https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Teresato 2026-04-08T14:28:59Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.43.0 https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=7296 2021-05-11T13:25:12Z

<p>Teresato: /* Scientific Classification */</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|''Figure 1: New Zealand Flatworm.'' [11]]]''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. There is no documented impacts of ''A. triangulates'' in its native range of New Zealand.<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|left|''Figure 2: Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm.'' [10]]] <br /> <br /> [[{{Taxonomy<br /> | common_name = New Zealand Flatworm<br /> | kingdom = Metazoa<br /> | phylum = Platyhelminthes<br /> | class = Turbellaria<br /> | order = Tricladida<br /> | family = Geoplanidae<br /> | genus = ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> | species = ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> }}]]<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that can be used to protect the flatworm from desiccation [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule, shown in figure 2, that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6].<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> <br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This sepcies uses secreted muscus to assist with the digestion of the [[earthworm]]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil fertility]].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=7295 2021-05-11T13:24:50Z

<p>Teresato: /* Scientific Classification */</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|''Figure 1: New Zealand Flatworm.'' [11]]]''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. There is no documented impacts of ''A. triangulates'' in its native range of New Zealand.<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|left|''Figure 2: Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm.'' [10]]] <br /> <br /> {{Taxonomy<br /> | common_name = New Zealand Flatworm<br /> | kingdom = Metazoa<br /> | phylum = Platyhelminthes<br /> | class = Turbellaria<br /> | order = Tricladida<br /> | family = Geoplanidae<br /> | genus = ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> | species = ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> |top}}<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that can be used to protect the flatworm from desiccation [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule, shown in figure 2, that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6].<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> <br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This sepcies uses secreted muscus to assist with the digestion of the [[earthworm]]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil fertility]].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=7294 2021-05-11T13:22:25Z

<p>Teresato: /* Scientific Classification */</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|''Figure 1: New Zealand Flatworm.'' [11]]]''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. There is no documented impacts of ''A. triangulates'' in its native range of New Zealand.<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|left|''Figure 2: Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm.'' [10]]] <br /> <br /> {{Taxonomy<br /> | common_name = New Zealand Flatworm<br /> | kingdom = Metazoa<br /> | phylum = Platyhelminthes<br /> | class = Turbellaria<br /> | order = Tricladida<br /> | family = Geoplanidae<br /> | genus = ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> | species = ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> |center|}}<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that can be used to protect the flatworm from desiccation [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule, shown in figure 2, that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6].<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> <br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This sepcies uses secreted muscus to assist with the digestion of the [[earthworm]]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil fertility]].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=7293 2021-05-11T13:21:50Z

<p>Teresato: /* Scientific Classification */</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|''Figure 1: New Zealand Flatworm.'' [11]]]''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. There is no documented impacts of ''A. triangulates'' in its native range of New Zealand.<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|left|''Figure 2: Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm.'' [10]]] <br /> <br /> {{Taxonomy<br /> | common_name = New Zealand Flatworm<br /> | kingdom = Metazoa<br /> | phylum = Platyhelminthes<br /> | class = Turbellaria<br /> | order = Tricladida<br /> | family = Geoplanidae<br /> | genus = ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> | species = ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> }}<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that can be used to protect the flatworm from desiccation [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule, shown in figure 2, that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6].<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> <br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This sepcies uses secreted muscus to assist with the digestion of the [[earthworm]]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil fertility]].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Diazotrophs&diff=7292 2021-05-11T13:14:12Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>Diazotrophs are a group of [[prokaryotic organisms]] with the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium or ammonia, forms usable to plants. (4) There are two types of terrestrial diazotrophs: those free living in the [[soil]], and those that form [[symbiotic relationships]] with plants. <br /> <br /> [[File:nitrogen cycle.jpg|thumb|right|400px|This photo depicts the complete [[nitrogen cycle]]. The diazotrophs are the organisms labeled &quot;nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of legumes&quot; and &quot;nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria&quot; [8].]]<br /> <br /> Nitrogen makes up the majority of the Earth’s atmosphere, but is mostly found in a form unusable to [[organisms]]. Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is found as two nitrogen atoms held together by a triple bond. In this form, nitrogen is inaccessible. Diazotrophs have the ability to split, or “fix” these bonds, freeing the nitrogen molecules. This is crucial to the Earth's ecosystem. Nitrogen lost to anaerobic ammonium oxidation and denitrification need to be replenished to maintain the right amount of biologically available nitrogen in the soil. (3)<br /> <br /> The ''nif''H gene is used as an indicator of a diazotroph. It is a gene that encodes for the enzyme that is needed for the reduction of nitrogen, nitrogenase. Oxygen is harmful for this enzyme, so diazotrophs find ways to protect this. They often live in anaerobic environments, including in the roots of a plant or in soils.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The ''nif''H gene==<br /> Diazotrophs are a group of organisms made up of [[Proteobacterias]], [[Cyanobacterias]], and [[Archeans]]. Nitrogen fixing organisms are very diverse, both physiologically and phylogenetically. The ''nif''H gene is used as a biomarker to identify diazotrophs. (3) The ''nif''H gene encodes for the enzyme nitrogenase reductase, which facilitates the reduction of nitrogen. This gene is the only one currently being used to identify nitrogen fixing organisms, but the presence of other nitrogen fixing systems in some organisms and multiple copies of the genes within other organisms suggests that it is not always an absolute marker of a diazotroph. (5)<br /> <br /> == Free Living Diazotrophs ==<br /> Free living diazotrophs are nitrogen fixing organisms that live directly in the soil. They are able to fix nitrogen by using a nitrogenase protein, which is able to break nitrogen bonding. 16 molecules of ATP, plus 8 reducing equivalents, are required to reduce one molecule of atmospheric nitrogen gas.[4] This is a huge energy investment by the diazotroph. The energy investment needed increases in aerobic areas, because soil dwelling nitrogen fixers need to use a lot of energy to protect their nitrogenase from oxygen's damaging effects. (2) The least costly method of nitrogen fixation for free living diazotrophs is in microaerophilic environments, where there is enough oxygen for the bacteria to breathe, but not enough to harm their nitrogenase enzymes. <br /> <br /> ===The Rhizosphere===<br /> There are greater populations of diazotrophs found in the [[rhizosphere]] than there are found in bulk soil. This is hypothesized to be due to the fact that, during the vegetation period, the amount of amino acids released by plants does not have sufficient amounts of nitrogen to support the microbial life. This can give diazotrophs an advantage, as they are able to fix their own nitrogen. (5)<br /> <br /> Common diazotrophs found in the rhizosphere include ''Azotobacter'', ''Azospirillum'' and ''Herbaspirillum''.<br /> <br /> == Symbiotic Diazotrophs ==<br /> <br /> [[File:lec18_clip_image006.jpg|thumbnail|The process of nodule formation happening between a bacteria and plant, resulting in a symbiotic relationship. The bacteria fixes nitrogen that will become available to the plant, and the plant provides shelter, carbon, and energy to the bacteria. [9] ]]<br /> <br /> The enzymes that are needed to fix nitrogen are easily damaged by oxygen, so some diazotophs form symbiotic relationships with plants. In this relationship, diazaotophs have protection from oxygen's damaging [[properties]], while also being supplied carbon, and energy. In exchange for this, plants benefit from the nitrogen being fixed inside their roots. They do this by living in nodules that form on the roots of plants. Inside these nodules live clusters of bacteria that are able to fix nitrogen without the harmful effects of an open environment. The color of the nodule is indicative of the processes occurring within. Green nodules mean the bacteria are reproducing, pink means they are actively fixing nitrogen, and white means they are transitioning. <br /> <br /> The most common plant family that creates symbiotic relationships with diazotrophs is the Fabaceae or Leguminosae family, which includes leguminous plants.<br /> <br /> Common symbiotic diazotrophs include bacteria from the genus ''Rhizobium'' and ''Frankia'', among others.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Nod Factor===<br /> <br /> Bacteria from the genus ''Rhizobium'' form a relationship with leguminous plants. Parasponia is the only non-legume genus that can form a symbiotic relationship with these bacteria. They do this by using the nodulation factor, or nod factor - a signal of amino acids that alert the plant. The nod factor is sent out as a response to [[flavonoids]] sent out by leguminous plants. When the bacteria sends out this signal, the plant responds with [[root hairs]] curling around the bacteria. As the intracellular infection threads from the bacteria begin to grow into the plants, the plant begins nodule formation. The nodule become surrounded by a membrane from plant material. Symbiosome is the name for this compartmentalization of bacteria within the plant, and it is the symbiosome that acts as the pathway between the plant and the bacteria, allowing for nutrient exchange.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Streng, Arend, et al. “Evolutionary Origin of Rhizobium Nod Factor Signaling.” Plant Signaling &amp; Behavior, vol. 6, no. 10, 2011, pp. 1510–1514., doi:10.4161/psb.6.10.17444.<br /> <br /> [2] Stein, Lisa Y, and Martin G Klotz. “The [[Nitrogen Cycle]].” Current Biology Magazine , vol. 26, no. 3, 8 Feb. 2016, pp. R94–R98.<br /> <br /> [3] Jetten, Mike S. M. “The microbial [[nitrogen cycle]].” Environmental Microbiology, vol. 10, no. 11, 2008, pp. 2903–2909., doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2008.01786.x.<br /> <br /> [4] Norman, Jeffrey S, and Maren L Friesen. “Complex N acquisition by soil diazotrophs: how the ability to release exoenzymes affects N fixation by terrestrial free-Living diazotrophs.” The ISME Journal, vol. 11, no. 2, 1 Feb. 2017, pp. 315–326., doi:10.1038/ismej.2016.127.<br /> <br /> [5] Burgmann, Helmut, et al. “Effects of model root exudates on structure and activity of a soil diazotroph community.” Environmental Microbiology, vol. 7, no. 11, 1 Nov. 2005, pp. 1711–1724., doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2005.00818.x.<br /> <br /> [6] Burgmann, H., et al. “New Molecular Screening Tools for Analysis of Free-Living Diazotrophs in Soil.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 70, no. 1, Jan. 2004, pp. 240–247., doi:10.1128/aem.70.1.240-247.2004.<br /> <br /> [7] Poulin, Jessica. Evolutionary Biology Lab Manual. 8th ed.<br /> <br /> [8] http://ib.bioninja.com.au/options/option-c-ecology-and-conser/c6-nitrogen-and-phosphorus/nitrogen-cycle.html<br /> <br /> [9] Pearson Education, Inc</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Nitrogen_cycle&diff=7291 2021-05-11T13:12:02Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>The [[nitrogen cycle]] is a repeating circulation of the element nitrogen in various chemical forms throughout living and non-living things on Earth. By changing forms nitrogen is able to move from the [[atmosphere]], as a gas, to a form that is usable by [[plant life]]. The nitrogen cycle can be divided into several processes including: nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Other processes have been considered in this cycle as scientific research continues.[1][[File:1024px-Nitrogen Cycle.svg.png |thumb|''Figure 1: The Nitrogen Cycle.'' [12]]] <br /> <br /> The nitrogen cycle allows for the continued maintenance of healthy productive ecosystems. The alteration of nitrogen levels can greatly affect plant production and biomass in our environment. The nitrogen cycle allows us to understand how to better grow crops in [[agriculture]] to maintain a food supply for the human population but also limit [[fertilizer]] [[pollution]] in [[soil]]s that can lead to [[eutrophication]].<br /> <br /> <br /> == Nitrogen ==<br /> Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in the survival and success of all [[organisms]] [2]. Around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. This nitrogen in the atmosphere occurs as dinitrogen gas (N2) and is unable to be used directly by living organisms such as plants which can limit nitrogen availability ecosystems [3]. The nitrogen cycle is a key component in many ecosystem processes such as [[decomposition]] and primary production. Nitrogen availability can alter the rate of these processes. Nitrogen has several forms including dinitrogen gas (N2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4 +), and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).<br /> <br /> == Processes ==<br /> Through a series of processes nitrogen can be converted by microbial activities through fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.[4] These processes make up the nitrogen cycle and play an important role for all living organisms on Earth.<br /> <br /> === Nitrogen fixation: ===<br /> Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas (N2), is transformed into ammonium (NH4-), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants. Through this process nitrogen is moved from the atmosphere into the [[soil]] where plants can absorb it through their root system. A small percentage of fixation can occur via abiotic activities such as lightening. A majority of nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in [[File:1104px-Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg.png|thumb|left|''Figure 2: Nitrogen Fixation.'' [13]]] [[soil]]s by [[bacteria]] that have a symbiotic relationship with the plants [5]. In exchange for energy from photosynthesis the bacteria will fix nitrogen into a usable form for the plant by using the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation by [[bacteria]] can also produce forms of nitrogen that can be utilized by various [[organisms]]. This fixation process requires a great deal of energy and therefore uses a lot of ATP.<br /> <br /> A common symbiont, nitrogen fixing [[bacteria]], fix the most nitrogen. The two most common of these symbiotic [[bacteria]] are ''Rhizobium'' and ''Bradyrhizobium''. Both of these bacteria are able to invade the roots of legume plants. These [[bacteria]] provide plants with usable nitrogen to assist with protein production and the plants provide energy in the form of carbon for the symbiont bacteria. this process is beneficial to [[agriculture]] as leguminous plants can assist with returning nitrogen into the [[soil]] to promote plant growth. Many farmers will use a crop rotation system where leguminous plants, such as alfalfa, will be grown and then plowed back into the [[soil]] to increase nitrogen availability for crops the following year.<br /> <br /> === Assimilation: ===<br /> Assimilation of inorganic nitrogen is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds form from inorganic nitrogen compounds in an ecosystem. Plants use these ions to make proteins and nucleic acids [6]. Nitrogen assimilation requires ATP and reduced ferredoxin from photosynthesizing cells in plants [7]. The assimilation process occurs when nitrates enter a cell and are reduced to ammonia. [[File:1920px-Glutamine synthetase reaction.svg.png|thumb|''Figure 3: Glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway.'' [14]]] This ammonia is then incorporated into organic compounds through the glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway (see figure 3). Through this pathway ammonia and glutamate are catalyzed by glutamine synthase into glutamine. Glutamine is then catalyzed by glutamate synthase into two glutamate molecules. One of these molecules will go back into the pathway, the other goes into transamination reactions to form other amino acids.<br /> <br /> === Ammonification/ Mineralization: ===<br /> Soil nitrogen can be derived from dead [[organic materials]]. Ammonification or mineralization is the process where bacteria incorporate nitrogen into amino acids and release the excess nitrogen as ammonium ions (NH4+) into the soil. These ammonium ions are then readily available for uptake by plants for protein synthesis and [[microorganisms]] that require it for growth [8].<br /> [[File:Eutrophication.jpg |thumb|left|''Figure 4: High levels of nitrogen can lead to build up of algae in water bodies. This abundance of algae can impact the ecosystem within that water system.(Credit: James Fischer, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Public domain.)'' [15]]]<br /> === Nitrification: ===<br /> Nitrification is a two-part oxidation process of ammonium ions into nitrates and nitrites moderated by many microbial communities in the ecosystem [9]. This process provides extra available nitrogen for plants to take in via their roots. Through the process of nitrification, ammonium, produced by ammonification, found in [[soil]]s is transformed into nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are able to be used by plants and plant consuming [[animals]] and are formed by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Nitrites are not readily available to plants and animal but can be converted to nitrates by bacteria. These nitrite-oxidizing [[bacteria]], nitrobacteria, receive energy in exchange for this process [10]. Nitrate is the form most living plants use to absorb nitrogen.<br /> <br /> === Denitrification: ===<br /> Denitrification follows the process of nitrification and is where nitrates are returned to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soils [6]. Denitrification generally occurs in anoxic environments with exhausted oxygen levels. This process can lead to a loss in soil nitrogen content which needs to be replaced. Denitrification can also occur during the process of harvesting crops, [[soil erosion]], burning, and leaching. <br /> <br /> == Anthropogenic Changes: ==<br /> Anthropogenic activities have greatly altered the nitrogen cycle through, fossil fuel combustion, extensive cultivation of [[legume]]s and the construction of fertilizers using the [[Haber-Bosch process]]. The human use of nitrogen fixation has increased food production but has led to an increase in nitrogen being emitted into the atmosphere [12]. This build up of excess nitrogen can drain from soils into water sources underground or enter water systems via runoff. Nitrogen build up leads to [[eutrophication]], shown in figure 4, extreme nitrogen levels, leading to issues such as [[algae]] blooms due to nitrogen enrichment in the water. This process can decrease oxygen level and have a more last effect on an aquatic system. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. Stein, L. Y., and M. G. Klotz. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biology 26:R94–R98.<br /> <br /> 2. LeBauer, D. S., and K. K. Treseder. 2008. Nitrogen Limitation of Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Is Globally Distributed. [[Ecology]] 89:371–379.<br /> <br /> 3. Ollivier, J., S. Töwe, A. Bannert, B. Hai, E.-M. Kastl, A. Meyer, M. X. Su, K. Kleineidam, and M. Schloter. 2011. Nitrogen turnover in soil and global change: Key players of soil nitrogen cycle. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 78:3–16.<br /> <br /> 4. Meng, L., W. Li, S. Zhang, C. Wu, and L. Lv. 2017. Feasibility of co-composting of sewage sludge, spent mushroom substrate and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology 226:39–45.<br /> <br /> 5. Peoples, M. B., D. F. Herridge, and J. K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil 174:3–28.<br /> <br /> 6. Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.<br /> <br /> 7. Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co, 2005.<br /> <br /> 8. Fath, B. D. 2018. Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, San Diego, NETHERLANDS, THE.<br /> <br /> 9. Sims, J. T., and D. C. Wolf. 1994. Poultry Waste Management: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Pages 1–83 in D. L. Sparks, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.<br /> <br /> 10. Cáceres, R., K. Malińska, and O. Marfà. 2018. Nitrification within composting: A review. Waste Management 72:119–137.<br /> <br /> 11. Gu, B., Y. Ge, Y. Ren, B. Xu, W. Luo, H. Jiang, B. Gu, and J. Chang. 2012. Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs. Environmental Science &amp; Technology 46:9420–9427.<br /> <br /> 12. Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg: Environmental Protection Agency[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg]<br /> <br /> 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg]<br /> <br /> 14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg#/media/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg<br /> <br /> 15. Collecting Water Nutrient Data. (n.d.). . https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/collecting-water-nutrient-data.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6914 2021-05-05T19:21:46Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to different forms of erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorelines via flowing water in rivers, streams, and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of Water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between [[soil]] and the atmosphere. Dry [[soil]]s will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. [[Soil]] [[organisms]] living in this humid [[environment] rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]. Hydrogen Bonding is the bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]. Cohesion is defined as the attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. Adhesion Also called “adsorption”, is the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. Capillary Forces are a combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> === Gravitational Water: ===<br /> Gravitational water is found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2].<br /> === Capillary Water: ===<br /> Capillary water can be found in the micropores of soil. This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4].<br /> === Hygroscopic Water: ===<br /> Hygroscopic water is water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> Soil wetness is the quantity of water contained in the soil. at max retentive capacity all pores in the soil are filled with water. this can also be referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt. Field Capacity is the maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. Wilting Point is reached when the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6879 2021-05-05T19:00:37Z

<p>Teresato: /* Vapor: */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of Water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between [[soil]] and the atmosphere. Dry [[soil]]s will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. [[Soil]] [[organisms]] living in this humid [[environment] rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]. Hydrogen Bonding is the bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]. Cohesion is defined as the attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. Adhesion Also called “adsorption”, is the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. Capillary Forces are a combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> === Gravitational Water: ===<br /> Gravitational water is found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2].<br /> === Capillary Water: ===<br /> Capillary water can be found in the micropores of soil. This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4].<br /> === Hygroscopic Water: ===<br /> Hygroscopic water is water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> Soil wetness is the quantity of water contained in the soil. at max retentive capacity all pores in the soil are filled with water. this can also be referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt. Field Capacity is the maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. Wilting Point is reached when the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6878 2021-05-05T18:59:43Z

<p>Teresato: /* Physical Properties of water */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of Water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]. Hydrogen Bonding is the bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]. Cohesion is defined as the attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. Adhesion Also called “adsorption”, is the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. Capillary Forces are a combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> === Gravitational Water: ===<br /> Gravitational water is found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2].<br /> === Capillary Water: ===<br /> Capillary water can be found in the micropores of soil. This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4].<br /> === Hygroscopic Water: ===<br /> Hygroscopic water is water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> Soil wetness is the quantity of water contained in the soil. at max retentive capacity all pores in the soil are filled with water. this can also be referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt. Field Capacity is the maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. Wilting Point is reached when the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6876 2021-05-05T18:57:40Z

<p>Teresato: /* Soil Wetness */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]. Hydrogen Bonding is the bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]. Cohesion is defined as the attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. Adhesion Also called “adsorption”, is the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. Capillary Forces are a combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> === Gravitational Water: ===<br /> Gravitational water is found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2].<br /> === Capillary Water: ===<br /> Capillary water can be found in the micropores of soil. This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4].<br /> === Hygroscopic Water: ===<br /> Hygroscopic water is water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> Soil wetness is the quantity of water contained in the soil. at max retentive capacity all pores in the soil are filled with water. this can also be referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt. Field Capacity is the maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. Wilting Point is reached when the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6872 2021-05-05T18:55:06Z

<p>Teresato: /* Soil Water Types */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]. Hydrogen Bonding is the bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]. Cohesion is defined as the attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. Adhesion Also called “adsorption”, is the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. Capillary Forces are a combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> === Gravitational Water: ===<br /> Gravitational water is found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2].<br /> === Capillary Water: ===<br /> Capillary water can be found in the micropores of soil. This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4].<br /> === Hygroscopic Water: ===<br /> Hygroscopic water is water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6871 2021-05-05T18:54:52Z

<p>Teresato: /* Hygroscopic Water: */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]. Hydrogen Bonding is the bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]. Cohesion is defined as the attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. Adhesion Also called “adsorption”, is the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. Capillary Forces are a combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> === Gravitational Water: ===<br /> Gravitational water is found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2].<br /> <br /> === Capillary Water: ===<br /> Capillary water can be found in the micropores of soil. This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4].<br /> <br /> === Hygroscopic Water: ===<br /> Hygroscopic water is water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6870 2021-05-05T18:54:29Z

<p>Teresato: /* Gravitational Water: */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]. Hydrogen Bonding is the bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]. Cohesion is defined as the attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. Adhesion Also called “adsorption”, is the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. Capillary Forces are a combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> === Gravitational Water: ===<br /> Gravitational water is found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2].<br /> <br /> === Capillary Water: ===<br /> Capillary water can be found in the micropores of soil. This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4].<br /> <br /> === Hygroscopic Water: ===<br /> Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6868 2021-05-05T18:54:19Z

<p>Teresato: /* Gravitational Water: */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]. Hydrogen Bonding is the bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]. Cohesion is defined as the attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. Adhesion Also called “adsorption”, is the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. Capillary Forces are a combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> === Gravitational Water: ===<br /> gravitational water is found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2].<br /> <br /> === Capillary Water: ===<br /> Capillary water can be found in the micropores of soil. This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4].<br /> <br /> === Hygroscopic Water: ===<br /> Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6857 2021-05-05T18:50:49Z

<p>Teresato: /* Molecular Properties of Water */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]. Hydrogen Bonding is the bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]. Cohesion is defined as the attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. Adhesion Also called “adsorption”, is the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. Capillary Forces are a combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> === Gravitational Water: ===<br /> Found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> === Capillary Water: ===<br /> Capillary water can be found in the micropores of soil. This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4].<br /> <br /> === Hygroscopic Water: ===<br /> Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6855 2021-05-05T18:49:26Z

<p>Teresato: /* Capillary Water: */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> === Gravitational Water: ===<br /> Found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> === Capillary Water: ===<br /> Capillary water can be found in the micropores of soil. This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4].<br /> <br /> === Hygroscopic Water: ===<br /> Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6853 2021-05-05T18:47:19Z

<p>Teresato: /* Soil Water Types */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> === Gravitational Water: ===<br /> Found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> === Capillary Water: ===<br /> This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4]. <br /> <br /> === Hygroscopic Water: ===<br /> Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6850 2021-05-05T18:45:04Z

<p>Teresato: /* 3 Phases of water */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> === Solid: ===<br /> Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> === Liquid: ===<br /> Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> === Vapor: ===<br /> Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> '''Gravitational Water:''' Found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Water:''' This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Hygroscopic Water:''' Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Nitrogen_cycle&diff=6849 2021-05-05T18:43:45Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>The [[nitrogen cycle]] is a repeating circulation of the element nitrogen in various chemical forms throughout living and non-living things on Earth. By changing forms nitrogen is able to move from the atmosphere, as a gas, to a form that is usable by [[plant life]]. The nitrogen cycle can be divided into several processes including: nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Other processes have been considered in this cycle as scientific research continues.[1][[File:1024px-Nitrogen Cycle.svg.png |thumb|''Figure 1: The Nitrogen Cycle.'' [12]]] <br /> <br /> The nitrogen cycle allows for the continued maintenance of healthy productive ecosystems. The alteration of nitrogen levels can greatly affect plant production and biomass in our environment. The nitrogen cycle allows us to understand how to better grow crops in [[agriculture]] to maintain a food supply for the human population but also limit fertilizer [[pollution]] in [[soil]]s that can lead to [[eutrophication]].<br /> <br /> <br /> == Nitrogen ==<br /> Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in the survival and success of all [[organisms]] [2]. Around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. This nitrogen in the atmosphere occurs as dinitrogen gas (N2) and is unable to be used directly by living organisms such as plants which can limit nitrogen availability ecosystems [3]. The nitrogen cycle is a key component in many ecosystem processes such as [[decomposition]] and primary production. Nitrogen availability can alter the rate of these processes. Nitrogen has several forms including dinitrogen gas (N2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4 +), and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).<br /> <br /> == Processes ==<br /> Through a series of processes nitrogen can be converted by microbial activities through fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.[4] These processes make up the nitrogen cycle and play an important role for all living organisms on Earth.<br /> <br /> === Nitrogen fixation: ===<br /> Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas (N2), is transformed into ammonium (NH4-), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants. Through this process nitrogen is moved from the atmosphere into the [[soil]] where plants can absorb it through their root system. A small percentage of fixation can occur via abiotic activities such as lightening. A majority of nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in [[File:1104px-Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg.png|thumb|left|''Figure 2: Nitrogen Fixation.'' [13]]] [[soil]]s by [[bacteria]] that have a symbiotic relationship with the plants [5]. In exchange for energy from photosynthesis the bacteria will fix nitrogen into a usable form for the plant by using the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation by [[bacteria]] can also produce forms of nitrogen that can be utilized by various [[organisms]]. This fixation process requires a great deal of energy and therefore uses a lot of ATP.<br /> <br /> A common symbiont, nitrogen fixing [[bacteria]], fix the most nitrogen. The two most common of these symbiotic [[bacteria]] are ''Rhizobium'' and ''Bradyrhizobium''. Both of these bacteria are able to invade the roots of legume plants. These [[bacteria]] provide plants with usable nitrogen to assist with protein production and the plants provide energy in the form of carbon for the symbiont bacteria. this process is beneficial to [[agriculture]] as leguminous plants can assist with returning nitrogen into the [[soil]] to promote plant growth. Many farmers will use a crop rotation system where legumes will be grown and then plowed back into the [[soil]] to increase nitrogen availability for crops the following year.<br /> <br /> === Assimilation: ===<br /> Assimilation of inorganic nitrogen is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds form from inorganic nitrogen compounds in an ecosystem. Plants use these ions to make proteins and nucleic acids [6]. Nitrogen assimilation requires ATP and reduced ferredoxin from photosynthesizing cells in plants [7]. The assimilation process occurs when nitrates enter a cell and are reduced to ammonia. [[File:1920px-Glutamine synthetase reaction.svg.png|thumb|''Figure 3: Glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway.'' [14]]] This ammonia is then incorporated into organic compounds through the glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway (see figure 3). Through this pathway ammonia and glutamate are catalyzed by glutamine synthase into glutamine. Glutamine is then catalyzed by glutamate synthase into two glutamate molecules. One of these molecules will go back into the pathway, the other goes into transamination reactions to form other amino acids.<br /> <br /> === Ammonification/ Mineralization: ===<br /> Soil nitrogen can be derived from dead [[organic materials]]. Ammonification or mineralization is the process where bacteria incorporate nitrogen into amino acids and release the excess nitrogen as ammonium ions (NH4+) into the soil. These ammonium ions are then readily available for uptake by plants for protein synthesis and [[microorganisms]] that require it for growth [8].<br /> [[File:Eutrophication.jpg |thumb|left|''Figure 4: High levels of nitrogen can lead to build up of algae in water bodies. This abundance of algae can impact the ecosystem within that water system.(Credit: James Fischer, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Public domain.)'' [15]]]<br /> === Nitrification: ===<br /> Nitrification is a two-part oxidation process of ammonium ions into nitrates and nitrites moderated by many microbial communities in the ecosystem [9]. This process provides extra available nitrogen for plants to take in via their roots. Through the process of nitrification, ammonium, produced by ammonification, found in [[soil]]s is transformed into nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are able to be used by plants and plant consuming [[animals]] and are formed by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Nitrites are not readily available to plants and animal but can be converted to nitrates by bacteria. These nitrite-oxidizing [[bacteria]], nitrobacteria, receive energy in exchange for this process [10]. Nitrate is the form most living plants use to absorb nitrogen.<br /> <br /> === Denitrification: ===<br /> Denitrification follows the process of nitrification and is where nitrates are returned to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soils [6]. Denitrification generally occurs in anoxic environments with exhausted oxygen levels. This process can lead to a loss in soil nitrogen content which needs to be replaced. Denitrification can also occur during the process of harvesting crops, [[soil erosion]], burning, and leaching. <br /> <br /> == Anthropogenic Changes: ==<br /> Anthropogenic activities have greatly altered the nitrogen cycle through, fossil fuel combustion, extensive cultivation of [[legume]]s and the construction of fertilizers using the [[Haber-Bosch process]]. The human use of nitrogen fixation has increased food production but has led to an increase in nitrogen being emitted into the atmosphere [12]. This build up of excess nitrogen can drain from soils into water sources underground or enter water systems via runoff. Nitrogen build up leads to [[eutrophication]], shown in figure 4, extreme nitrogen levels, leading to issues such as [[algae]] blooms due to nitrogen enrichment in the water. This process can decrease oxygen level and have a more last effect on an aquatic system. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. Stein, L. Y., and M. G. Klotz. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biology 26:R94–R98.<br /> <br /> 2. LeBauer, D. S., and K. K. Treseder. 2008. Nitrogen Limitation of Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Is Globally Distributed. [[Ecology]] 89:371–379.<br /> <br /> 3. Ollivier, J., S. Töwe, A. Bannert, B. Hai, E.-M. Kastl, A. Meyer, M. X. Su, K. Kleineidam, and M. Schloter. 2011. Nitrogen turnover in soil and global change: Key players of soil nitrogen cycle. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 78:3–16.<br /> <br /> 4. Meng, L., W. Li, S. Zhang, C. Wu, and L. Lv. 2017. Feasibility of co-composting of sewage sludge, spent mushroom substrate and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology 226:39–45.<br /> <br /> 5. Peoples, M. B., D. F. Herridge, and J. K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil 174:3–28.<br /> <br /> 6. Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.<br /> <br /> 7. Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co, 2005.<br /> <br /> 8. Fath, B. D. 2018. Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, San Diego, NETHERLANDS, THE.<br /> <br /> 9. Sims, J. T., and D. C. Wolf. 1994. Poultry Waste Management: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Pages 1–83 in D. L. Sparks, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.<br /> <br /> 10. Cáceres, R., K. Malińska, and O. Marfà. 2018. Nitrification within composting: A review. Waste Management 72:119–137.<br /> <br /> 11. Gu, B., Y. Ge, Y. Ren, B. Xu, W. Luo, H. Jiang, B. Gu, and J. Chang. 2012. Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs. Environmental Science &amp; Technology 46:9420–9427.<br /> <br /> 12. Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg: Environmental Protection Agency[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg]<br /> <br /> 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg]<br /> <br /> 14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg#/media/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg<br /> <br /> 15. Collecting Water Nutrient Data. (n.d.). . https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/collecting-water-nutrient-data.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6847 2021-05-05T18:42:15Z

<p>Teresato: /* 3 Phases of water */</p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases consisting of a solid state, liquid state and vapor state. <br /> <br /> '''Solid:''' Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> '''Liquid:''' Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Vapor:''' Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1].<br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> '''Gravitational Water:''' Found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Water:''' This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Hygroscopic Water:''' Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Nitrogen_cycle&diff=6844 2021-05-05T18:40:58Z

<p>Teresato: /* Nitrogen */</p> <hr /> <div>The [[nitrogen cycle]] is a repeating circulation of the element nitrogen in various chemical forms throughout living and non-living things on Earth. By changing forms nitrogen is able to move from the atmosphere, as a gas, to a form that is usable by [[plant life]]. The nitrogen cycle can be divided into several processes including: nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Other processes have been considered in this cycle as scientific research continues.[1][[File:1024px-Nitrogen Cycle.svg.png |thumb|The Nitrogen Cycle. [12]]] <br /> <br /> The nitrogen cycle allows for the continued maintenance of healthy productive ecosystems. The alteration of nitrogen levels can greatly affect plant production and biomass in our environment. The nitrogen cycle allows us to understand how to better grow crops in [[agriculture]] to maintain a food supply for the human population but also limit fertilizer [[pollution]] in [[soil]]s that can lead to [[eutrophication]].<br /> <br /> <br /> == Nitrogen ==<br /> Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in the survival and success of all [[organisms]] [2]. Around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. This nitrogen in the atmosphere occurs as dinitrogen gas (N2) and is unable to be used directly by living organisms such as plants which can limit nitrogen availability ecosystems [3]. The nitrogen cycle is a key component in many ecosystem processes such as [[decomposition]] and primary production. Nitrogen availability can alter the rate of these processes. Nitrogen has several forms including dinitrogen gas (N2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4 +), and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).<br /> <br /> == Processes ==<br /> Through a series of processes nitrogen can be converted by microbial activities through fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.[4] These processes make up the nitrogen cycle and play an important role for all living organisms on Earth.<br /> <br /> === Nitrogen fixation: ===<br /> Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas (N2), is transformed into ammonium (NH4-), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants. Through this process nitrogen is moved from the atmosphere into the [[soil]] where plants can absorb it through their root system. A small percentage of fixation can occur via abiotic activities such as lightening. A majority of nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in [[File:1104px-Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg.png|thumb|left|Nitrogen Fixation. [13]]] [[soil]]s by [[bacteria]] that have a symbiotic relationship with the plants [5]. In exchange for energy from photosynthesis the bacteria will fix nitrogen into a usable form for the plant by using the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation by [[bacteria]] can also produce forms of nitrogen that can be utilized by various [[organisms]]. This fixation process requires a great deal of energy and therefore uses a lot of ATP.<br /> <br /> A common symbiont, nitrogen fixing [[bacteria]], fix the most nitrogen. The two most common of these symbiotic [[bacteria]] are ''Rhizobium'' and ''Bradyrhizobium''. Both of these bacteria are able to invade the roots of legume plants. These [[bacteria]] provide plants with usable nitrogen to assist with protein production and the plants provide energy in the form of carbon for the symbiont bacteria. this process is beneficial to [[agriculture]] as leguminous plants can assist with returning nitrogen into the [[soil]] to promote plant growth. Many farmers will use a crop rotation system where legumes will be grown and then plowed back into the [[soil]] to increase nitrogen availability for crops the following year.<br /> <br /> === Assimilation: ===<br /> Assimilation of inorganic nitrogen is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds form from inorganic nitrogen compounds in an ecosystem. Plants use these ions to make proteins and nucleic acids [6]. Nitrogen assimilation requires ATP and reduced ferredoxin from photosynthesizing cells in plants [7]. The assimilation process occurs when nitrates enter a cell and are reduced to ammonia. [[File:1920px-Glutamine synthetase reaction.svg.png|thumb|glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway. [14]]] This ammonia is then incorporated into organic compounds through the glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway (see figure 3). Through this pathway ammonia and glutamate are catalyzed by glutamine synthase into glutamine. Glutamine is then catalyzed by glutamate synthase into two glutamate molecules. One of these molecules will go back into the pathway, the other goes into transamination reactions to form other amino acids.<br /> <br /> === Ammonification/ Mineralization: ===<br /> Soil nitrogen can be derived from dead [[organic materials]]. Ammonification or mineralization is the process where bacteria incorporate nitrogen into amino acids and release the excess nitrogen as ammonium ions (NH4+) into the soil. These ammonium ions are then readily available for uptake by plants for protein synthesis and [[microorganisms]] that require it for growth [8].<br /> [[File:Eutrophication.jpg |thumb|left|''Figure 4: High levels of nitrogen can lead to build up of algae in water bodies. This abundance of algae can impact the ecosystem within that water system.(Credit: James Fischer, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Public domain.)'' [15]]]<br /> === Nitrification: ===<br /> Nitrification is a two-part oxidation process of ammonium ions into nitrates and nitrites moderated by many microbial communities in the ecosystem [9]. This process provides extra available nitrogen for plants to take in via their roots. Through the process of nitrification, ammonium, produced by ammonification, found in [[soil]]s is transformed into nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are able to be used by plants and plant consuming [[animals]] and are formed by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Nitrites are not readily available to plants and animal but can be converted to nitrates by bacteria. These nitrite-oxidizing [[bacteria]], nitrobacteria, receive energy in exchange for this process [10]. Nitrate is the form most living plants use to absorb nitrogen.<br /> <br /> === Denitrification: ===<br /> Denitrification follows the process of nitrification and is where nitrates are returned to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soils [6]. Denitrification generally occurs in anoxic environments with exhausted oxygen levels. This process can lead to a loss in soil nitrogen content which needs to be replaced. Denitrification can also occur during the process of harvesting crops, [[soil erosion]], burning, and leaching. <br /> <br /> == Anthropogenic Changes: ==<br /> Anthropogenic activities have greatly altered the nitrogen cycle through, fossil fuel combustion, extensive cultivation of [[legume]]s and the construction of fertilizers using the [[Haber-Bosch process]]. The human use of nitrogen fixation has increased food production but has led to an increase in nitrogen being emitted into the atmosphere [12]. This build up of excess nitrogen can drain from soils into water sources underground or enter water systems via runoff. Nitrogen build up leads to [[eutrophication]], shown in figure 4, extreme nitrogen levels, leading to issues such as [[algae]] blooms due to nitrogen enrichment in the water. This process can decrease oxygen level and have a more last effect on an aquatic system. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. Stein, L. Y., and M. G. Klotz. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biology 26:R94–R98.<br /> <br /> 2. LeBauer, D. S., and K. K. Treseder. 2008. Nitrogen Limitation of Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Is Globally Distributed. [[Ecology]] 89:371–379.<br /> <br /> 3. Ollivier, J., S. Töwe, A. Bannert, B. Hai, E.-M. Kastl, A. Meyer, M. X. Su, K. Kleineidam, and M. Schloter. 2011. Nitrogen turnover in soil and global change: Key players of soil nitrogen cycle. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 78:3–16.<br /> <br /> 4. Meng, L., W. Li, S. Zhang, C. Wu, and L. Lv. 2017. Feasibility of co-composting of sewage sludge, spent mushroom substrate and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology 226:39–45.<br /> <br /> 5. Peoples, M. B., D. F. Herridge, and J. K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil 174:3–28.<br /> <br /> 6. Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.<br /> <br /> 7. Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co, 2005.<br /> <br /> 8. Fath, B. D. 2018. Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, San Diego, NETHERLANDS, THE.<br /> <br /> 9. Sims, J. T., and D. C. Wolf. 1994. Poultry Waste Management: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Pages 1–83 in D. L. Sparks, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.<br /> <br /> 10. Cáceres, R., K. Malińska, and O. Marfà. 2018. Nitrification within composting: A review. Waste Management 72:119–137.<br /> <br /> 11. Gu, B., Y. Ge, Y. Ren, B. Xu, W. Luo, H. Jiang, B. Gu, and J. Chang. 2012. Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs. Environmental Science &amp; Technology 46:9420–9427.<br /> <br /> 12. Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg: Environmental Protection Agency[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg]<br /> <br /> 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg]<br /> <br /> 14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg#/media/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg<br /> <br /> 15. Collecting Water Nutrient Data. (n.d.). . https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/collecting-water-nutrient-data.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Nitrogen_cycle&diff=6843 2021-05-05T18:40:31Z

<p>Teresato: /* Nitrogen */</p> <hr /> <div>The [[nitrogen cycle]] is a repeating circulation of the element nitrogen in various chemical forms throughout living and non-living things on Earth. By changing forms nitrogen is able to move from the atmosphere, as a gas, to a form that is usable by [[plant life]]. The nitrogen cycle can be divided into several processes including: nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Other processes have been considered in this cycle as scientific research continues.[1][[File:1024px-Nitrogen Cycle.svg.png |thumb|The Nitrogen Cycle. [12]]] <br /> <br /> The nitrogen cycle allows for the continued maintenance of healthy productive ecosystems. The alteration of nitrogen levels can greatly affect plant production and biomass in our environment. The nitrogen cycle allows us to understand how to better grow crops in [[agriculture]] to maintain a food supply for the human population but also limit fertilizer [[pollution]] in [[soil]]s that can lead to [[eutrophication]].<br /> <br /> <br /> == Nitrogen ==<br /> Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in the survival and success of all [[organism]]s [2]. Around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. This nitrogen in the atmosphere occurs as dinitrogen gas (N2) and is unable to be used directly by living organisms such as plants which can limit nitrogen availability ecosystems [3]. The nitrogen cycle is a key component in many ecosystem processes such as [[decomposition]] and primary production. Nitrogen availability can alter the rate of these processes. Nitrogen has several forms including dinitrogen gas (N2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4 +), and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).<br /> <br /> == Processes ==<br /> Through a series of processes nitrogen can be converted by microbial activities through fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.[4] These processes make up the nitrogen cycle and play an important role for all living organisms on Earth.<br /> <br /> === Nitrogen fixation: ===<br /> Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas (N2), is transformed into ammonium (NH4-), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants. Through this process nitrogen is moved from the atmosphere into the [[soil]] where plants can absorb it through their root system. A small percentage of fixation can occur via abiotic activities such as lightening. A majority of nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in [[File:1104px-Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg.png|thumb|left|Nitrogen Fixation. [13]]] [[soil]]s by [[bacteria]] that have a symbiotic relationship with the plants [5]. In exchange for energy from photosynthesis the bacteria will fix nitrogen into a usable form for the plant by using the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation by [[bacteria]] can also produce forms of nitrogen that can be utilized by various [[organisms]]. This fixation process requires a great deal of energy and therefore uses a lot of ATP.<br /> <br /> A common symbiont, nitrogen fixing [[bacteria]], fix the most nitrogen. The two most common of these symbiotic [[bacteria]] are ''Rhizobium'' and ''Bradyrhizobium''. Both of these bacteria are able to invade the roots of legume plants. These [[bacteria]] provide plants with usable nitrogen to assist with protein production and the plants provide energy in the form of carbon for the symbiont bacteria. this process is beneficial to [[agriculture]] as leguminous plants can assist with returning nitrogen into the [[soil]] to promote plant growth. Many farmers will use a crop rotation system where legumes will be grown and then plowed back into the [[soil]] to increase nitrogen availability for crops the following year.<br /> <br /> === Assimilation: ===<br /> Assimilation of inorganic nitrogen is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds form from inorganic nitrogen compounds in an ecosystem. Plants use these ions to make proteins and nucleic acids [6]. Nitrogen assimilation requires ATP and reduced ferredoxin from photosynthesizing cells in plants [7]. The assimilation process occurs when nitrates enter a cell and are reduced to ammonia. [[File:1920px-Glutamine synthetase reaction.svg.png|thumb|glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway. [14]]] This ammonia is then incorporated into organic compounds through the glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway (see figure 3). Through this pathway ammonia and glutamate are catalyzed by glutamine synthase into glutamine. Glutamine is then catalyzed by glutamate synthase into two glutamate molecules. One of these molecules will go back into the pathway, the other goes into transamination reactions to form other amino acids.<br /> <br /> === Ammonification/ Mineralization: ===<br /> Soil nitrogen can be derived from dead [[organic materials]]. Ammonification or mineralization is the process where bacteria incorporate nitrogen into amino acids and release the excess nitrogen as ammonium ions (NH4+) into the soil. These ammonium ions are then readily available for uptake by plants for protein synthesis and [[microorganisms]] that require it for growth [8].<br /> [[File:Eutrophication.jpg |thumb|left|''Figure 4: High levels of nitrogen can lead to build up of algae in water bodies. This abundance of algae can impact the ecosystem within that water system.(Credit: James Fischer, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Public domain.)'' [15]]]<br /> === Nitrification: ===<br /> Nitrification is a two-part oxidation process of ammonium ions into nitrates and nitrites moderated by many microbial communities in the ecosystem [9]. This process provides extra available nitrogen for plants to take in via their roots. Through the process of nitrification, ammonium, produced by ammonification, found in [[soil]]s is transformed into nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are able to be used by plants and plant consuming [[animals]] and are formed by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Nitrites are not readily available to plants and animal but can be converted to nitrates by bacteria. These nitrite-oxidizing [[bacteria]], nitrobacteria, receive energy in exchange for this process [10]. Nitrate is the form most living plants use to absorb nitrogen.<br /> <br /> === Denitrification: ===<br /> Denitrification follows the process of nitrification and is where nitrates are returned to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soils [6]. Denitrification generally occurs in anoxic environments with exhausted oxygen levels. This process can lead to a loss in soil nitrogen content which needs to be replaced. Denitrification can also occur during the process of harvesting crops, [[soil erosion]], burning, and leaching. <br /> <br /> == Anthropogenic Changes: ==<br /> Anthropogenic activities have greatly altered the nitrogen cycle through, fossil fuel combustion, extensive cultivation of [[legume]]s and the construction of fertilizers using the [[Haber-Bosch process]]. The human use of nitrogen fixation has increased food production but has led to an increase in nitrogen being emitted into the atmosphere [12]. This build up of excess nitrogen can drain from soils into water sources underground or enter water systems via runoff. Nitrogen build up leads to [[eutrophication]], shown in figure 4, extreme nitrogen levels, leading to issues such as [[algae]] blooms due to nitrogen enrichment in the water. This process can decrease oxygen level and have a more last effect on an aquatic system. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. Stein, L. Y., and M. G. Klotz. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biology 26:R94–R98.<br /> <br /> 2. LeBauer, D. S., and K. K. Treseder. 2008. Nitrogen Limitation of Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Is Globally Distributed. [[Ecology]] 89:371–379.<br /> <br /> 3. Ollivier, J., S. Töwe, A. Bannert, B. Hai, E.-M. Kastl, A. Meyer, M. X. Su, K. Kleineidam, and M. Schloter. 2011. Nitrogen turnover in soil and global change: Key players of soil nitrogen cycle. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 78:3–16.<br /> <br /> 4. Meng, L., W. Li, S. Zhang, C. Wu, and L. Lv. 2017. Feasibility of co-composting of sewage sludge, spent mushroom substrate and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology 226:39–45.<br /> <br /> 5. Peoples, M. B., D. F. Herridge, and J. K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil 174:3–28.<br /> <br /> 6. Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.<br /> <br /> 7. Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co, 2005.<br /> <br /> 8. Fath, B. D. 2018. Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, San Diego, NETHERLANDS, THE.<br /> <br /> 9. Sims, J. T., and D. C. Wolf. 1994. Poultry Waste Management: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Pages 1–83 in D. L. Sparks, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.<br /> <br /> 10. Cáceres, R., K. Malińska, and O. Marfà. 2018. Nitrification within composting: A review. Waste Management 72:119–137.<br /> <br /> 11. Gu, B., Y. Ge, Y. Ren, B. Xu, W. Luo, H. Jiang, B. Gu, and J. Chang. 2012. Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs. Environmental Science &amp; Technology 46:9420–9427.<br /> <br /> 12. Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg: Environmental Protection Agency[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg]<br /> <br /> 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg]<br /> <br /> 14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg#/media/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg<br /> <br /> 15. Collecting Water Nutrient Data. (n.d.). . https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/collecting-water-nutrient-data.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Nitrogen_cycle&diff=6841 2021-05-05T18:39:38Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>The [[nitrogen cycle]] is a repeating circulation of the element nitrogen in various chemical forms throughout living and non-living things on Earth. By changing forms nitrogen is able to move from the atmosphere, as a gas, to a form that is usable by [[plant life]]. The nitrogen cycle can be divided into several processes including: nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Other processes have been considered in this cycle as scientific research continues.[1][[File:1024px-Nitrogen Cycle.svg.png |thumb|The Nitrogen Cycle. [12]]] <br /> <br /> The nitrogen cycle allows for the continued maintenance of healthy productive ecosystems. The alteration of nitrogen levels can greatly affect plant production and biomass in our environment. The nitrogen cycle allows us to understand how to better grow crops in [[agriculture]] to maintain a food supply for the human population but also limit fertilizer [[pollution]] in [[soil]]s that can lead to [[eutrophication]].<br /> <br /> <br /> == Nitrogen ==<br /> Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in the survival and success of all organisms [2]. Around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. This nitrogen in the atmosphere occurs as dinitrogen gas (N2) and is unable to be used directly by living organisms such as plants which can limit nitrogen availability ecosystems [3]. The nitrogen cycle is a key component in many ecosystem processes such as [[decomposition]] and primary production. Nitrogen availability can alter the rate of these processes. Nitrogen has several forms including dinitrogen gas (N2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4 +), and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). <br /> <br /> == Processes ==<br /> Through a series of processes nitrogen can be converted by microbial activities through fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.[4] These processes make up the nitrogen cycle and play an important role for all living organisms on Earth.<br /> <br /> === Nitrogen fixation: ===<br /> Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas (N2), is transformed into ammonium (NH4-), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants. Through this process nitrogen is moved from the atmosphere into the [[soil]] where plants can absorb it through their root system. A small percentage of fixation can occur via abiotic activities such as lightening. A majority of nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in [[File:1104px-Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg.png|thumb|left|Nitrogen Fixation. [13]]] [[soil]]s by [[bacteria]] that have a symbiotic relationship with the plants [5]. In exchange for energy from photosynthesis the bacteria will fix nitrogen into a usable form for the plant by using the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation by [[bacteria]] can also produce forms of nitrogen that can be utilized by various [[organisms]]. This fixation process requires a great deal of energy and therefore uses a lot of ATP.<br /> <br /> A common symbiont, nitrogen fixing [[bacteria]], fix the most nitrogen. The two most common of these symbiotic [[bacteria]] are ''Rhizobium'' and ''Bradyrhizobium''. Both of these bacteria are able to invade the roots of legume plants. These [[bacteria]] provide plants with usable nitrogen to assist with protein production and the plants provide energy in the form of carbon for the symbiont bacteria. this process is beneficial to [[agriculture]] as leguminous plants can assist with returning nitrogen into the [[soil]] to promote plant growth. Many farmers will use a crop rotation system where legumes will be grown and then plowed back into the [[soil]] to increase nitrogen availability for crops the following year.<br /> <br /> === Assimilation: ===<br /> Assimilation of inorganic nitrogen is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds form from inorganic nitrogen compounds in an ecosystem. Plants use these ions to make proteins and nucleic acids [6]. Nitrogen assimilation requires ATP and reduced ferredoxin from photosynthesizing cells in plants [7]. The assimilation process occurs when nitrates enter a cell and are reduced to ammonia. [[File:1920px-Glutamine synthetase reaction.svg.png|thumb|glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway. [14]]] This ammonia is then incorporated into organic compounds through the glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway (see figure 3). Through this pathway ammonia and glutamate are catalyzed by glutamine synthase into glutamine. Glutamine is then catalyzed by glutamate synthase into two glutamate molecules. One of these molecules will go back into the pathway, the other goes into transamination reactions to form other amino acids.<br /> <br /> === Ammonification/ Mineralization: ===<br /> Soil nitrogen can be derived from dead [[organic materials]]. Ammonification or mineralization is the process where bacteria incorporate nitrogen into amino acids and release the excess nitrogen as ammonium ions (NH4+) into the soil. These ammonium ions are then readily available for uptake by plants for protein synthesis and [[microorganisms]] that require it for growth [8].<br /> [[File:Eutrophication.jpg |thumb|left|''Figure 4: High levels of nitrogen can lead to build up of algae in water bodies. This abundance of algae can impact the ecosystem within that water system.(Credit: James Fischer, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Public domain.)'' [15]]]<br /> === Nitrification: ===<br /> Nitrification is a two-part oxidation process of ammonium ions into nitrates and nitrites moderated by many microbial communities in the ecosystem [9]. This process provides extra available nitrogen for plants to take in via their roots. Through the process of nitrification, ammonium, produced by ammonification, found in [[soil]]s is transformed into nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are able to be used by plants and plant consuming [[animals]] and are formed by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Nitrites are not readily available to plants and animal but can be converted to nitrates by bacteria. These nitrite-oxidizing [[bacteria]], nitrobacteria, receive energy in exchange for this process [10]. Nitrate is the form most living plants use to absorb nitrogen.<br /> <br /> === Denitrification: ===<br /> Denitrification follows the process of nitrification and is where nitrates are returned to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soils [6]. Denitrification generally occurs in anoxic environments with exhausted oxygen levels. This process can lead to a loss in soil nitrogen content which needs to be replaced. Denitrification can also occur during the process of harvesting crops, [[soil erosion]], burning, and leaching. <br /> <br /> == Anthropogenic Changes: ==<br /> Anthropogenic activities have greatly altered the nitrogen cycle through, fossil fuel combustion, extensive cultivation of [[legume]]s and the construction of fertilizers using the [[Haber-Bosch process]]. The human use of nitrogen fixation has increased food production but has led to an increase in nitrogen being emitted into the atmosphere [12]. This build up of excess nitrogen can drain from soils into water sources underground or enter water systems via runoff. Nitrogen build up leads to [[eutrophication]], shown in figure 4, extreme nitrogen levels, leading to issues such as [[algae]] blooms due to nitrogen enrichment in the water. This process can decrease oxygen level and have a more last effect on an aquatic system. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. Stein, L. Y., and M. G. Klotz. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biology 26:R94–R98.<br /> <br /> 2. LeBauer, D. S., and K. K. Treseder. 2008. Nitrogen Limitation of Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Is Globally Distributed. [[Ecology]] 89:371–379.<br /> <br /> 3. Ollivier, J., S. Töwe, A. Bannert, B. Hai, E.-M. Kastl, A. Meyer, M. X. Su, K. Kleineidam, and M. Schloter. 2011. Nitrogen turnover in soil and global change: Key players of soil nitrogen cycle. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 78:3–16.<br /> <br /> 4. Meng, L., W. Li, S. Zhang, C. Wu, and L. Lv. 2017. Feasibility of co-composting of sewage sludge, spent mushroom substrate and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology 226:39–45.<br /> <br /> 5. Peoples, M. B., D. F. Herridge, and J. K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil 174:3–28.<br /> <br /> 6. Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.<br /> <br /> 7. Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co, 2005.<br /> <br /> 8. Fath, B. D. 2018. Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, San Diego, NETHERLANDS, THE.<br /> <br /> 9. Sims, J. T., and D. C. Wolf. 1994. Poultry Waste Management: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Pages 1–83 in D. L. Sparks, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.<br /> <br /> 10. Cáceres, R., K. Malińska, and O. Marfà. 2018. Nitrification within composting: A review. Waste Management 72:119–137.<br /> <br /> 11. Gu, B., Y. Ge, Y. Ren, B. Xu, W. Luo, H. Jiang, B. Gu, and J. Chang. 2012. Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs. Environmental Science &amp; Technology 46:9420–9427.<br /> <br /> 12. Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg: Environmental Protection Agency[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg]<br /> <br /> 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg]<br /> <br /> 14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg#/media/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg<br /> <br /> 15. Collecting Water Nutrient Data. (n.d.). . https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/collecting-water-nutrient-data.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Nitrogen_cycle&diff=6837 2021-05-05T18:35:42Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>The nitrogen cycle is a repeating circulation of the element nitrogen in various chemical forms throughout living and non-living things on Earth. By changing forms nitrogen is able to move from the atmosphere, as a gas, to a form that is usable by plant life. The nitrogen cycle can be divided into several processes including: nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Other processes have been considered in this cycle as scientific research continues.[1][[File:1024px-Nitrogen Cycle.svg.png |thumb|The Nitrogen Cycle. [12]]] <br /> <br /> The nitrogen cycle allows for the continued maintenance of healthy productive ecosystems. The alteration of nitrogen levels can greatly affect plant production and biomass in our environment. The nitrogen cycle allows us to understand how to better grow crops in agriculture to maintain a food supply for the human population but also limit fertilizer pollution in [[soil]]s that can lead to eutrophication.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Nitrogen ==<br /> Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in the survival and success of all organisms [2]. Around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. This nitrogen in the atmosphere occurs as dinitrogen gas (N2) and is unable to be used directly by living organisms such as plants which can limit nitrogen availability ecosystems [3]. The nitrogen cycle is a key component in many ecosystem processes such as [[decomposition]] and primary production. Nitrogen availability can alter the rate of these processes. Nitrogen has several forms including dinitrogen gas (N2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4 +), and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). <br /> <br /> == Processes ==<br /> Through a series of processes nitrogen can be converted by microbial activities through fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.[4] These processes make up the nitrogen cycle and play an important role for all living organisms on Earth.<br /> <br /> === Nitrogen fixation: ===<br /> Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas (N2), is transformed into ammonium (NH4-), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants. Through this process nitrogen is moved from the atmosphere into the [[soil]] where plants can absorb it through their root system. A small percentage of fixation can occur via abiotic activities such as lightening. A majority of nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in [[File:1104px-Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg.png|thumb|left|Nitrogen Fixation. [13]]] [[soil]]s by [[bacteria]] that have a symbiotic relationship with the plants [5]. In exchange for energy from photosynthesis the bacteria will fix nitrogen into a usable form for the plant by using the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation by bacteria can also produce forms of nitrogen that can be utilized by various [[organisms]]. This fixation process requires a great deal of energy and therefore uses a lot of ATP.<br /> <br /> A common symbiont, nitrogen fixing [[bacteria]], fix the most nitrogen. The two most common of these symbiotic bacteria are ''Rhizobium'' and ''Bradyrhizobium''. Both of these bacteria are able to invade the roots of legume plants. These bacteria provide plants with usable nitrogen to assist with protein production and the plants provide energy in the form of carbon for the symbiont bacteria. this process is beneficial to [[agriculture]] as leguminous plants can assist with returning nitrogen into the [[soil]] to promote plant growth. Many farmers will use a crop rotation system where legumes will be grown and then plowed back into the [[soil]] to increase nitrogen availability for crops the following year.<br /> <br /> === Assimilation: ===<br /> Assimilation of inorganic nitrogen is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds form from inorganic nitrogen compounds in an ecosystem. Plants use these ions to make proteins and nucleic acids [6]. Nitrogen assimilation requires ATP and reduced ferredoxin from photosynthesizing cells in plants [7]. The assimilation process occurs when nitrates enter a cell and are reduced to ammonia. [[File:1920px-Glutamine synthetase reaction.svg.png|thumb|glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway. [14]]] This ammonia is then incorporated into organic compounds through the glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway (see figure 3). Through this pathway ammonia and glutamate are catalyzed by glutamine synthase into glutamine. Glutamine is then catalyzed by glutamate synthase into two glutamate molecules. One of these molecules will go back into the pathway, the other goes into transamination reactions to form other amino acids.<br /> <br /> === Ammonification/ Mineralization: ===<br /> Soil nitrogen can be derived from dead [[organic materials]]. Ammonification or mineralization is the process where bacteria incorporate nitrogen into amino acids and release the excess nitrogen as ammonium ions (NH4+) into the soil. These ammonium ions are then readily available for uptake by plants for protein synthesis and [[microorganisms]] that require it for growth [8].<br /> [[File:Eutrophication.jpg |thumb|left|''Figure 4: High levels of nitrogen can lead to build up of algae in water bodies. This abundance of algae can impact the ecosystem within that water system.(Credit: James Fischer, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Public domain.)'' [15]]]<br /> === Nitrification: ===<br /> Nitrification is a two-part oxidation process of ammonium ions into nitrates and nitrites moderated by many microbial communities in the ecosystem [9]. This process provides extra available nitrogen for plants to take in via their roots. Through the process of nitrification, ammonium, produced by ammonification, found in soils is transformed into nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are able to be used by plants and plant consuming [[animals]] and are formed by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Nitrites are not readily available to plants and animal but can be converted to nitrates by bacteria. These nitrite-oxidizing [[bacteria]], nitrobacteria, receive energy in exchange for this process [10]. Nitrate is the form most living plants use to absorb nitrogen.<br /> <br /> === Denitrification: ===<br /> Denitrification follows the process of nitrification and is where nitrates are returned to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soils [6]. Denitrification generally occurs in anoxic environments with exhausted oxygen levels. This process can lead to a loss in soil nitrogen content which needs to be replaced. Denitrification can also occur during the process of harvesting crops, [[soil erosion]], burning, and leaching. <br /> <br /> == Anthropogenic Changes: ==<br /> Anthropogenic activities have greatly altered the nitrogen cycle through, fossil fuel combustion, extensive cultivation of legumes and the construction of fertilizers using the [[Haber-Bosch process]]. The human use of nitrogen fixation has increased food production but has led to an increase in nitrogen being emitted into the atmosphere [12]. This build up of excess nitrogen can drain from soils into water sources underground or enter water systems via runoff. Nitrogen build up leads to [[eutrophication]], shown in figure 4, extreme nitrogen levels, leading to issues such as [[algae]] blooms due to nitrogen enrichment in the water. This process can decrease oxygen level and have a more last effect on an aquatic system. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. Stein, L. Y., and M. G. Klotz. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biology 26:R94–R98.<br /> <br /> 2. LeBauer, D. S., and K. K. Treseder. 2008. Nitrogen Limitation of Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Is Globally Distributed. [[Ecology]] 89:371–379.<br /> <br /> 3. Ollivier, J., S. Töwe, A. Bannert, B. Hai, E.-M. Kastl, A. Meyer, M. X. Su, K. Kleineidam, and M. Schloter. 2011. Nitrogen turnover in soil and global change: Key players of soil nitrogen cycle. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 78:3–16.<br /> <br /> 4. Meng, L., W. Li, S. Zhang, C. Wu, and L. Lv. 2017. Feasibility of co-composting of sewage sludge, spent mushroom substrate and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology 226:39–45.<br /> <br /> 5. Peoples, M. B., D. F. Herridge, and J. K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil 174:3–28.<br /> <br /> 6. Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.<br /> <br /> 7. Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co, 2005.<br /> <br /> 8. Fath, B. D. 2018. Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, San Diego, NETHERLANDS, THE.<br /> <br /> 9. Sims, J. T., and D. C. Wolf. 1994. Poultry Waste Management: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Pages 1–83 in D. L. Sparks, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.<br /> <br /> 10. Cáceres, R., K. Malińska, and O. Marfà. 2018. Nitrification within composting: A review. Waste Management 72:119–137.<br /> <br /> 11. Gu, B., Y. Ge, Y. Ren, B. Xu, W. Luo, H. Jiang, B. Gu, and J. Chang. 2012. Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs. Environmental Science &amp; Technology 46:9420–9427.<br /> <br /> 12. Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg: Environmental Protection Agency[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg]<br /> <br /> 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg]<br /> <br /> 14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg#/media/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg<br /> <br /> 15. Collecting Water Nutrient Data. (n.d.). . https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/collecting-water-nutrient-data.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Nitrogen_cycle&diff=6830 2021-05-05T18:30:06Z

<p>Teresato: /* Nitrogen fixation: */</p> <hr /> <div>The nitrogen cycle is a repeating circulation of the element nitrogen in various chemical forms throughout living and non-living things on Earth. By changing forms nitrogen is able to move from the atmosphere, as a gas, to a form that is usable by plant life. The nitrogen cycle can be divided into several processes including: nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Other processes have been considered in this cycle as scientific research continues.[1][[File:1024px-Nitrogen Cycle.svg.png |thumb|The Nitrogen Cycle. [12]]] <br /> <br /> The nitrogen cycle allows for the continued maintenance of healthy productive ecosystems. The alteration of nitrogen levels can greatly affect plant production and biomass in our environment. The nitrogen cycle allows us to understand how to better grow crops in agriculture to maintain a food supply for the human population but also limit fertilizer pollution in [[soil]]s that can lead to eutrophication.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Nitrogen ==<br /> Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in the survival and success of all organisms [2]. Around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. This nitrogen in the atmosphere occurs as dinitrogen gas (N2) and is unable to be used directly by living organisms such as plants which can limit nitrogen availability ecosystems [3]. The nitrogen cycle is a key component in many ecosystem processes such as [[decomposition]] and primary production. Nitrogen availability can alter the rate of these processes. Nitrogen has several forms including dinitrogen gas (N2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4 +), and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). <br /> <br /> == Processes ==<br /> Through a series of processes nitrogen can be converted by microbial activities through fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.[4] These processes make up the nitrogen cycle and play an important role for all living organisms on Earth.<br /> <br /> === Nitrogen fixation: ===<br /> Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas (N2), is transformed into ammonium (NH4-), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants. Through this process nitrogen is moved from the atmosphere into the [[soil]] where plants can absorb it through their root system. A small percentage of fixation can occur via abiotic activities such as lightening. A majority of nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in [[File:1104px-Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg.png|thumb|left|Nitrogen Fixation. [13]]] [[soil]]s by [[bacteria]] that have a symbiotic relationship with the plants [5]. In exchange for energy from photosynthesis the bacteria will fix nitrogen into a usable form for the plant by using the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation by bacteria can also produce forms of nitrogen that can be utilized by various [[organisms]]. This fixation process requires a great deal of energy and therefore uses a lot of ATP.<br /> <br /> A common symbiont, nitrogen fixing [[bacteria]], fix the most nitrogen. The two most common of these symbiotic bacteria are ''Rhizobium'' and ''Bradyrhizobium''. Both of these bacteria are able to invade the roots of legume plants. These bacteria provide plants with usable nitrogen to assist with protein production and the plants provide energy in the form of carbon for the symbiont bacteria. this process is beneficial to [[agriculture]] as leguminous plants can assist with returning nitrogen into the [[soil]] to promote plant growth. Many farmers will use a crop rotation system where legumes will be grown and then plowed back into the [[soil]] to increase nitrogen availability for crops the following year.<br /> <br /> === Assimilation: ===<br /> Assimilation of inorganic nitrogen is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds form from inorganic nitrogen compounds in an ecosystem. Plants use these ions to make proteins and nucleic acids [6]. Nitrogen assimilation requires ATP and reduced ferredoxin from photosynthesizing cells in plants [7]. The assimilation process occurs when nitrates enter a cell and are reduced to ammonia. [[File:1920px-Glutamine synthetase reaction.svg.png|thumb|glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway. [14]]] This ammonia is then incorporated into organic compounds through the glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway (see figure 3). Through this pathway ammonia and glutamate are catalyzed by glutamine synthase into glutamine. Glutamine is then catalyzed by glutamate synthase into two glutamate molecules. One of these molecules will go back into the pathway, the other goes into transamination reactions to form other amino acids.<br /> <br /> === Ammonification/ Mineralization: ===<br /> Soil nitrogen can be derived from dead [[organic materials]]. Ammonification or mineralization is the process where bacteria incorporate nitrogen into amino acids and release the excess nitrogen as ammonium ions into the soil. These ammonium ions are then readily available for uptake by plants for protein synthesis and [[microorganisms]] that require it for growth [8].<br /> <br /> &lt;!--include more specifics like chemical symbols ie. NH4+, NH2 to better visualize what is being converted etc--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Nitrification: ===<br /> Nitrification is a two-part oxidation process of ammonium ions into nitrates and nitrites moderated by many microbial communities in the ecosystem [9]. This process provides extra available nitrogen for plants to take in via their roots. Through the process of nitrification, ammonium, produced by ammonification, found in soils is transformed into nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are able to be used by plants and plant consuming [[animals]] and are formed by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Nitrites are not readily available to plants and animal but can be converted to nitrates by bacteria. These nitrite-oxidizing [[bacteria]], nitrobacteria, receive energy in exchange for this process [10]. Nitrate is the form most living plants use to absorb nitrogen.<br /> <br /> &lt;!--maybe make some subheadings with the steps of nitrification--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Denitrification: ===<br /> Denitrification follows the process of nitrification and is where nitrates are returned to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soils [6]. Denitrification generally occurs in anoxic environments with exhausted oxygen levels. This process can lead to a loss in soil nitrogen content which needs to be replaced. Denitrification can also occur during the process of harvesting crops, [[soil erosion]], burning, and leaching. [[File:Eutrophication.jpg |thumb|''Figure 4: High levels of nitrogen can lead to build up of algae in water bodies.(Credit: James Fischer, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Public domain.)'' [15]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Anthropogenic Changes: ==<br /> <br /> Anthropogenic activities have greatly altered the nitrogen cycle through, fossil fuel combustion, extensive cultivation of legumes and the construction of fertilizers using the [[Haber-Bosch process]]. The human use of nitrogen fixation has increased food production but has led to an increase in nitrogen being emitted into the atmosphere [12]. This build up of excess nitrogen can drain from soils into water sources underground or enter water systems via runoff. Nitrogen build up leads to [[eutrophication]], shown in figure 4, extreme nitrogen levels, leading to issues such as [[algae]] blooms due to nitrogen enrichment in the water. This process can decrease oxygen level and have a more last effect on an aquatic system. <br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;!--Really good, but I think you definitely need more pictures to go with the specific processes, and they should definitely include the chemical formulas for easier understanding--&gt;<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. Stein, L. Y., and M. G. Klotz. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biology 26:R94–R98.<br /> <br /> 2. LeBauer, D. S., and K. K. Treseder. 2008. Nitrogen Limitation of Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Is Globally Distributed. [[Ecology]] 89:371–379.<br /> <br /> 3. Ollivier, J., S. Töwe, A. Bannert, B. Hai, E.-M. Kastl, A. Meyer, M. X. Su, K. Kleineidam, and M. Schloter. 2011. Nitrogen turnover in soil and global change: Key players of soil nitrogen cycle. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 78:3–16.<br /> <br /> 4. Meng, L., W. Li, S. Zhang, C. Wu, and L. Lv. 2017. Feasibility of co-composting of sewage sludge, spent mushroom substrate and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology 226:39–45.<br /> <br /> 5. Peoples, M. B., D. F. Herridge, and J. K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil 174:3–28.<br /> <br /> 6. Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.<br /> <br /> 7. Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co, 2005.<br /> <br /> 8. Fath, B. D. 2018. Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, San Diego, NETHERLANDS, THE.<br /> <br /> 9. Sims, J. T., and D. C. Wolf. 1994. Poultry Waste Management: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Pages 1–83 in D. L. Sparks, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.<br /> <br /> 10. Cáceres, R., K. Malińska, and O. Marfà. 2018. Nitrification within composting: A review. Waste Management 72:119–137.<br /> <br /> 11. Gu, B., Y. Ge, Y. Ren, B. Xu, W. Luo, H. Jiang, B. Gu, and J. Chang. 2012. Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs. Environmental Science &amp; Technology 46:9420–9427.<br /> <br /> 12. Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg: Environmental Protection Agency[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg]<br /> <br /> 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg]<br /> <br /> 14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg#/media/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg<br /> <br /> 15. Collecting Water Nutrient Data. (n.d.). . https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/collecting-water-nutrient-data.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Nitrogen_cycle&diff=6827 2021-05-05T18:29:35Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>The nitrogen cycle is a repeating circulation of the element nitrogen in various chemical forms throughout living and non-living things on Earth. By changing forms nitrogen is able to move from the atmosphere, as a gas, to a form that is usable by plant life. The nitrogen cycle can be divided into several processes including: nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Other processes have been considered in this cycle as scientific research continues.[1][[File:1024px-Nitrogen Cycle.svg.png |thumb|The Nitrogen Cycle. [12]]] <br /> <br /> The nitrogen cycle allows for the continued maintenance of healthy productive ecosystems. The alteration of nitrogen levels can greatly affect plant production and biomass in our environment. The nitrogen cycle allows us to understand how to better grow crops in agriculture to maintain a food supply for the human population but also limit fertilizer pollution in [[soil]]s that can lead to eutrophication.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Nitrogen ==<br /> Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in the survival and success of all organisms [2]. Around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. This nitrogen in the atmosphere occurs as dinitrogen gas (N2) and is unable to be used directly by living organisms such as plants which can limit nitrogen availability ecosystems [3]. The nitrogen cycle is a key component in many ecosystem processes such as [[decomposition]] and primary production. Nitrogen availability can alter the rate of these processes. Nitrogen has several forms including dinitrogen gas (N2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4 +), and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). <br /> <br /> == Processes ==<br /> Through a series of processes nitrogen can be converted by microbial activities through fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.[4] These processes make up the nitrogen cycle and play an important role for all living organisms on Earth.<br /> <br /> === Nitrogen fixation: ===<br /> Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas (N2), is transformed into ammonium (NH4-), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants. Through this process nitrogen is moved from the atmosphere into the [[soil]] where plants can absorb it through their root system. A small percentage of fixation can occur via abiotic activities such as lightening. A majority of nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in [[File:1104px-Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg.png|thumb|Nitrogen Fixation. [13]]] [[soil]]s by [[bacteria]] that have a symbiotic relationship with the plants [5]. In exchange for energy from photosynthesis the bacteria will fix nitrogen into a usable form for the plant by using the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation by bacteria can also produce forms of nitrogen that can be utilized by various [[organisms]]. This fixation process requires a great deal of energy and therefore uses a lot of ATP.<br /> <br /> A common symbiont, nitrogen fixing [[bacteria]], fix the most nitrogen. The two most common of these symbiotic bacteria are ''Rhizobium'' and ''Bradyrhizobium''. Both of these bacteria are able to invade the roots of legume plants. These bacteria provide plants with usable nitrogen to assist with protein production and the plants provide energy in the form of carbon for the symbiont bacteria. this process is beneficial to [[agriculture]] as leguminous plants can assist with returning nitrogen into the [[soil]] to promote plant growth. Many farmers will use a crop rotation system where legumes will be grown and then plowed back into the [[soil]] to increase nitrogen availability for crops the following year.<br /> <br /> === Assimilation: ===<br /> Assimilation of inorganic nitrogen is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds form from inorganic nitrogen compounds in an ecosystem. Plants use these ions to make proteins and nucleic acids [6]. Nitrogen assimilation requires ATP and reduced ferredoxin from photosynthesizing cells in plants [7]. The assimilation process occurs when nitrates enter a cell and are reduced to ammonia. [[File:1920px-Glutamine synthetase reaction.svg.png|thumb|glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway. [14]]] This ammonia is then incorporated into organic compounds through the glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway (see figure 3). Through this pathway ammonia and glutamate are catalyzed by glutamine synthase into glutamine. Glutamine is then catalyzed by glutamate synthase into two glutamate molecules. One of these molecules will go back into the pathway, the other goes into transamination reactions to form other amino acids.<br /> <br /> === Ammonification/ Mineralization: ===<br /> Soil nitrogen can be derived from dead [[organic materials]]. Ammonification or mineralization is the process where bacteria incorporate nitrogen into amino acids and release the excess nitrogen as ammonium ions into the soil. These ammonium ions are then readily available for uptake by plants for protein synthesis and [[microorganisms]] that require it for growth [8].<br /> <br /> &lt;!--include more specifics like chemical symbols ie. NH4+, NH2 to better visualize what is being converted etc--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Nitrification: ===<br /> Nitrification is a two-part oxidation process of ammonium ions into nitrates and nitrites moderated by many microbial communities in the ecosystem [9]. This process provides extra available nitrogen for plants to take in via their roots. Through the process of nitrification, ammonium, produced by ammonification, found in soils is transformed into nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are able to be used by plants and plant consuming [[animals]] and are formed by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Nitrites are not readily available to plants and animal but can be converted to nitrates by bacteria. These nitrite-oxidizing [[bacteria]], nitrobacteria, receive energy in exchange for this process [10]. Nitrate is the form most living plants use to absorb nitrogen.<br /> <br /> &lt;!--maybe make some subheadings with the steps of nitrification--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Denitrification: ===<br /> Denitrification follows the process of nitrification and is where nitrates are returned to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soils [6]. Denitrification generally occurs in anoxic environments with exhausted oxygen levels. This process can lead to a loss in soil nitrogen content which needs to be replaced. Denitrification can also occur during the process of harvesting crops, [[soil erosion]], burning, and leaching. [[File:Eutrophication.jpg |thumb|''Figure 4: High levels of nitrogen can lead to build up of algae in water bodies.(Credit: James Fischer, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Public domain.)'' [15]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Anthropogenic Changes: ==<br /> <br /> Anthropogenic activities have greatly altered the nitrogen cycle through, fossil fuel combustion, extensive cultivation of legumes and the construction of fertilizers using the [[Haber-Bosch process]]. The human use of nitrogen fixation has increased food production but has led to an increase in nitrogen being emitted into the atmosphere [12]. This build up of excess nitrogen can drain from soils into water sources underground or enter water systems via runoff. Nitrogen build up leads to [[eutrophication]], shown in figure 4, extreme nitrogen levels, leading to issues such as [[algae]] blooms due to nitrogen enrichment in the water. This process can decrease oxygen level and have a more last effect on an aquatic system. <br /> <br /> <br /> &lt;!--Really good, but I think you definitely need more pictures to go with the specific processes, and they should definitely include the chemical formulas for easier understanding--&gt;<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. Stein, L. Y., and M. G. Klotz. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biology 26:R94–R98.<br /> <br /> 2. LeBauer, D. S., and K. K. Treseder. 2008. Nitrogen Limitation of Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Is Globally Distributed. [[Ecology]] 89:371–379.<br /> <br /> 3. Ollivier, J., S. Töwe, A. Bannert, B. Hai, E.-M. Kastl, A. Meyer, M. X. Su, K. Kleineidam, and M. Schloter. 2011. Nitrogen turnover in soil and global change: Key players of soil nitrogen cycle. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 78:3–16.<br /> <br /> 4. Meng, L., W. Li, S. Zhang, C. Wu, and L. Lv. 2017. Feasibility of co-composting of sewage sludge, spent mushroom substrate and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology 226:39–45.<br /> <br /> 5. Peoples, M. B., D. F. Herridge, and J. K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil 174:3–28.<br /> <br /> 6. Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.<br /> <br /> 7. Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co, 2005.<br /> <br /> 8. Fath, B. D. 2018. Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, San Diego, NETHERLANDS, THE.<br /> <br /> 9. Sims, J. T., and D. C. Wolf. 1994. Poultry Waste Management: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Pages 1–83 in D. L. Sparks, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.<br /> <br /> 10. Cáceres, R., K. Malińska, and O. Marfà. 2018. Nitrification within composting: A review. Waste Management 72:119–137.<br /> <br /> 11. Gu, B., Y. Ge, Y. Ren, B. Xu, W. Luo, H. Jiang, B. Gu, and J. Chang. 2012. Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs. Environmental Science &amp; Technology 46:9420–9427.<br /> <br /> 12. Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg: Environmental Protection Agency[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg]<br /> <br /> 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg]<br /> <br /> 14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg#/media/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg<br /> <br /> 15. Collecting Water Nutrient Data. (n.d.). . https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/collecting-water-nutrient-data.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Eutrophication.jpg&diff=6807 2021-05-05T18:23:18Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6803 2021-05-05T18:14:23Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|''Figure 1: New Zealand Flatworm.'' [11]]]''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. There is no documented impacts of ''A. triangulates'' in its native range of New Zealand.<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|left|''Figure 2: Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm.'' [10]]] <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that can be used to protect the flatworm from desiccation [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule, shown in figure 2, that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6].<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> <br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This sepcies uses secreted muscus to assist with the digestion of the [[earthworm]]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil fertility]].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6801 2021-05-05T18:13:51Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|''Figure 1: New Zealand Flatworm.'' [11]]]''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. There is no documented impacts of ''A. triangulates'' in its native range of New Zealand.<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|left|''Figure 2: Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm.'' [10]]] <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that can be used to protect the flatworm from desiccation [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule, shown in figure 2, that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6]. &lt;!--perhaps include a picture of this capsule both red and black?--&gt;<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> <br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This sepcies uses secreted muscus to assist with the digestion of the [[earthworm]]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil fertility]].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6799 2021-05-05T18:13:19Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|''Figure 1:''New Zealand Flatworm. [11]]]''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. There is no documented impacts of ''A. triangulates'' in its native range of New Zealand.<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|left|''Figure 2:''Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm. [10]]] <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that can be used to protect the flatworm from desiccation [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule, shown in figure 2, that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6]. &lt;!--perhaps include a picture of this capsule both red and black?--&gt;<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> <br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This sepcies uses secreted muscus to assist with the digestion of the [[earthworm]]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil fertility]].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6688 2021-05-05T16:09:59Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>Hydraulic action is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases:<br /> <br /> '''Solid:''' Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> '''Liquid:''' Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Vapor:''' Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1]. <br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> '''Gravitational Water:''' Found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Water:''' This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Hygroscopic Water:''' Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6687 2021-05-05T16:09:34Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>[[Hydraulic action]] is the physical weathering of materials caused by the movement of water over rocks [6]. This process can lead to the erosion of sediments and rocks along the shorlines via flowing water in rivers, streams and break waves in other bodies of water [7].<br /> <br /> == Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases:<br /> <br /> '''Solid:''' Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> '''Liquid:''' Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Vapor:''' Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1]. <br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> '''Gravitational Water:''' Found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Water:''' This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Hygroscopic Water:''' Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Keaton JR (2013) Estimating erodible rock durability and geotechnical parameters for scour analysis. Environ Eng Geosci XIX(4):319–343<br /> <br /> [7] Keaton J.R. (2018) Hydraulic Action. In: Bobrowsky P., Marker B. (eds) Encyclopedia of Engineering Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12127-7_158-1</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6682 2021-05-05T16:00:40Z

<p>Teresato: /* Description */</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|New Zealand Flatworm. [11]]]''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. There is no documented impacts of ''A. triangulates'' in its native range of New Zealand.<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|left|Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm. [10]]] <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that can be used to protect the flatworm from desiccation [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6]. &lt;!--perhaps include a picture of this capsule both red and black?--&gt;<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> <br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This sepcies uses secreted muscus to assist with the digestion of the [[earthworm]]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil fertility]].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6681 2021-05-05T16:00:10Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|New Zealand Flatworm. [11]]]''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. There is no documented impacts of ''A. triangulates'' in its native range of New Zealand.<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|left|Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm. [10]]] <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that can be used to protect the flatworm from desiccation [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. <br /> <br /> The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6]. &lt;!--perhaps include a picture of this capsule both red and black?--&gt;<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> <br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This sepcies uses secreted muscus to assist with the digestion of the [[earthworm]]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil fertility]].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6680 2021-05-05T15:59:14Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|right|Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm. [10]]] ''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. There is no documented impacts of ''A. triangulates'' in its native range of New Zealand.<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|New Zealand Flatworm. [11]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that can be used to protect the flatworm from desiccation [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. <br /> <br /> The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6]. &lt;!--perhaps include a picture of this capsule both red and black?--&gt;<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> <br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This sepcies uses secreted muscus to assist with the digestion of the [[earthworm]]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil fertility]].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6672 2021-05-05T15:34:56Z

<p>Teresato: /* Invasive Species */</p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|right|Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm. [10]]] ''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. &lt;!--maybe discuss its environmental impact on its native territory, I think you covered it's invasive effect really well, but I don't know too much what it does where it's supposed to actually be--&gt;<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|New Zealand Flatworm. [11]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that is sticky to the touch &lt;!--Is there a reason for the mucous, does it help in movement?--&gt; [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. <br /> <br /> The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6]. &lt;!--perhaps include a picture of this capsule both red and black?--&gt;<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil fertility]].<br /> &lt;!--Great article! I didn't find too many errors--&gt;<br /> &lt;!--I agree, great article!! I shifted one picture to the let side because I think it looks way better there but feel free to switch back! &lt;3 --&gt;<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6670 2021-05-05T15:33:40Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|right|Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm. [10]]] ''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an [[invasive species]] because of its predation over native [[earthworm]]s leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this [[invasive specie]]s is thought to be the [[horticulture]] and [[agriculture]] trade [1]. &lt;!--maybe discuss its environmental impact on its native territory, I think you covered it's invasive effect really well, but I don't know too much what it does where it's supposed to actually be--&gt;<br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|right|New Zealand Flatworm. [11]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back (dorsal) side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside (ventral) part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that is sticky to the touch &lt;!--Is there a reason for the mucous, does it help in movement?--&gt; [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the [[soil]], under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the [[soil]] when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time [4]. <br /> <br /> The species can move up to 17 meters per hour utilizing trails previously made by [[earthworm]]s [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6]. &lt;!--perhaps include a picture of this capsule both red and black?--&gt;<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in [[horticulture]] soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland, and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native [[earthworm]] species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This depletion of [[earthworm]] [[biodiversity]] reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the [[earthworm]]s. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing [[soil]] fertility.<br /> &lt;!--Great article! I didn't find too many errors--&gt;<br /> &lt;!--I agree, great article!! I shifted one picture to the let side because I think it looks way better there but feel free to switch back! &lt;3 --&gt;<br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Nitrogen_cycle&diff=6659 2021-05-05T14:51:53Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>The nitrogen cycle is a repeating circulation of the element nitrogen in various chemical forms throughout living and non-living things on Earth. By changing forms nitrogen is able to move from the atmosphere, as a gas, to a form that is usable by plant life. The nitrogen cycle can be divided into several processes including: nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Other processes have been considered in this cycle as scientific research continues.[1][[File:1024px-Nitrogen Cycle.svg.png |thumb|The Nitrogen Cycle. [12]]] <br /> <br /> The nitrogen cycle allows for the continued maintenance of healthy productive ecosystems. The alteration of nitrogen levels can greatly affect plant production and biomass in our environment. The nitrogen cycle allows us to understand how to better grow crops in agriculture to maintain a food supply for the human population but also limit fertilizer pollution in [[soil]]s that can lead to eutrophication.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Nitrogen ==<br /> Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in the survival and success of all organisms [2]. Around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. This nitrogen in the atmosphere occurs as dinitrogen gas (N2) and is unable to be used directly by living organisms such as plants which can limit nitrogen availability ecosystems [3]. The nitrogen cycle is a key component in many ecosystem processes such as [[decomposition]] and primary production. Nitrogen availability can alter the rate of these processes. Nitrogen has several forms including dinitrogen gas (N2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4 +), and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). <br /> <br /> == Processes ==<br /> Through a series of processes nitrogen can be converted by microbial activities through fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.[4] These processes make up the nitrogen cycle and play an important role for all living organisms on Earth.<br /> <br /> === Nitrogen fixation: ===<br /> Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas (N2), is transformed into ammonium (NH4-), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants. Through this process nitrogen is moved from the atmosphere into the [[soil]] where plants can absorb it through their root system. A small percentage of fixation can occur via abiotic activities such as lightening. A majority of nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in [[File:1104px-Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg.png|thumb|Nitrogen Fixation. [13]]] [[soil]]s by [[bacteria]] that have a symbiotic relationship with the plants [5]. In exchange for energy from photosynthesis the bacteria will fix nitrogen into a usable form for the plant by using the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation by bacteria can also produce forms of nitrogen that can be utilized by various [[organisms]]. This fixation process requires a great deal of energy and therefore uses a lot of ATP.<br /> <br /> A common symbiont, nitrogen fixing [[bacteria]], fix the most nitrogen. The two most common of these symbiotic bacteria are ''Rhizobium'' and ''Bradyrhizobium''. Both of these bacteria are able to invade the roots of legume plants. These bacteria provide plants with usable nitrogen to assist with protein production and the plants provide energy in the form of carbon for the symbiont bacteria. this process is beneficial to [[agriculture]] as leguminous plants can assist with returning nitrogen into the [[soil]] to promote plant growth. Many farmers will use a crop rotation system where legumes will be grown and then plowed back into the [[soil]] to increase nitrogen availability for crops the following year.<br /> <br /> === Assimilation: ===<br /> Assimilation of inorganic nitrogen is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds form from inorganic nitrogen compounds in an ecosystem. Plants use these ions to make proteins and nucleic acids [6]. Nitrogen assimilation requires ATP and reduced ferredoxin from photosynthesizing cells in plants [7]. The assimilation process occurs when nitrates enter a cell and are reduced to ammonia. [[File:1920px-Glutamine synthetase reaction.svg.png|thumb|glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway. [14]]] This ammonia is then incorporated into organic compounds through the glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway (see figure 3). Through this pathway ammonia and glutamate are catalyzed by glutamine synthase into glutamine. Glutamine is then catalyzed by glutamate synthase into two glutamate molecules. One of these molecules will go back into the pathway, the other goes into transamination reactions to form other amino acids.<br /> <br /> === Ammonification/ Mineralization: ===<br /> Soil nitrogen can be derived from dead [[organic materials]]. Ammonification or mineralization is the process where bacteria incorporate nitrogen into amino acids and release the excess nitrogen as ammonium ions into the soil. These ammonium ions are then readily available for uptake by plants for protein synthesis and [[microorganisms]] that require it for growth [8].<br /> <br /> &lt;!--include more specifics like chemical symbols ie. NH4+, NH2 to better visualize what is being converted etc--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Nitrification: ===<br /> Nitrification is a two-part oxidation process of ammonium ions into nitrates and nitrites moderated by many microbial communities in the ecosystem [9]. This process provides extra available nitrogen for plants to take in via their roots. Through the process of nitrification, ammonium, produced by ammonification, found in soils is transformed into nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are able to be used by plants and plant consuming [[animals]] and are formed by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Nitrites are not readily available to plants and animal but can be converted to nitrates by bacteria. These nitrite-oxidizing [[bacteria]], nitrobacteria, receive energy in exchange for this process [10]. Nitrate is the form most living plants use to absorb nitrogen.<br /> <br /> &lt;!--maybe make some subheadings with the steps of nitrification--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Denitrification: ===<br /> Denitrification follows the process of nitrification and is where nitrates are returned to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soils [6]. Denitrification generally occurs in anoxic environments with exhausted oxygen levels. This process can lead to a loss in soil nitrogen content which needs to be replaced. Denitrification can also occur during the process of harvesting crops, [[soil erosion]], burning, and leaching.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Anthropogenic Changes: ==<br /> <br /> Anthropogenic activities have greatly altered the nitrogen cycle through, fossil fuel combustion, extensive cultivation of legumes and the construction of fertilizers using the [[Haber-Bosch process]]. The human use of nitrogen fixation has increased food production but has led to an increase in nitrogen being emitted into the atmosphere [12]. This build up of excess nitrogen can drain from soils into water sources underground or enter water systems via runoff. Nitrogen build up leads to [[eutrophication]], extreme nitrogen levels, leading to issues such as [[algae]] blooms due to nitrogen enrichment in the water. This process can decrease oxygen level and have a more last effect on an aquatic system. <br /> <br /> &lt;!--maybe make another section on eutrophication?, maybe include a picture of what this looks like--&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;!--Really good, but I think you definitely need more pictures to go with the specific processes, and they should definitely include the chemical formulas for easier understanding--&gt;<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. Stein, L. Y., and M. G. Klotz. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biology 26:R94–R98.<br /> <br /> 2. LeBauer, D. S., and K. K. Treseder. 2008. Nitrogen Limitation of Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Is Globally Distributed. [[Ecology]] 89:371–379.<br /> <br /> 3. Ollivier, J., S. Töwe, A. Bannert, B. Hai, E.-M. Kastl, A. Meyer, M. X. Su, K. Kleineidam, and M. Schloter. 2011. Nitrogen turnover in soil and global change: Key players of soil nitrogen cycle. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 78:3–16.<br /> <br /> 4. Meng, L., W. Li, S. Zhang, C. Wu, and L. Lv. 2017. Feasibility of co-composting of sewage sludge, spent mushroom substrate and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology 226:39–45.<br /> <br /> 5. Peoples, M. B., D. F. Herridge, and J. K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil 174:3–28.<br /> <br /> 6. Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.<br /> <br /> 7. Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co, 2005.<br /> <br /> 8. Fath, B. D. 2018. Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, San Diego, NETHERLANDS, THE.<br /> <br /> 9. Sims, J. T., and D. C. Wolf. 1994. Poultry Waste Management: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Pages 1–83 in D. L. Sparks, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.<br /> <br /> 10. Cáceres, R., K. Malińska, and O. Marfà. 2018. Nitrification within composting: A review. Waste Management 72:119–137.<br /> <br /> 11. Gu, B., Y. Ge, Y. Ren, B. Xu, W. Luo, H. Jiang, B. Gu, and J. Chang. 2012. Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs. Environmental Science &amp; Technology 46:9420–9427.<br /> <br /> 12. Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg: Environmental Protection Agency[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg]<br /> <br /> 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg]<br /> <br /> 14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg#/media/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Nitrogen_cycle&diff=6656 2021-05-05T14:49:01Z

<p>Teresato: /* Nitrification: */</p> <hr /> <div>The nitrogen cycle is a repeating circulation of the element nitrogen in various chemical forms throughout living and non-living things on Earth. By changing forms nitrogen is able to move from the atmosphere, as a gas, to a form that is usable by plant life. The nitrogen cycle can be divided into several processes including: nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Other processes have been considered in this cycle as scientific research continues.[1][[File:1024px-Nitrogen Cycle.svg.png |thumb|The Nitrogen Cycle. [12]]] <br /> <br /> The nitrogen cycle allows for the continued maintenance of healthy productive ecosystems. The alteration of nitrogen levels can greatly affect plant production and biomass in our environment. The nitrogen cycle allows us to understand how to better grow crops in agriculture to maintain a food supply for the human population but also limit fertilizer pollution in soils that can lead to eutrophication.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Nitrogen ==<br /> <br /> Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in the survival and success of all organisms [2]. Around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. This nitrogen in the atmosphere occurs as dinitrogen gas (N2) and is unable to be used directly by living organisms such as plants which can limit nitrogen availability ecosystems [3]. The nitrogen cycle is a key component in many ecosystem processes such as [[decomposition]] and primary production. Nitrogen availability can alter the rate of these processes. Nitrogen has several forms including dinitrogen gas (N2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4 +), and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). <br /> == Processes ==<br /> <br /> Through a series of processes nitrogen can be converted by microbial activities through fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.[4] These processes make up the nitrogen cycle and play an important role for all living organisms on Earth.<br /> <br /> === Nitrogen fixation: ===<br /> Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas (N2), is transformed into ammonium (NH4-), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants. Through this process nitrogen is moved from the atmosphere into the soil where plants can absorb it through their root system. A small percentage of fixation can occur via abiotic activities such as lightening. A majority of nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in [[File:1104px-Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg.png|thumb|Nitrogen Fixation. [13]]] soils by bacteria that have a symbiotic relationship with the plants [5]. In exchange for energy from photosynthesis the bacteria will fix nitrogen into a usable form for the plant by using the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation by bacteria can also produce forms of nitrogen that can be utilized by various [[organisms]]. This fixation process requires a great deal of energy and therefore uses a lot of ATP.<br /> <br /> A common symbiont, nitrogen fixing bacteria, fix the most nitrogen. The two most common of these symbiotic bacteria are ''Rhizobium'' and ''Bradyrhizobium''. Both of these bacteria are able to invade the roots of legume plants. These bacteria provide plants with usable nitrogen to assist with protein production and the plants provide energy in the form of carbon for the symbiont bacteria. this process is beneficial to [[agriculture]] as leguminous plants can assist with returning nitrogen into the soil to promote plant growth. Many farmers will use a crop rotation system where legumes will be grown and then plowed back into the [[soil]] to increase nitrogen availability for crops the following year.<br /> <br /> &lt;!--i love how you applied this to agriculture through this little bit--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Assimilation: ===<br /> Assimilation of inorganic nitrogen is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds form from inorganic nitrogen compounds in an ecosystem. Plants use these ions to make proteins and nucleic acids [6]. Nitrogen assimilation requires ATP and reduced ferredoxin from photosynthesizing cells in plants [7]. The assimilation process occurs when nitrates enter a cell and are reduced to ammonia. [[File:1920px-Glutamine synthetase reaction.svg.png|thumb|glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway. [14]]] This ammonia is then incorporated into organic compounds through the glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway (see figure 3). Through this pathway ammonia and glutamate are catalyzed by glutamine synthase into glutamine. Glutamine is then catalyzed by glutamate synthase into two glutamate molecules. One of these molecules will go back into the pathway, the other goes into transamination reactions to form other amino acids.<br /> <br /> === Ammonification/ Mineralization: ===<br /> Soil nitrogen can be derived from dead organic materials. Ammonification or mineralization is the process where bacteria incorporate nitrogen into amino acids and release the excess nitrogen as ammonium ions into the soil. These ammonium ions are then readily available for uptake by plants for protein synthesis and [[microorganisms]] that require it for growth [8].<br /> <br /> &lt;!--include more specifics like chemical symbols ie. NH4+, NH2 to better visualize what is being converted etc--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Nitrification: ===<br /> Nitrification is a two-part oxidation process of ammonium ions into nitrates and nitrites moderated by many microbial communities in the ecosystem [9]. This process provides extra available nitrogen for plants to take in via their roots. Through the process of nitrification, ammonium, produced by ammonification, found in soils is transformed into nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are able to be used by plants and plant consuming [[animals]] and are formed by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Nitrites are not readily available to plants and animal but can be converted to nitrates by bacteria. These nitrite-oxidizing [[bacteria]], nitrobacteria, receive energy in exchange for this process [10]. Nitrate is the form most living plants use to absorb nitrogen.<br /> <br /> &lt;!--maybe make some subheadings with the steps of nitrification--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Denitrification: ===<br /> Denitrification follows the process of nitrification and is where nitrates are returned to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soils [6]. Denitrification generally occurs in anoxic environments with exhausted oxygen levels. This process can lead to a loss in soil nitrogen content which needs to be replaced. Denitrification can also occur during the process of harvesting crops, [[soil erosion]], burning, and leaching.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Anthropogenic Changes: ==<br /> <br /> Anthropogenic activities have greatly altered the nitrogen cycle through, fossil fuel combustion, extensive cultivation of legumes and the construction of fertilizers using the [[Haber-Bosch process]]. The human use of nitrogen fixation has increased food production but has led to an increase in nitrogen being emitted into the atmosphere [12]. This build up of excess nitrogen can drain from soils into water sources underground or enter water systems via runoff. Nitrogen build up leads to [[eutrophication]], extreme nitrogen levels, leading to issues such as algae blooms due to nitrogen enrichment in the water. This process can decrease oxygen level and have a more last effect on an aquatic system. <br /> <br /> &lt;!--maybe make another section on eutrophication?, maybe include a picture of what this looks like--&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;!--Really good, but I think you definitely need more pictures to go with the specific processes, and they should definitely include the chemical formulas for easier understanding--&gt;<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. Stein, L. Y., and M. G. Klotz. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biology 26:R94–R98.<br /> <br /> 2. LeBauer, D. S., and K. K. Treseder. 2008. Nitrogen Limitation of Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Is Globally Distributed. [[Ecology]] 89:371–379.<br /> <br /> 3. Ollivier, J., S. Töwe, A. Bannert, B. Hai, E.-M. Kastl, A. Meyer, M. X. Su, K. Kleineidam, and M. Schloter. 2011. Nitrogen turnover in soil and global change: Key players of soil nitrogen cycle. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 78:3–16.<br /> <br /> 4. Meng, L., W. Li, S. Zhang, C. Wu, and L. Lv. 2017. Feasibility of co-composting of sewage sludge, spent mushroom substrate and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology 226:39–45.<br /> <br /> 5. Peoples, M. B., D. F. Herridge, and J. K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil 174:3–28.<br /> <br /> 6. Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.<br /> <br /> 7. Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co, 2005.<br /> <br /> 8. Fath, B. D. 2018. Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, San Diego, NETHERLANDS, THE.<br /> <br /> 9. Sims, J. T., and D. C. Wolf. 1994. Poultry Waste Management: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Pages 1–83 in D. L. Sparks, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.<br /> <br /> 10. Cáceres, R., K. Malińska, and O. Marfà. 2018. Nitrification within composting: A review. Waste Management 72:119–137.<br /> <br /> 11. Gu, B., Y. Ge, Y. Ren, B. Xu, W. Luo, H. Jiang, B. Gu, and J. Chang. 2012. Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs. Environmental Science &amp; Technology 46:9420–9427.<br /> <br /> 12. Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg: Environmental Protection Agency[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg]<br /> <br /> 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg]<br /> <br /> 14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg#/media/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Nitrogen_cycle&diff=6654 2021-05-05T14:48:22Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>The nitrogen cycle is a repeating circulation of the element nitrogen in various chemical forms throughout living and non-living things on Earth. By changing forms nitrogen is able to move from the atmosphere, as a gas, to a form that is usable by plant life. The nitrogen cycle can be divided into several processes including: nitrogen fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. Other processes have been considered in this cycle as scientific research continues.[1][[File:1024px-Nitrogen Cycle.svg.png |thumb|The Nitrogen Cycle. [12]]] <br /> <br /> The nitrogen cycle allows for the continued maintenance of healthy productive ecosystems. The alteration of nitrogen levels can greatly affect plant production and biomass in our environment. The nitrogen cycle allows us to understand how to better grow crops in agriculture to maintain a food supply for the human population but also limit fertilizer pollution in soils that can lead to eutrophication.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Nitrogen ==<br /> <br /> Nitrogen is a critical nutrient in the survival and success of all organisms [2]. Around 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen. This nitrogen in the atmosphere occurs as dinitrogen gas (N2) and is unable to be used directly by living organisms such as plants which can limit nitrogen availability ecosystems [3]. The nitrogen cycle is a key component in many ecosystem processes such as [[decomposition]] and primary production. Nitrogen availability can alter the rate of these processes. Nitrogen has several forms including dinitrogen gas (N2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4 +), and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). <br /> == Processes ==<br /> <br /> Through a series of processes nitrogen can be converted by microbial activities through fixation, assimilation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.[4] These processes make up the nitrogen cycle and play an important role for all living organisms on Earth.<br /> <br /> === Nitrogen fixation: ===<br /> Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas (N2), is transformed into ammonium (NH4-), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants. Through this process nitrogen is moved from the atmosphere into the soil where plants can absorb it through their root system. A small percentage of fixation can occur via abiotic activities such as lightening. A majority of nitrogen fixation occurs naturally in [[File:1104px-Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg.png|thumb|Nitrogen Fixation. [13]]] soils by bacteria that have a symbiotic relationship with the plants [5]. In exchange for energy from photosynthesis the bacteria will fix nitrogen into a usable form for the plant by using the enzyme nitrogenase. Nitrogen fixation by bacteria can also produce forms of nitrogen that can be utilized by various [[organisms]]. This fixation process requires a great deal of energy and therefore uses a lot of ATP.<br /> <br /> A common symbiont, nitrogen fixing bacteria, fix the most nitrogen. The two most common of these symbiotic bacteria are ''Rhizobium'' and ''Bradyrhizobium''. Both of these bacteria are able to invade the roots of legume plants. These bacteria provide plants with usable nitrogen to assist with protein production and the plants provide energy in the form of carbon for the symbiont bacteria. this process is beneficial to [[agriculture]] as leguminous plants can assist with returning nitrogen into the soil to promote plant growth. Many farmers will use a crop rotation system where legumes will be grown and then plowed back into the [[soil]] to increase nitrogen availability for crops the following year.<br /> <br /> &lt;!--i love how you applied this to agriculture through this little bit--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Assimilation: ===<br /> Assimilation of inorganic nitrogen is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds form from inorganic nitrogen compounds in an ecosystem. Plants use these ions to make proteins and nucleic acids [6]. Nitrogen assimilation requires ATP and reduced ferredoxin from photosynthesizing cells in plants [7]. The assimilation process occurs when nitrates enter a cell and are reduced to ammonia. [[File:1920px-Glutamine synthetase reaction.svg.png|thumb|glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway. [14]]] This ammonia is then incorporated into organic compounds through the glutamine synthetase- glutamate synthase pathway (see figure 3). Through this pathway ammonia and glutamate are catalyzed by glutamine synthase into glutamine. Glutamine is then catalyzed by glutamate synthase into two glutamate molecules. One of these molecules will go back into the pathway, the other goes into transamination reactions to form other amino acids.<br /> <br /> === Ammonification/ Mineralization: ===<br /> Soil nitrogen can be derived from dead organic materials. Ammonification or mineralization is the process where bacteria incorporate nitrogen into amino acids and release the excess nitrogen as ammonium ions into the soil. These ammonium ions are then readily available for uptake by plants for protein synthesis and [[microorganisms]] that require it for growth [8].<br /> <br /> &lt;!--include more specifics like chemical symbols ie. NH4+, NH2 to better visualize what is being converted etc--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Nitrification: ===<br /> Nitrification is a two-part oxidation process of ammonium ions into nitrates and nitrites moderated by many microbial communities in the ecosystem [9]. This process provides extra available nitrogen for plants to take in via their roots. Through the process of nitrification, ammonium, produced by ammonification, found in soils is transformed into nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are able to be used by plants and plant consuming [[animals]] and are formed by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. Nitrites are not readily available to plants and animal but can be converted to nitrates by bacteria. These nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, nitrobacter, receive energy in exchange for this process [10]. Nitrate is the form most living plants use to absorb nitrogen.<br /> <br /> &lt;!--maybe make some subheadings with the steps of nitrification--&gt;<br /> <br /> === Denitrification: ===<br /> Denitrification follows the process of nitrification and is where nitrates are returned to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria in soils [6]. Denitrification generally occurs in anoxic environments with exhausted oxygen levels. This process can lead to a loss in soil nitrogen content which needs to be replaced. Denitrification can also occur during the process of harvesting crops, [[soil erosion]], burning, and leaching.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Anthropogenic Changes: ==<br /> <br /> Anthropogenic activities have greatly altered the nitrogen cycle through, fossil fuel combustion, extensive cultivation of legumes and the construction of fertilizers using the [[Haber-Bosch process]]. The human use of nitrogen fixation has increased food production but has led to an increase in nitrogen being emitted into the atmosphere [12]. This build up of excess nitrogen can drain from soils into water sources underground or enter water systems via runoff. Nitrogen build up leads to [[eutrophication]], extreme nitrogen levels, leading to issues such as algae blooms due to nitrogen enrichment in the water. This process can decrease oxygen level and have a more last effect on an aquatic system. <br /> <br /> &lt;!--maybe make another section on eutrophication?, maybe include a picture of what this looks like--&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;!--Really good, but I think you definitely need more pictures to go with the specific processes, and they should definitely include the chemical formulas for easier understanding--&gt;<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. Stein, L. Y., and M. G. Klotz. 2016. The nitrogen cycle. Current Biology 26:R94–R98.<br /> <br /> 2. LeBauer, D. S., and K. K. Treseder. 2008. Nitrogen Limitation of Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems Is Globally Distributed. [[Ecology]] 89:371–379.<br /> <br /> 3. Ollivier, J., S. Töwe, A. Bannert, B. Hai, E.-M. Kastl, A. Meyer, M. X. Su, K. Kleineidam, and M. Schloter. 2011. Nitrogen turnover in soil and global change: Key players of soil nitrogen cycle. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 78:3–16.<br /> <br /> 4. Meng, L., W. Li, S. Zhang, C. Wu, and L. Lv. 2017. Feasibility of co-composting of sewage sludge, spent mushroom substrate and wheat straw. Bioresource Technology 226:39–45.<br /> <br /> 5. Peoples, M. B., D. F. Herridge, and J. K. Ladha. 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil 174:3–28.<br /> <br /> 6. Mader, Sylvia S., and Michael Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. 11th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2017.<br /> <br /> 7. Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Susan E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co, 2005.<br /> <br /> 8. Fath, B. D. 2018. Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, San Diego, NETHERLANDS, THE.<br /> <br /> 9. Sims, J. T., and D. C. Wolf. 1994. Poultry Waste Management: Agricultural and Environmental Issues. Pages 1–83 in D. L. Sparks, editor. Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press.<br /> <br /> 10. Cáceres, R., K. Malińska, and O. Marfà. 2018. Nitrification within composting: A review. Waste Management 72:119–137.<br /> <br /> 11. Gu, B., Y. Ge, Y. Ren, B. Xu, W. Luo, H. Jiang, B. Gu, and J. Chang. 2012. Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen in China: Sources, Recent Trends, and Damage Costs. Environmental Science &amp; Technology 46:9420–9427.<br /> <br /> 12. Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg: Environmental Protection Agency[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg]<br /> <br /> 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitrogen_fixation_Fabaceae_en.svg]<br /> <br /> 14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg#/media/File:Glutamine_synthetase_reaction.svg</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6396 2021-05-04T17:02:13Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|right|Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm. [10]]] ''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand.This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an invasive species because of its predation over native earthworms leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this invasive species is thought to be the horticulture and agriculture trade [1]. <br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|left|New Zealand Flatworm. [11]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back or dorsal side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside or ventral part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that is sticky to the touch &lt;!--Is there a reason for the mucous, does it help in movement?--&gt; [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the soil, under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the soil when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time[4]. <br /> <br /> The species can move up to 17 meter per hour utilizing trails previously made by earthworms [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. &lt;!--I think I would exchange one of the &quot;following&quot; for a different word, since they are used pretty close to each other--&gt;Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6].<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in horticulture soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Norther Ireland, Scotland and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native earth worm species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This depletion of earthworm biodiversity reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the earthworms. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing soil fertility.<br /> &lt;!--Great article! I didn't find too many errors--&gt;<br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6395 2021-05-04T17:01:30Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|right|Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm. [10]]] This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an invasive species because of its predation over native earthworms leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this invasive species is thought to be the horticulture and agriculture trade [1]. <br /> <br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|left|New Zealand Flatworm. [11]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back or dorsal side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside or ventral part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that is sticky to the touch &lt;!--Is there a reason for the mucous, does it help in movement?--&gt; [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the soil, under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the soil when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time[4]. <br /> <br /> The species can move up to 17 meter per hour utilizing trails previously made by earthworms [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. &lt;!--I think I would exchange one of the &quot;following&quot; for a different word, since they are used pretty close to each other--&gt;Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6].<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in horticulture soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Norther Ireland, Scotland and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native earth worm species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This depletion of earthworm biodiversity reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the earthworms. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing soil fertility.<br /> &lt;!--Great article! I didn't find too many errors--&gt;<br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6394 2021-05-04T17:00:18Z

<p>Teresato: /* Scientific Classification */</p> <hr /> <div>''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an invasive species because of its predation over native earthworms leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this invasive species is thought to be the horticulture and agriculture trade [1]. <br /> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|right|Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm. [10]]]<br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|left|New Zealand Flatworm. [11]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back or dorsal side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside or ventral part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that is sticky to the touch &lt;!--Is there a reason for the mucous, does it help in movement?--&gt; [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the soil, under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the soil when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time[4]. <br /> <br /> The species can move up to 17 meter per hour utilizing trails previously made by earthworms [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. &lt;!--I think I would exchange one of the &quot;following&quot; for a different word, since they are used pretty close to each other--&gt;Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6].<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in horticulture soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Norther Ireland, Scotland and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native earth worm species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This depletion of earthworm biodiversity reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the earthworms. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing soil fertility.<br /> &lt;!--Great article! I didn't find too many errors--&gt;<br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Flatworm&diff=6393 2021-05-04T16:59:49Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>''A. triangulates'', also known as the New Zealand flatworm, is a free-living terrestrial flatworm native to New Zealand. This species of flatworm is considered to be an invasive species in several areas of Europe. It is considered an invasive species because of its predation over native earthworms leading to the decline of [[soil]] fertility. The leading vector of introduction for this invasive species is thought to be the horticulture and agriculture trade [1]. <br /> [[File:New zeland faltworm lifecycle.jpg|thumb|right|Life cycle of the New Zealand Flatworm. [10]]]<br /> == Scientific Classification ==<br /> [[File:New Zealand flatworm.jpg|thumb|left|New Zealand Flatworm. [11]]]<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Domain:''' Eukaryota<br /> '''Kingdom:''' Metazoa<br /> '''Phylum:''' Platyhelminthes<br /> '''Class:''' Turbellaria<br /> '''Order:''' Tricladida<br /> '''Family:''' Geoplanidae<br /> '''Genus:''' ''Arthurdendyus''<br /> '''Species:''' ''Arthurdendyus triangulates''<br /> == Description ==<br /> Mature ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' can vary in size from 5 to 20cm based on the extension of the body. It has a flattened body that narrows toward the anterior, with no segmentation [2]. The back or dorsal side of the flatworm is a darker brown color and the underside or ventral part of the flatworm is a pale tan color. The body of the flatworm is covered in a mucus that is sticky to the touch &lt;!--Is there a reason for the mucous, does it help in movement?--&gt; [3]. These flatworms can be found on the surface of the soil, under debris and other objects that are in contact with the soil, or found beneath the soil when hunting for food. the species has the ability to survive without food for long durations of time[4]. <br /> <br /> The species can move up to 17 meter per hour utilizing trails previously made by earthworms [4]. They move using circular muscles located beneath the epidermal cells and longitudinal muscles that contract throughout the body.<br /> <br /> == Reproduction ==<br /> This species of flatworm is a hermaphrodite where adults reproduce following mutual fertilization [5]. &lt;!--I think I would exchange one of the &quot;following&quot; for a different word, since they are used pretty close to each other--&gt;Proceeding fertilization, ''A. triangulates'' produces a single egg capsule that starts as a red color before turning black. The capsule itself is shiny, flexible and around 8mm in size containing numerous juvenile flatworms [1]. Studies show that a single flatworm can produce an egg capsule once every 2 weeks[5][6].<br /> <br /> == Native range ==<br /> The native range of Arthurdendyus triangulates is the South Island in New Zealand. Its native ecosystem is the southern beech forest soils. In its native range there is no documented effects on native [[earthworm]] populations [1]. This species of flatworms can also be found in horticulture soils within its native range such as gardens and plant nurseries [7].<br /> == Invasive Species ==<br /> ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' was first found outside its native range in Belfast, Northern Ireland in the early 1960s. It was thought to have been spread through the ornamental plant trade in both the adult and egg form [3]. The species can now be found in areas of England, Norther Ireland, Scotland and the Faroe Islands. Modeling suggests that this flatworm species could thrive if their invasive range were to spread into areas of German, Poland and Sweden [8]. <br /> <br /> Once introduced into this new range ''Arthurdendyus triangulates'' is shown to reduce the population size and [[diversity]] of native earth worm species, specifically ''Lumbricus terrestris''[9]. This depletion of earthworm biodiversity reduces the soil quality by eliminating the [[decomposition]] service provided by the earthworms. This has an impact on agricultural services by reducing soil fertility.<br /> &lt;!--Great article! I didn't find too many errors--&gt;<br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Blackshaw RP; Stewart VI, 1992. Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy, 1894), a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms. Agricultural Zoology Reviews, 5:201-219; 45 ref.<br /> <br /> [2] Saul, W.-C., H. E. Roy, O. Booy, L. Carnevali, H.-J. Chen, P. Genovesi, C. A. Harrower, P. E. Hulme, S. Pagad, J. Pergl, and J. M. Jeschke. 2017. Data from: Assessing patterns in introduction pathways of alien species by linking major invasion databases. Dryad.<br /> <br /> [3] Willis R J, Edwards A R, 1977. The occurrence of the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) in Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 112-116.<br /> <br /> [4] Christensen OM; Mather JG, 1995. Colonisation by the land planarian Artioposthia triangulata and impact on lumbricid earthworms at a horticultural site. Pedobiologia, 39(2):144-154.<br /> <br /> [5] Baird J; McDowell SDR; Fairweather I; Murchie AK, 2005. Reproductive structures of Arthurdendyus triangulatus (Dendy): seasonality and the effect of starvation. Pedobiologia, 49(5):435-442. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00314056<br /> <br /> [6] Christensen, O. M. and Mather, J. G. (2001). Long-term study of growth in the New Zealand flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions. Pedobiologia, 45(6), 535-549.<br /> <br /> [7] Johns P M, Boag B, Yeates G W, 1998. Observations on the geographic distribution of flatworms (Turbellaria: Rhynchodemidae, Bipaliidae, Geoplanidae) in New Zealand. Pedobiologia. 469-476.<br /> <br /> [8] Boag B; Evans KA; Yeates GW; Johns PM; Neilson R, 1995. Assessment of the global potential distribution of the predatory land planarian Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida, Terricola) from ecoclimatic data. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 22:311-318.<br /> <br /> [9] Blackshaw RP, 1990. Studies on Artioposthia triangulata (Dendy) (Tricladida: Terricola), a predator of earthworms. Annals of Applied Biology, 116(1):169-176; 6 ref.<br /> <br /> [10] How to Live with Flatworm in a Permaculture Garden - Rubha Phoil and Earth Ways. (n.d.). . https://www.earth-ways.co.uk/how-to-live-with-flatworm-in-a-permaculture-garden/#.YIdEY-hKg2w.<br /> <br /> [11] By Flickr user Rae&amp;#039;s - https://www.flickr.com/photos/35142635@N05/15390553766/in/set-72157647844789000, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39818346</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6392 2021-05-04T16:57:46Z

<p>Teresato: /* Soil Wetness */</p> <hr /> <div>== Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases:<br /> <br /> '''Solid:''' Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> '''Liquid:''' Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Vapor:''' Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1]. <br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> '''Gravitational Water:''' Found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Water:''' This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Hygroscopic Water:''' Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2].<br /> <br /> More information in [[Water Behavior in Soils]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6391 2021-05-04T16:56:12Z

<p>Teresato: /* Physical Properties of water */</p> <hr /> <div>== Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases:<br /> <br /> '''Solid:''' Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> '''Liquid:''' Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Vapor:''' Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1]. <br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> '''Gravitational Water:''' Found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Water:''' This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Hygroscopic Water:''' Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6390 2021-05-04T16:55:10Z

<p>Teresato: /* Soil Water Types */</p> <hr /> <div>== Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases:<br /> <br /> '''Solid:''' Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> '''Liquid:''' Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Vapor:''' Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1]. <br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> '''Gravitational Water:''' Found in macropores within the [[soil]], this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Water:''' This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Hygroscopic Water:''' Water that forms a very thin film around [[soil]] particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6389 2021-05-04T16:54:39Z

<p>Teresato: /* Molecular Properties of Water */</p> <hr /> <div>== Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases:<br /> <br /> '''Solid:''' Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> '''Liquid:''' Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Vapor:''' Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1]. <br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the [[clay]] particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> '''Gravitational Water:''' Found in macropores within the soil, this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Water:''' This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Hygroscopic Water:''' Water that forms a very thin film around soil particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4]. <br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6388 2021-05-04T16:54:05Z

<p>Teresato: /* Molecular Properties of Water */</p> <hr /> <div>== Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases:<br /> <br /> '''Solid:''' Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> '''Liquid:''' Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Vapor:''' Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1]. <br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in [[soil]] [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the clay particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2].<br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> '''Gravitational Water:''' Found in macropores within the soil, this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Water:''' This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Hygroscopic Water:''' Water that forms a very thin film around soil particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4]. <br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.</div>

Teresato https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Hydraulic_Actions_of_Water&diff=6387 2021-05-04T16:53:43Z

<p>Teresato: </p> <hr /> <div>== Physical Properties of water ==<br /> Water is present almost everywhere in [[soil]] held by strong capillary forces. In soils, water is a large contributor to biochemical factors [3]. Water influences the movement of solids, liquids, and gasses [3]. Water also is one of the greatest factors controlling flora growth and development [3].[[File:Water functions.jpg |thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The interactions of water with solids, liquids, and gases [3]]]<br /> <br /> == 3 Phases of water ==<br /> <br /> Water exists in three important phases:<br /> <br /> '''Solid:''' Water freezes from the top down with the greatest density occurring at 4 degrees C. This is extremely important for biotic activity to exist below the freeze line [1]. The freezing of water contributes to [[Soil Processes]] through physical weathering of the parent material [1].<br /> <br /> '''Liquid:''' Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance [4]. Through a high specific heat, water decreases rapid temperature fluctuations [1]. Liquid water is responsible for the movement of nutrients, runoff and pollutants through environments shaping the chemistry and physical [[properties]] of areas due to its solvency property. Liquid water is very important for plant growth through capillary action [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Vapor:''' Water vapor is a direct interaction between soil and the atmosphere. Dry soils will maintain a relativity humidity of 98% [2]. Soil [[organisms]] living in this humid environment rely on a habitat saturated with water through absorbing and loosing water via their integuments [1]. <br /> <br /> == Molecular Properties of Water ==<br /> Cohesion, molecular polarity, and hydrogen bonding all contribute to the movement of water in soil [2]<br /> <br /> '''Hydrogen Bonding:''' The bonds between the positive hydrogen molecules and the negative oxygen molecules within water particles [2]<br /> <br /> '''Cohesion:''' The attraction of water molecules between each other due to hydrogen bonding. <br /> <br /> '''Adhesion:''' Also called “adsorption”, the attraction of water molecules to solid surfaces such as soil particles [2]. The surface area of particles determines the magnitude of adhesion [4]. Clay particles will have stronger adhesion forces compared to [[sand]] particles due to a larger surface area within the clay particles [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Forces:''' A combination of adhesion and surface tension [2]. Capillary rise is how tree roots retain groundwater, through a difference of pressures and the forces mentioned above. Surface tension refers to the attraction of water molecules to each other being greater than the attraction of the above air molecules to the water molecules [2]. <br /> <br /> == Soil Water Types ==<br /> '''Gravitational Water:''' Found in macropores within the soil, this form of water movement occurs when water moves rapidly through well drained soils [4]. This type of groundwater is considered not available to plants since it is temporally in place often draining away quickly [4]. Water can move through the unsaturated and saturated zones of soil via infiltration or percolation [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Capillary Water:''' This is the water available to plants [4]. Water molecules are held in soil through cohesion and adhesion forces being stronger than gravitational forces [4]. <br /> <br /> '''Hygroscopic Water:''' Water that forms a very thin film around soil particles not available to plants [3]. [[Clay]] particles hold onto this water strongly due to a large surface area [2]. Hygroscopic water is created through adhesion forces [4]. <br /> <br /> == Soil Water measurements ==<br /> <br /> '''Volumetric Water Content:''' Volume of water in a soil sample per unit of total soil volume [3]. [[File:Download.png|thumb|'''Figure 2:''' The Soil wetness parameters [5]]]<br /> <br /> == Soil Wetness ==<br /> <br /> '''Max Retentive Capacity:''' All pores are filled with water also referred to as saturation [2]. This occurs right after a rain event or snowmelt<br /> <br /> '''Field Capacity:''' Maximum soil water content after gravity forces drain soil water [2]. This occurs around 1-3 days after a rain event and is used by plants [2]. <br /> <br /> '''Wilting Point:''' When the soil water content is at or below the level that [[plant roots]] can reach to absorb [2]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] Coleman, D. C., D., A. C. J., &amp; Hendrix, P. F. (2004). Fundamentals of soil [[ecology]]. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com<br /> <br /> [2] “Lecture 2 : Soil Water: Characteristics and Behavior.” NPTEL, IIT Bombay, nptel.ac.in/courses/104103020/35.<br /> <br /> [3] Duckworth, Owen W. “Soil Water: From Molecular Structure to Behavior.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-water-from-molecular-structure-to-behavior-122155909.<br /> <br /> [4] “Topic 9: Types of Soil Water.” Factors Affecting Plant Growth, broome.soil.ncsu.edu/ssc012/Lecture/topic9.htm.<br /> <br /> [5] “Soil Science|Digital Textbook Library.” 2.1.1. Negative Impacts of Development, www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop425/0032_talajtan/ch07s02.html.</div>

Teresato