in areas where they travel or melt away. The topography of the Northeastern United States and Canada was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet that covered the area from 11,700-2.6 MYA. These features left behind after glacier retreat can fill with precipitation resulting in ephemeral pools. A ''sag pond'' is created when there is an underlying rock susceptible to weathering. When the rock under the soil weathers, a depression will form in the soil above to fill the void of non-existent rock. This creates an area where water can collect and remain, retained by the remaining rock below the soil.

==Ecological Importance==
[[File:Vernalpoolwildflowers.jpg|250px|right|thumb| [https://www.tes.com/lessons/w4CKexdQnEoeAA/science] A community of wildflowers surrounding an ephemeral wetland]]

Vernal pools provide an ideal habitat for many insects, amphibians, and plants; although their lifespan before drying out may be short. The main advantage they have over other bodies of water is the lack of predatory aquatic species. Additionally, many birds will use larger vernal pools as seasonal water sources and migratory landing areas. Although much of the ecological importance tied to vernal pools is due to the overwhelming amount of [[biodiversity interactions]] in the systems, including rare [[invertebrates]], crustaceans, [[insects]], and plant species.

Various plant communities also play an important role in the vernal pool's sub-ecosystem. In the spring-time, wildflowers often bloom in circular patterns along the shoreline, and by time summer ends they're replaced with dry, cracked soil. [[#12.|[12]]] Plant species found in vernal pools are adapted to the high desiccation rate and stressful conditions present in the pools. These miniature wetlands thrive during and preceding the rainy season, with some staying dried for up to six months. [[#8.|[8]]] Some rare (and endangered) plant species that thrive in vernal pools are, '''Shumard's Oak''', '''Raven's-foot Sedge''', '''Squarrose Sedge''', and '''False Hop Sedge'''. [[#11.|[11]]] Some species that depend on vernal pools are, [[Tiger Salamander]], fairy Shrimp, and specifically female bees of the genus ''Andrena''. [[#6.|[6]]]

[[File:FrogEggs.jpg|275px|thumb|right| [https://www.friendsofsligocreek.org/vernal-pools/]

Amphibian eggs covered in algae, found in a vernal pool of Sligo Creek Park]]

The hydrologic cycle of vernal pools is one of the key aspects making animal life in the pools so specific. This includes the time of inundation, size, depth change, evapotranspiration, and [[Water Behavior in Soils]]. Factors like water temperature, [[Soil]] chemistry, surrounding habitats, and [[Biodiversity interactions]] are what allows the wetlands to return annually. Many species that are found here will carry out their first few life stages and leave; others will stay put after the water evaporates. Fairy shrimp eggs can be laid as cysts for decades before they are exposed to a water source. These crustaceans will live typically for only a few months after they hatch because of natural reasons, including desiccation. [[#11.|[11]]]

==Declining Habitat==

Unfortunately, vernal pools have been in a state of decline since industrialization has become more frequent. Some of the earliest restoration efforts were made in 1980 by the Nature Conservancy, whose members started to buy areas in California containing the pools in order to preserve them.[[#2.|[2]]] Conservation efforts are difficult because of the ephemeral characteristic of the wetlands and the lack of education surrounding them.

Directly correlated with the rule of humans on Earth, vernal pools are in a serious decline. This poses a significant problem for many species that are entirely dependent on vernal pools for survival. Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems due of their biodiversity and [[ecosystem services]], vernal pools should not be excluded from this classification under wetlands. The biggest issue facing these sub ecosystems is development and destruction of forests, where most vernal pools can be located. Most real estate developers consider them to be obstacles in the development process; so regulation has been put into place in some areas that require fees to be paid in order to get a permit to build on these sites.[[#1.|[1]]] Vernal pools are abundant in forests in the Northeast and Western states, and when the forests are destroyed for human use, the vernal pools are ultimately succumbed as well. From 1800 to 2018, forest coverage in Michigan alone dropped from 89% to 45% and is continually approaching a lower percentage.[[#11.|[11]]]

Climate change has already shown affects on vernal pools in places like North Carolina[[#9.|[9]]], California[[#3.|[3]]] and others. With increasing temperatures and overall less precipitation, the pools will not get a chance to (i) properly form (ii) stay for over one season and (iii) support the soil [[Animals]] and microfauna that depend on these features for habitat.

===Lack of Research===
Vernal pools are not extensively studied, and as a result, humans are unintentionally destroying these important habitats. Research can help and may be the strongest advocate for these pools by demonstrating their ecological significance. Studying and researching all aspect of vernal pools is a necessity for their future conservation and restoration. Without the research, vernal pools will continue to face a serious decline, resulting in endangerment or extinction of fauna, plants, and natural services provided.

[[File: ArtificialPool.jpg|315px|right|thumb| [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/] A completed vernal pool restoration project ]]

===Restoration===
Beyond the efforts of lawmakers charging fees for building, some restoration ecologists are designing faux (man-made) vernal pools to mitigate impacts of the disappearing, naturally occurring ones. There is an adaptive management approach associated with man-made vernal pools, as there is no way to ensure proper working condition until they go through a subjective trial-and-error phase. These man-made pools are considered a last resort once the elimination of a natural pool becomes unavoidable.[[#5.|[5]]]

Documented projects and monitoring show that amphibian reproduction is severely inhibited and almost non-existent. The created wetlands tend to be more permanent than ephemeral, exposing larvae and breeders to more predators over time.[[#5.|[5]]] The improper hydrological regime in designed pools can be directly attributed to the failure of reproductive success with amphibians and other vernal pool breeders.[[#7.|[7]]]

==References==
1. Adams, Jill U. “Pooling Resources.” Science, vol. 350, no. 6256, 2 Oct. 2015, pp. 26–28., doi:10.1126/science.350.6256.26. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/350/6256/26]

2. Baskin, Yvonne. "California's ephemeral vernal pools may be a good model for speciation." BioScience, vol. 44, no. 6, 1994, p. 384+. Science In Context, http://link.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/apps/doc/A15536169/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&sid=SCIC&xid=203d3f61. [http://go.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=Journals&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=MultiTab&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CA15536169&docType=Article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZXBE-MOD1&prodId=SCIC&contentSet=GALE%7CA15536169&searchId=R2&userGroupName=sunybuff_main&inPS=true#]

3. Bauder, Ellen T. "Inundation effects on small-scale plant distributions in San Diego, California vernal pools." Aquatic [[Ecology]] 34.1 (2000): 43-61. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1009916202321]

4. Brown, Kathryn S. “Vanishing Pools Taking Species With Them.” Science, vol. 281, no. 5377, 1998, p. 626., doi:10.1126/science.281.5377.626a. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/281/5377/626.1]

5. Calhoun, A. J. K., et al. “Creating Successful Vernal Pools: A Literature Review and Advice for Practitioners.” Wetlands, vol. 34, no. 5, 17 July 2014, pp. 1027–1038., doi:10.1007/s13157-014-0556-8. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13157-014-0556-8#citeas]

6. “California Vernal Pools.” VernalPool.Org - Plants & Animals of Vernal Pools, [https://www.vernalpool.org/]

7. Denton, Robert D., and Stephen C. Richter. “Amphibian Communities in Natural and Constructed Ridge Top Wetlands with Implications for Wetland Construction.” The Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 77, no. 5, 2013, pp. 886–896., doi:10.1002/jwmg.543. [https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1002%2Fjwmg.543]

8. Hocking, Daniel J. “Creating Vernal Pools.” Daniel J. Hocking, 22 July 2014, danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/. [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/]

9. Montrone, Ashton, et al. “Climate Change Impacts on Vernal Pool Hydrology and Vegetation in Northern California.” Journal of Hydrology, 27 Apr. 2019, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.04.076. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169419304172]

10. Murtagh, Ed. “Vernal Pools.” Friends of Sligo Creek, Takoma Park Newsletter, Aug. 2004. [https://www.friendsofsligocreek.org/vernal-pools/]

11. Thomas, S.A., Y. Lee, M. A. Kost, & D. A. Albert. 2010. Abstract for vernal pool. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Lansing, MI. 24 pp [https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/abstracts/ecology/vernal_pool.pdf]

12. “Vernal Pools.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 6 July 2018, accessed 4 May 2019. [https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/vernal-pools]

13. “Vernal Pools.” Vernal Pools Animals, www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx. [https://www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx]

14. “Vernal Pool EarthCache.” GC2G67F Diamond Head Crater (Earthcache) in Hawaii, United States Created by Martin 5. [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff]

Anostraca

2025-03-04T16:07:35Z

Tmschin: /* Families */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[Vernal Pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal typically measures anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may reach almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. Each segment houses a pair of legs. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body contain specialized appendages for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen has 6 segments which do not contain appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods.

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim by moving their phyllopodia (leg like appendages on the thorax segments). When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces, pressing said ventral side against the food source [5].

Fairy shrimp are characterized by their ability to enter diapause, which is a state of dormancy where all growth and metabolism pause, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming difficult environmental conditions. The Fairy shrimp cyst can withstand conditions anywhere from UV radiation, to droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, and even the vacuum of space. Diapause is also how fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats. This movement is facilitated by a variety of conditions such as predators, wind, and currents within water as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as fish food and food for other [[organisms]] in aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fish, and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores then transported while dry. Following transportation, they hatch when submerged in water. This is a large industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T16:07:06Z

Tmschin: /* Environmental Impact */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[Vernal Pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

===Families===
Families of the Anostraca Order are:
Artemiidae, Branchinectidae, Branchipodidae, Chirocephalidae, Parartemiidae, Streptocrphalidae, Tanymastigidae, and Thamnocephalidae

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal typically measures anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may reach almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. Each segment houses a pair of legs. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body contain specialized appendages for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen has 6 segments which do not contain appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods.

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim by moving their phyllopodia (leg like appendages on the thorax segments). When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces, pressing said ventral side against the food source [5].

Fairy shrimp are characterized by their ability to enter diapause, which is a state of dormancy where all growth and metabolism pause, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming difficult environmental conditions. The Fairy shrimp cyst can withstand conditions anywhere from UV radiation, to droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, and even the vacuum of space. Diapause is also how fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats. This movement is facilitated by a variety of conditions such as predators, wind, and currents within water as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as fish food and food for other [[organisms]] in aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fish, and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores then transported while dry. Following transportation, they hatch when submerged in water. This is a large industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T16:03:20Z

Tmschin: /* Ecology */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[Vernal Pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

===Families===
Families of the Anostraca Order are:
Artemiidae, Branchinectidae, Branchipodidae, Chirocephalidae, Parartemiidae, Streptocrphalidae, Tanymastigidae, and Thamnocephalidae

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal typically measures anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may reach almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. Each segment houses a pair of legs. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body contain specialized appendages for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen has 6 segments which do not contain appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods.

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim by moving their phyllopodia (leg like appendages on the thorax segments). When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces, pressing said ventral side against the food source [5].

Fairy shrimp are characterized by their ability to enter diapause, which is a state of dormancy where all growth and metabolism pause, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming difficult environmental conditions. The Fairy shrimp cyst can withstand conditions anywhere from UV radiation, to droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, and even the vacuum of space. Diapause is also how fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats. This movement is facilitated by a variety of conditions such as predators, wind, and currents within water as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:56:49Z

Tmschin: /* Thorax and Abdomen */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[Vernal Pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

===Families===
Families of the Anostraca Order are:
Artemiidae, Branchinectidae, Branchipodidae, Chirocephalidae, Parartemiidae, Streptocrphalidae, Tanymastigidae, and Thamnocephalidae

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal typically measures anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may reach almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. Each segment houses a pair of legs. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body contain specialized appendages for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen has 6 segments which do not contain appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods.

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:52:35Z

Tmschin: /* Head */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[Vernal Pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

===Families===
Families of the Anostraca Order are:
Artemiidae, Branchinectidae, Branchipodidae, Chirocephalidae, Parartemiidae, Streptocrphalidae, Tanymastigidae, and Thamnocephalidae

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal typically measures anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may reach almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [11].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:50:49Z

Tmschin: /* Families */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[Vernal Pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

===Families===
Families of the Anostraca Order are:
Artemiidae, Branchinectidae, Branchipodidae, Chirocephalidae, Parartemiidae, Streptocrphalidae, Tanymastigidae, and Thamnocephalidae

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal typically measures anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may reach almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [11].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:50:35Z

Tmschin: /* Families */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[Vernal Pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

===Families===
Families of the Anostraca Order are:
Artemiidae, Branchinectidae, Branchipodidae, Chirocephalidae, Parartemiidae, Streptocrphalidae, Tanymastigidae, Thamnocephalidae

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal typically measures anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may reach almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [11].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:50:04Z

Tmschin: /* Taxonomy */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[Vernal Pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

===Families===
Families of the Anostraca Order are:
Artemiidae
Branchinectidae
Branchipodidae
Chirocephalidae
Parartemiidae
Streptocrphalidae
Tanymastigidae
Thamnocephalidae

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal typically measures anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may reach almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [11].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:47:09Z

Tmschin: /* Description */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[Vernal Pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal typically measures anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may reach almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [11].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:43:29Z

Tmschin:

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[Vernal Pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [11].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:43:04Z

Tmschin:

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in Vernal Pools and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [11].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:42:24Z

Tmschin:

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [11].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:34:48Z

Tmschin: /* Sexual Dimorphism */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [11].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:34:13Z

Tmschin:

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [11].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [11]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:31:47Z

Tmschin: /* Description */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [11]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [11].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [11].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:08:54Z

Tmschin: /* Description */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [11]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [11].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [11].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:07:34Z

Tmschin: /* Diversity */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [11]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [11].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [11].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:05:47Z

Tmschin: /* Feeding */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [11]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [11].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:04:32Z

Tmschin: /* Distribution and Habitat */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [11]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Most anostracans feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to filter feed organic particles from the water. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [11].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:01:40Z

Tmschin: /* Feeding */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [11].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Most anostracans feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to filter feed organic particles from the water. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [11].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:01:31Z

Tmschin: /* Ecology */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [11].

==Feeding==
Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Most anostracans feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to filter feed organic particles from the water. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [11].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T15:01:05Z

Tmschin: /* Ecology */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

==Ecology==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [11].

==Feeding==
Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Most anostracans feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to filter feed organic particles from the water. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [11].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T14:53:22Z

Tmschin: /* Feeding */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

==Ecology==

Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators.

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Feeding==
Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Most anostracans feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to filter feed organic particles from the water. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [11].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T14:51:20Z

Tmschin: /* Feeding */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

==Ecology==

Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators.

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Feeding==
Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Most anostracans feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to filter feed organic particles from the water.

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T14:48:57Z

Tmschin: /* Thorax and Abdomen */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax, depending on the species [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

==Ecology==

Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators.

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Feeding==
Different anostraca species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Most anostracans feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to filter feed organic particles from the water.

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T14:47:16Z

Tmschin: /* Sexual Dimorphism */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12].

==Ecology==

Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators.

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Feeding==
Different anostraca species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Most anostracans feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to filter feed organic particles from the water.

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T14:46:45Z

Tmschin: /* Description */

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods. Anostraca can be found with 10, 11, 17, or 19 pairs of legs across their thorax [12].

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [12]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [12]. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages.

==Ecology==

Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators.

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Feeding==
Different anostraca species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Most anostracans feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to filter feed organic particles from the water.

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T14:31:14Z

Tmschin:

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods.

==Ecology==

Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators.

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Feeding==
Different anostraca species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Most anostracans feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to filter feed organic particles from the water.

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Anostraca

2025-03-04T14:26:28Z

Tmschin:

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the members of this order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[vernal ponds]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts) as well as deserts and colder regions such as ice covered mountains. They are an important food source for many birds and fish, and some are cultured and harvested for fish food in many regions. There are 300 species spread across 8 families.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and divided into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The whole animal can measure anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may not reach sexual maturity until they are 2 inches (50mm) long with the ability to grow up to almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp are distinct from the thorax in that the head possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body are fused together and the appendages are then specialized for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen is comprised of 6 segments without appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods.

==Ecology==

Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators.

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Anostracans swim gracefully by moving their phyllopodia which are connected to their body segments. When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape algae and other organic materials from solid surfaces. To do this, they turn to have their ventral side against the food surface [5].

Fairy shrimp have the ability to enter diapause, which is a state of biological dormancy where growth and metabolism are arrested, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming adverse environmental conditions. Once a Fairy shrimp becomes dormant, these cysts can withstand conditions as harsh and diverse as droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, complete desiccation, exposure to UV radiation, and the vacuum of space. Diapause is also the best way for the fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats—facilitated by a variety of conditions including wind, predators, and currents as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Feeding==
Different anostraca species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Most anostracans feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to filter feed organic particles from the water.

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as food for fish and other [[organisms]] in aquaria and aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fishes and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores and then stored and transported dry. After transportation, they hatch readily when submerged in salt water. This is a multimillion-dollar industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay in California; adults are collected from Mono Lake and transported frozen [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Luc Brendonck (2007). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater", Accessed March 3 2025, ResearchGate. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8259-7_18

[12] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029