Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Root sampling methods

2024-06-20T13:30:33Z

SOILSysop: /* Minirhizotrons */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like a plyboard, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored for up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically, (II) current roots are injured, (III) growth starts after a period of delay, (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered, and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off the living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation of this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high-resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction. The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2024-06-20T13:30:25Z

SOILSysop: /* Minirhizotrons */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like a plyboard, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored for up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically, (II) current roots are injured, (III) growth starts after a period of delay, (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered, and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off the living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation of this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high-resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction. The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related...

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2024-06-20T13:30:13Z

SOILSysop: /* Rhizotrons */

Root sampling methods

2024-06-20T13:30:05Z

SOILSysop: /* Rhizotrons */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like a plyboard, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored for up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically, (II) current roots are injured, (III) growth starts after a period of delay, (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered, and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off the living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation of this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less...

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high-resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction. The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2024-06-17T18:11:57Z

SOILSysop: /* Uses for Root Sampling */

Root sampling methods

2024-06-17T18:11:44Z

SOILSysop: /* Uses for Root Sampling */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections...[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like a plyboard, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored for up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically, (II) current roots are injured, (III) growth starts after a period of delay, (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered, and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off the living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation of this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high-resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction. The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Main Page

2024-06-17T18:11:18Z

SOILSysop:

=[[Soil Ecology]] WIKI from the University at Buffalo=
[[File:Rhizo.jpg|230px|thumb|left|Soil ecology encompasses interactions between plants, soils, and the organisms that live within them.]] [[Soil]] is a vast reservoir for a wide [[diversity]] of [[organisms]]. [[Plant roots]] explore this [[diversity]] daily. Various other [[animals]] consume [[smaller creatures]] either intentionally or unintentionally by [[foraging]] on [[plant roots]], [[insects]], and [[microorganisms]].
Soil [[ecology]] is the study of how these [[soil organisms]] interact with other organisms and their environment - their influence on and response to numerous [[soil processes]] and [[properties]] form the basis for delivering [[essential ecosystem services]]. Some of the key processes in soil are [[nutrient cycling]], soil [[aggregate formation]], and [[biodiversity interactions]]. Sometimes, individual species can strongly influence overall soil ecology, such as [[Black Willow]].
The [[diversity]] and abundance of [[soil life]] exceeds that of any other ecosystem. [[Plant establishment]], competitiveness, and growth is governed largely by the [[ecology belowground]], with many interactions attributed to the interconnectivity of [[Plant roots]] due to [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] in the [[rhizosphere]]. Therefore, a deep understanding of these systems are an essential component of plant sciences and [[terrestrial ecology]]. You can read more about early soil scientists like [[Vasily Dokuchaev]] here.

Many of the concepts of soil ecology were developed by Hans Jenny and his creation of the [[Jenny Equation]]. These concepts envelop the ideas of the abiotic interactions of [[Organisms]] and plants.
_______

Algunas paginas en Espanol:

[[Biodiversidad del Suelo]]

[[Diversidad]]

[[Ecología de Suelo]]

[[Servicios del Ecosistema]]

[[Suelo]]

Main Page

2024-06-17T18:11:06Z

SOILSysop:

=[[Soil Ecology]] WIKI from the University at Buffalo=
[[File:Rhizo.jpg|230px|thumb|left|Soil ecology encompasses interactions between plants, soils, and the organisms that live within them.]] [[Soil]] is a vast reservoir for a wide [[diversity]] of [[organisms]]. [[Plant roots]] explore this [[diversity]] daily. Various other [[animals]] consume [[smaller creatures]] either intentionally or unintentionally by [[foraging]] on [[plant roots]], [[insects]], and [[microorganisms]].
Soil [[ecology]] is the study of how these [[soil organisms]] interact with other organisms and their environment - their influence on and response to numerous [[soil processes]] and [[properties]] form the basis for delivering [[essential ecosystem services]]. Some of the key processes in soil are [[nutrient cycling]], soil [[aggregate formation]], and [[biodiversity interactions]]. Sometimes, individual species can strongly influence overall soil ecology, such as [[Black Willow]].
The [[diversity]] and abundance of [[soil life]] exceeds that of any other ecosystem. [[Plant establishment]], competitiveness, and growth is governed largely by the [[ecology belowground]], with many interactions attributed to the interconnectivity of [[Plant roots]] due to [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] in the [[rhizosphere]]. Therefore, a deep understanding of these systems are an essential component of plant sciences and [[terrestrial ecology]]. You can read more about early soil scientists like [[Vasily Dokuchaev]] here.

Many of the concepts of soil ecology were developed by Hans Jenny and his creation of the [[Jenny Equation]]. These concepts envelop the ideas of the abiotic interactions of [[Organisms]] and plants...
_______

Algunas paginas en Espanol:

[[Biodiversidad del Suelo]]

[[Diversidad]]

[[Ecología de Suelo]]

[[Servicios del Ecosistema]]

[[Suelo]]

Soil Horizons

2024-06-17T17:53:27Z

SOILSysop: /* References */

[[File:Soil Horizons.gif|thumb|A basic diagram of the most common Master Horizons of a soil profile, with the E Horizon omitted]]
[[Soil]] Horizons are the distinct layers of a soil profile. They are divided into these layers, referred to as "Master Horizons" (from top to bottom): O Horizon, A Horizon, E Horizon, B Horizon, C Horizon, and R Horizon. There also exists an H Horizon, F Horizon, and an L Horizon, each of which revolve around organic material, somewhat similarly to the O Horizon, but with more specific qualities and generally more obscure. The number and composition of horizons in different soils has tremendous [[diversity]]; the most well-developed soils might have all of these layers, and the least-developed soils might only have an A and a D horizon.

= Main Master Horizons =

Master Horizons are the main layers of a soil profile, described below.

== O Horizon ==

The O Horizon is composed of organic material that has accumulated and been modified (physically and chemically) over time, typically from the remains of plant and [[animals]] [1]. This horizon is most easily observed in soils that are rarely, if ever, disturbed and with plenty of foliage and/or [[organisms]] nearby to contribute to its development, such as forests. In more barren locations such as grasslands, an O Horizon is rarer. [1] Due to the fact that its presence is determined by external factors (outside of the original parent materials that form soils), it is the only layer not dominated by mineral substances. This layer has three well-accepted subordinate horizons: Oi (slightly decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]), Oe (moderately decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]), and Oa (highly decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]). [1] Microbial activity is high in this layer, utilizing the abundance of [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and [[decomposing]] it in ways that allow it to contribute to the soil profile.

== A Horizon ==
The A Horizon is a well-weathered and fertile layer dominated by mineral particles but still rich in [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], especially if covered by an O Horizon, which can leach decomposed organic matter into the A Horizon. This is a much thicker layer than the O Horizon, dominated by highly weathered mineral particles (the most highly weathered from the parent material of the soil), and typically darker and coarser than other Soil Horizons. (Elements pg. 53) The A Horizon is considered ''topsoil''. If this layer has [[properties]] of both an A and an E Horizon, it is considered an A Horizon if it is dominated by humidified organic matter. [4] Subterranean life (including microfauna, [[mesofauna]], and macrofauna) tends to be the most abundant in this layer due to the rich, soft, and well-weathered environment of the soil.

== E Horizon ==
The E in "E Horizon" stands for eluviation, another word for leaching. This name is appropriate because, in this layer [[clay]], iron, and aluminum oxides leach into the lower layers (mostly the B Horizon). [1] Like the O Horizon, this layer is not always present, but when it is, it's usually in forested areas and rarely in grasslands. Because of the loss of material through eluviation, it tends to be noticeably lighter than the layers above and below it. [1]

== B Horizon ==
The B Horizon is also known as the subsoil. B Horizons are often greatly composed of material illuviated (washed in from) layers above it, mostly clay, iron, aluminum oxides (deposited by elluviated water), and minerals that formed in the layer. [1]

== C Horizon ==
The C Horizon, also known as the substratum is unconsolidated material above [[bedrock]]. [2] It is insufficiently weathered to be considered soil, but still considered a layer of a soil profile. Subterranean life is far scarcer in this layer, and [[plant roots]] do not usually extend here, although it is usually soft enough for root penetration. [4] It is essentially a transitional layer from bedrock to the soil.

== R Horizon ==
This layer is simply bedrock with minimal to no weathering visible. It is composed of the parent material that would eventually be transformed into soil. Excavating this horizon generally requires specialized equipment, and roots are usually unable to take advantage of what cracks may be in this layer. This layer is the boundary between what lies beneath the soil. [2]

== Other Master Horizons ==
These master horizons are dominated by plant-based organic matter in well-drained soils, occurring most commonly in forests. [5] These layers are generally more obscure than the previously mentioned Soil Horizons due to these specialized circumstances. Also, some may consider these horizons to be Subordinate O Horizons rather than their own Master Horizons.

=== L Horizon ===
The L Horizon stands for "Litter Horizon" and is dominated by plant material with minimal to no visible [[decomposition]], with plant elements easy to identify. [5]

=== F Horizon ===
The F Horizon stands for "Fermentation Horizon" and is composed of moderately decomposed plant material, but the plant origins are still distinguishable. [5]

=== H Horizon ===
The H Horizon stands for "Humic Horizon" and is composed of a material that is well humified and decomposed by water, and identifying plant material is difficult. [5]

= Transitional Horizons =
Soil Horizons do not always form distinct bands with unique and easily identified properties. Often Soil Horizons form Transitional Horizons, which have two forms. [3] The first is when a horizon has dominant properties of one Soil Horizon and subordinate properties of another; these Transitional Layers are designated by putting the dominant horizon properties letter first, followed by the subordinate horizon; an example would be a BC horizon, with properties more like a B Horizon but still demonstrating sufficient similarities to a C Horizon. [3] The second form of a Transitional Horizon is when the properties of both horizons are very comparable in representation; these have the letters separated with a "/", such as a B/C horizon, which is almost equally a B and a C Horizon. [3]

= Subordinate Horizons =
In order to more accurately describe the characteristics of the master horizons, lowercase letters from the Latin Alphabet are added. depending on the characteristics of the soil. Almost all letters are used, with the exception of ''l'' and ''u''. Instead, there are ''jj'' and ''ss'' distinctions. Subordinate horizon symbols include the following: [3]

a: Highly decomposed organic matter is present

b: The soil horizon has been buried

c: Concretions/Nodules of Fe, Al, Mn, or Ti cement is present

d: The soil is dense from natural or artificial means, and root access is restricted

e: Moderately decomposed organic matter is present

f: The soil is frozen

g: Strong gleying/mottling is present

h: The organic matter was illuviated

i: Slightly decomposed organic matter is present

j: Jarosite is present

jj: Cryoturbation / Frost churning is present

k: Carbonate buildup is present

m: Continuous cementation is present

n: Sodium buildup is present

o: Iron and Aluminum oxides buildup is present

p: The soil has been heavily disturbed, typically by tillage

q: Silica buildup is present

r: Bedrock is weathered or soft

s: Organic matter and Iron and Aluminum Oxides were illuviated (not to be confused with h and o, which are only organic matter and Iron and Aluminum Oxides, respectively)

ss: Slickensides are present

t: Buildup of silicate clays is present

v: Pilinthe is present

x: Fragipan is present

y: Buildup of gypsum is present

z: Buildup with salts more soluble than gypsum is present

= Factors Affecting the Formation of Soil Horizons =
Main articles: [[Pedogenesis]], [[Jenny Equation]]

Soil Horizon formation depends on many factors, most famously described by Hans Jenny's "fundamental equation": '''s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …)'''

In this equation, soil is described as being a function of climate, organisms, relief/slope, parent material, time, and any other potential factors that he had not considered at the time of the formula's creation. Climate affects the rates of both physical and chemical weathering, Organisms affect the rate of soil formation and contribute organic matter to it, Relief affects the amount of water and erosion in a soil, Parent Material affects the initial properties of developing and mature soils, and time is required for these factors to go into effect and eventually form a soil and its Soil Horizons. [6] Other factors are almost certain to be contributing as well, but at a negligible or unknown scale.

= References =
[1] Brady, Nile C.; Weil, Ray R.. ''Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soil''. (Second Edition) Pearson Education, Inc. 2004. pg 53-55. Retrieved 2018-03-05.

[2] Turenne, Jim. ''Soil Horizons (a Basic Power Point Presentation)''. Retrieved 2018-03-06. http://nesoil.com/properties/horizons/

[3] ''Soils Glossary Appendix''. Soil Science Society of America. 2018. Retrieved 2018-03-06 https://www.soils.org/publications/glossary/appendix/

[4] Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations. ''World reference base for soil resources''. Rome 1998. Appendix 1: Soil Horizon Designations. Retrieved 2018-03-07. http://www.fao.org/docrep/W8594E/w8594e0g.htm

[5] Forest Floor. ''Soil Horizons''. Retrieved 2018-03-07. http://forestfloor.soilweb.ca/definitions/soil-horizons/

[6] Lamb, John A.; Rehm, George W.. ''Five factors of soil formation''. University of Minnesota. Retrieved 2018-03-07. https://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/soils/soil-properties/five-factors-soil-formation/

Soil Horizons

2024-06-17T17:53:17Z

SOILSysop: /* References */

[[File:Soil Horizons.gif|thumb|A basic diagram of the most common Master Horizons of a soil profile, with the E Horizon omitted]]
[[Soil]] Horizons are the distinct layers of a soil profile. They are divided into these layers, referred to as "Master Horizons" (from top to bottom): O Horizon, A Horizon, E Horizon, B Horizon, C Horizon, and R Horizon. There also exists an H Horizon, F Horizon, and an L Horizon, each of which revolve around organic material, somewhat similarly to the O Horizon, but with more specific qualities and generally more obscure. The number and composition of horizons in different soils has tremendous [[diversity]]; the most well-developed soils might have all of these layers, and the least-developed soils might only have an A and a D horizon.

= Main Master Horizons =

Master Horizons are the main layers of a soil profile, described below.

== O Horizon ==

The O Horizon is composed of organic material that has accumulated and been modified (physically and chemically) over time, typically from the remains of plant and [[animals]] [1]. This horizon is most easily observed in soils that are rarely, if ever, disturbed and with plenty of foliage and/or [[organisms]] nearby to contribute to its development, such as forests. In more barren locations such as grasslands, an O Horizon is rarer. [1] Due to the fact that its presence is determined by external factors (outside of the original parent materials that form soils), it is the only layer not dominated by mineral substances. This layer has three well-accepted subordinate horizons: Oi (slightly decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]), Oe (moderately decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]), and Oa (highly decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]). [1] Microbial activity is high in this layer, utilizing the abundance of [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and [[decomposing]] it in ways that allow it to contribute to the soil profile.

== A Horizon ==
The A Horizon is a well-weathered and fertile layer dominated by mineral particles but still rich in organic matter, especially if covered by an O Horizon, which can leach decomposed organic matter into the A Horizon. This is a much thicker layer than the O Horizon, dominated by highly weathered mineral particles (the most highly weathered from the parent material of the soil), and typically darker and coarser than other Soil Horizons. (Elements pg. 53) The A Horizon is considered ''topsoil''. If this layer has [[properties]] of both an A and an E Horizon, it is considered an A Horizon if it is dominated by humidified organic matter. [4] Subterranean life (including microfauna, [[mesofauna]], and macrofauna) tends to be the most abundant in this layer due to the rich, soft, and well-weathered environment of the soil.

== E Horizon ==
The E in "E Horizon" stands for eluviation, another word for leaching. This name is appropriate because, in this layer [[clay]], iron, and aluminum oxides leach into the lower layers (mostly the B Horizon). [1] Like the O Horizon, this layer is not always present, but when it is, it's usually in forested areas and rarely in grasslands. Because of the loss of material through eluviation, it tends to be noticeably lighter than the layers above and below it. [1]

== B Horizon ==
The B Horizon is also known as the subsoil. B Horizons are often greatly composed of material illuviated (washed in from) layers above it, mostly clay, iron, aluminum oxides (deposited by elluviated water), and minerals that formed in the layer. [1]

== C Horizon ==
The C Horizon, also known as the substratum is unconsolidated material above [[bedrock]]. [2] It is insufficiently weathered to be considered soil, but still considered a layer of a soil profile. Subterranean life is far scarcer in this layer, and [[plant roots]] do not usually extend here, although it is usually soft enough for root penetration. [4] It is essentially a transitional layer from bedrock to the soil.

== R Horizon ==
This layer is simply bedrock with minimal to no weathering visible. It is composed of the parent material that would eventually be transformed into soil. Excavating this horizon generally requires specialized equipment, and roots are usually unable to take advantage of what cracks may be in this layer. This layer is the boundary between what lies beneath the soil. [2]

== Other Master Horizons ==
These master horizons are dominated by plant-based organic matter in well-drained soils, occurring most commonly in forests. [5] These layers are generally more obscure than the previously mentioned Soil Horizons due to these specialized circumstances. Also, some may consider these horizons to be Subordinate O Horizons rather than their own Master Horizons.

=== L Horizon ===
The L Horizon stands for "Litter Horizon" and is dominated by plant material with minimal to no visible [[decomposition]], with plant elements easy to identify. [5]

=== F Horizon ===
The F Horizon stands for "Fermentation Horizon" and is composed of moderately decomposed plant material, but the plant origins are still distinguishable. [5]

=== H Horizon ===
The H Horizon stands for "Humic Horizon" and is composed of a material that is well humified and decomposed by water, and identifying plant material is difficult. [5]

= Transitional Horizons =
Soil Horizons do not always form distinct bands with unique and easily identified properties. Often Soil Horizons form Transitional Horizons, which have two forms. [3] The first is when a horizon has dominant properties of one Soil Horizon and subordinate properties of another; these Transitional Layers are designated by putting the dominant horizon properties letter first, followed by the subordinate horizon; an example would be a BC horizon, with properties more like a B Horizon but still demonstrating sufficient similarities to a C Horizon. [3] The second form of a Transitional Horizon is when the properties of both horizons are very comparable in representation; these have the letters separated with a "/", such as a B/C horizon, which is almost equally a B and a C Horizon. [3]

= Subordinate Horizons =
In order to more accurately describe the characteristics of the master horizons, lowercase letters from the Latin Alphabet are added. depending on the characteristics of the soil. Almost all letters are used, with the exception of ''l'' and ''u''. Instead, there are ''jj'' and ''ss'' distinctions. Subordinate horizon symbols include the following: [3]

a: Highly decomposed organic matter is present

b: The soil horizon has been buried

c: Concretions/Nodules of Fe, Al, Mn, or Ti cement is present

d: The soil is dense from natural or artificial means, and root access is restricted

e: Moderately decomposed organic matter is present

f: The soil is frozen

g: Strong gleying/mottling is present

h: The organic matter was illuviated

i: Slightly decomposed organic matter is present

j: Jarosite is present

jj: Cryoturbation / Frost churning is present

k: Carbonate buildup is present

m: Continuous cementation is present

n: Sodium buildup is present

o: Iron and Aluminum oxides buildup is present

p: The soil has been heavily disturbed, typically by tillage

q: Silica buildup is present

r: Bedrock is weathered or soft

s: Organic matter and Iron and Aluminum Oxides were illuviated (not to be confused with h and o, which are only organic matter and Iron and Aluminum Oxides, respectively)

ss: Slickensides are present

t: Buildup of silicate clays is present

v: Pilinthe is present

x: Fragipan is present

y: Buildup of gypsum is present

z: Buildup with salts more soluble than gypsum is present

= Factors Affecting the Formation of Soil Horizons =
Main articles: [[Pedogenesis]], [[Jenny Equation]]

Soil Horizon formation depends on many factors, most famously described by Hans Jenny's "fundamental equation": '''s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …)'''

In this equation, soil is described as being a function of climate, organisms, relief/slope, parent material, time, and any other potential factors that he had not considered at the time of the formula's creation. Climate affects the rates of both physical and chemical weathering, Organisms affect the rate of soil formation and contribute organic matter to it, Relief affects the amount of water and erosion in a soil, Parent Material affects the initial properties of developing and mature soils, and time is required for these factors to go into effect and eventually form a soil and its Soil Horizons. [6] Other factors are almost certain to be contributing as well, but at a negligible or unknown scale.

= References =
[1] Brady, Nile C.; Weil, Ray R.. ''Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soil''. (Second Edition) Pearson Education, Inc. 2004. pg 53-55. Retrieved 2018-03-05...

[2] Turenne, Jim. ''Soil Horizons (a Basic Power Point Presentation)''. Retrieved 2018-03-06. http://nesoil.com/properties/horizons/

[3] ''Soils Glossary Appendix''. Soil Science Society of America. 2018. Retrieved 2018-03-06 https://www.soils.org/publications/glossary/appendix/

[4] Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations. ''World reference base for soil resources''. Rome 1998. Appendix 1: Soil Horizon Designations. Retrieved 2018-03-07. http://www.fao.org/docrep/W8594E/w8594e0g.htm

[5] Forest Floor. ''Soil Horizons''. Retrieved 2018-03-07. http://forestfloor.soilweb.ca/definitions/soil-horizons/

[6] Lamb, John A.; Rehm, George W.. ''Five factors of soil formation''. University of Minnesota. Retrieved 2018-03-07. https://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/soils/soil-properties/five-factors-soil-formation/

Main Page

2024-06-17T17:50:17Z

SOILSysop:

Main Page

2024-06-17T17:50:02Z

SOILSysop:

=[[Soil Ecology]] WIKI from the University at Buffalo=
[[File:Rhizo.jpg|230px|thumb|left|Soil ecology encompasses interactions between plants, soils, and the organisms that live within them.]] [[Soil]] is a vast reservoir for a wide [[diversity]] of [[organisms]]. [[Plant roots]] explore this [[diversity]] daily. Various other [[animals]] consume [[smaller creatures]] either intentionally or unintentionally by [[foraging]] on [[plant roots]], [[insects]], and [[microorganisms]].
Soil [[ecology]] is the study of how these [[soil organisms]] interact with other organisms and their environment - their influence on and response to numerous [[soil processes]] and [[properties]] form the basis for delivering [[essential ecosystem services]]. Some of the key processes in soil are [[nutrient cycling]], soil [[aggregate formation]], and [[biodiversity interactions]]. Sometimes, individual species can strongly influence overall soil ecology, such as [[Black Willow]].
The [[diversity]] and abundance of [[soil life]] exceeds that of any other ecosystem. [[Plant establishment]], competitiveness, and growth is governed largely by the [[ecology belowground]], with many interactions attributed to the interconnectivity of [[Plant roots]] due to [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] in the [[rhizosphere]]. Therefore, a deep understanding of these systems are an essential component of plant sciences and [[terrestrial ecology]]. You can read more about early soil scientists like [[Vasily Dokuchaev]] here.

Many of the concepts of soil ecology were developed by Hans Jenny and his creation of the [[Jenny Equation]]. These concepts envelop the ideas of the abiotic interactions of [[Organisms]] and plants...
_______

Algunas paginas en Espanol:

[[Biodiversidad del Suelo]]

[[Diversidad]]

[[Ecología de Suelo]]

[[Servicios del Ecosistema]]

[[Suelo]]

Main Page

2024-01-08T19:36:37Z

SOILSysop:

Main Page

2024-01-08T19:36:26Z

SOILSysop:

=[[Soil Ecology]] WIKI from the University at Buffalo=
[[File:Rhizo.jpg|230px|thumb|left|Soil ecology encompasses interactions between plants, soils, and the organisms that live within them.]] [[Soil]] is a vast reservoir for a wide [[diversity]] of [[organisms]]. [[Plant roots]] explore this [[diversity]] daily. Various other [[animals]] consume [[smaller creatures]] either intentionally or unintentionally by [[foraging]] on [[plant roots]], [[insects]], and [[microorganisms]].
Soil [[ecology]] is the study of how these [[soil organisms]] interact with other organisms and their environment - their influence on and response to numerous [[soil processes]] and [[properties]] form the basis for delivering [[essential ecosystem services]]. Some of the key processes in soil are [[nutrient cycling]], soil [[aggregate formation]], and [[biodiversity interactions]]. Sometimes, individual species can strongly influence overall soil ecology, such as [[Black Willow]].
The [[diversity]] and abundance of [[soil life]] exceeds that of any other ecosystem. [[Plant establishment]], competitiveness, and growth is governed largely by the [[ecology belowground]], with many interactions attributed to the interconnectivity of [[Plant roots]] due to [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] in the [[rhizosphere]]. Therefore, a deep understanding of these systems are an essential component of plant sciences and [[terrestrial ecology]]. You can read more about early soil scientists like [[Vasily Dokuchaev]] here.

Many of the concepts of soil ecology were developed by Hans Jenny and his creation of the [[Jenny Equation]]. These concepts envelop the ideas of the abiotic interactions of [[Organisms]] and plants..
_______

Algunas paginas en Espanol:

[[Biodiversidad del Suelo]]

[[Diversidad]]

[[Ecología de Suelo]]

[[Servicios del Ecosistema]]

[[Suelo]]

Main Page

2024-01-08T19:34:57Z

SOILSysop:

Main Page

2024-01-08T19:34:49Z

SOILSysop:

=[[Soil Ecology]] WIKI from the University at Buffalo=
[[File:Rhizo.jpg|230px|thumb|left|Soil ecology encompasses interactions between plants, soils, and the organisms that live within them.]] [[Soil]] is a vast reservoir for a wide [[diversity]] of [[organisms]]. [[Plant roots]] explore this [[diversity]] daily. Various other [[animals]] consume [[smaller creatures]] either intentionally or unintentionally by [[foraging]] on [[plant roots]], [[insects]], and [[microorganisms]].
Soil [[ecology]] is the study of how these [[soil organisms]] interact with other organisms and their environment - their influence on and response to numerous [[soil processes]] and [[properties]] form the basis for delivering [[essential ecosystem services]]. Some of the key processes in soil are [[nutrient cycling]], soil [[aggregate formation]], and [[biodiversity interactions]]. Sometimes, individual species can strongly influence overall soil ecology, such as [[Black Willow]].
The [[diversity]] and abundance of [[soil life]] exceeds that of any other ecosystem. [[Plant establishment]], competitiveness, and growth is governed largely by the [[ecology belowground]], with many interactions attributed to the interconnectivity of [[Plant roots]] due to [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] in the [[rhizosphere]]. Therefore, a deep understanding of these systems are an essential component of plant sciences and [[terrestrial ecology]]. You can read more about early soil scientists like [[Vasily Dokuchaev]] here.

Many of the concepts of soil ecology were developed by Hans Jenny and his creation of the [[Jenny Equation]]. These concepts envelop the ideas of the abiotic interactions of [[Organisms]] and plants..
_______

Algunas paginas en Espanol:

[[Biodiversidad del Suelo]]

[[Diversidad]]

[[Ecología de Suelo]]

[[Servicios del Ecosistema]]

[[Suelo]]

File:Board-361516 640.jpg

2024-01-08T19:17:46Z

SOILSysop: Test please delete

== Summary ==
Test please delete

File:625c51e0-3ee8-43dc-9707-dff4c6625a4d.JPG

2024-01-08T19:11:04Z

SOILSysop: Test please delete

== Summary ==
Test please delete

Main Page

2024-01-08T19:08:39Z

SOILSysop:

Main Page

2024-01-08T19:08:29Z

SOILSysop:

=[[Soil Ecology]] WIKI from the University at Buffalo=
[[File:Rhizo.jpg|230px|thumb|left|Soil ecology encompasses interactions between plants, soils, and the organisms that live within them.]] [[Soil]] is a vast reservoir for a wide [[diversity]] of [[organisms]]. [[Plant roots]] explore this [[diversity]] daily. Various other [[animals]] consume [[smaller creatures]] either intentionally or unintentionally by [[foraging]] on [[plant roots]], [[insects]], and [[microorganisms]].
Soil [[ecology]] is the study of how these [[soil organisms]] interact with other organisms and their environment - their influence on and response to numerous [[soil processes]] and [[properties]] form the basis for delivering [[essential ecosystem services]]. Some of the key processes in soil are [[nutrient cycling]], soil [[aggregate formation]], and [[biodiversity interactions]]. Sometimes, individual species can strongly influence overall soil ecology, such as [[Black Willow]].
The [[diversity]] and abundance of [[soil life]] exceeds that of any other ecosystem. [[Plant establishment]], competitiveness, and growth is governed largely by the [[ecology belowground]], with many interactions attributed to the interconnectivity of [[Plant roots]] due to [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] in the [[rhizosphere]]. Therefore, a deep understanding of these systems are an essential component of plant sciences and [[terrestrial ecology]]. You can read more about early soil scientists like [[Vasily Dokuchaev]] here.

Many of the concepts of soil ecology were developed by Hans Jenny and his creation of the [[Jenny Equation]]. These concepts envelop the ideas of the abiotic interactions of [[Organisms]] and plants..
_______

Algunas paginas en Espanol:

[[Biodiversidad del Suelo]]

[[Diversidad]]

[[Ecología de Suelo]]

[[Servicios del Ecosistema]]

[[Suelo]]