Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Japanese giant salamander

2022-05-11T18:49:41Z

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The '''Japanese giant salamander''' (''Andrias japonicus'') is one of the five species of salamander found to be a member of the family Cryptobranchidae. This family is defined by it consisting of the largest living amphibians, along with all members being fully aquatic [[salamanders]]. With a length of up to 5 feet,<ref name = amphibiaweb> Yoshio Kaneko, Masafumi Matsui (2004). http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_lists_genera_&table=amphib&where-genus=Andrias&where-species=japonicus ''Andrias japonicus'' Retrieved 05/09/2022</ref> the Japanese giant salamander is the third largest species of salamander living. They are highly endemic being found in southwestern Japan (west of Gifu Prefecture in Honshu and parts of Shikoku and Kyushu) in fast flowing mountain streams. <ref name = amphibiaweb></ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:G_Salamander.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Chordata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Amphibia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Urodela
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Cryptobranchidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Andrias''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''A. japonicus''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Integrated Taxonomic Information System<ref name="ITIS">[https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=977384#null "Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Report"], ''ITIS'' USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature", ''USGS'', n.d.. Retrieved 5/9/2022.</ref>
|}
== Description ==
Japanese giant salamander typically are around 5 feet in length and weight around 55 pounds. The brown and black skin camouflages the species amongst river beds and rock formations with the body having distant warts. Higher concentrations of warts are found on the species head. This one species neck has large skin flaps assisting in regulation of carbon dioxide and oxygen exchange.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Andrias_japonicus/|title=''Andrias japonicus''|website=Animal Diversity Web|language=en|access-date=2018-03-28}}</ref> It has very small eyes with no eyelids limiting the species vison. 'A. japonicus' mouth is the width of its entire head and can open as wide as the species body, allowing for capture of larger prey.<ref name="natlzoo"/>

== Diet ==
With the Japanese giant salamander living its entire life in the water the diet consists of freshwater fish, frogs, and crabs. Due to the slow metabolism of the salamander the species can go without eating for days.<ref name="natlzoo">{{cite web|url=https://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/AsiaTrail/GiantSalamanders/|website=Smithsonian National Zoological Park|access-date=2016-06-13|title=Japanese Giant Salamander|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624015515/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/AsiaTrail/GiantSalamanders/|archive-date=2016-06-24|url-status=dead}} Retrieved 5/9/2022</ref> With the species large size it has no natural predators.

Due to the poor eyesight of the species it relies on a lateral line sensory system, with cells covering the Japanese giant salamanders. These cells detect vibrations in their environment and are essential for hunting.

== Behavior ==
The Japanese giant salamander occurs in freshwater locations ranging from relatively large rivers (20-50 m) to small headwater streams (0.5 - 4 m), due to the abundance of oxygen.
This is required for the Japanese giant salamander with its large size and lack of gills present.

Compared to other salamanders the species remains in the water for its entire life due to it not having gills and does not live on land post metamorphosis. Japanese giant salamanders come to the surface to lie its head on the surface of the stream to get oxygen without going on land.
=== Reproduction ===
[[File:Salamander_eggs.jpg|right|thumb|Japanese giant salamander eggs. Retrieved from https://www.staradvertiser.com/2018/11/09/hawaii-news/breeding-pair-of-japanese-giant-salamanders-make-history-in-honolulu/]]

During the mating season, typically in late August and early September, sexually mature males start actively finding suitable nesting sites and often migrate upstream into smaller sections of the river or its tributaries. Nesting sites are highly sought after and are extremally competitive, leading to bigger individuals settling these areas and are considered den-masters.<ref name = amphibiaweb></ref> These den masters protect their nests against other males and during breeding season females are allowed to come in and lay their eggs in these dens. Den-masters fertilize these eggs however other male Japanese giant salamanders fertilize these eggs due to a males semen stimulating other hiding males to join the breeding meaning a female may end up breeding with multiple males.<ref name = amphibiaweb></ref> Researchers have shown that den-masters can be cannibalistic with its own unfertilized eggs theorizing "hygienic filial cannibalism", which implies selection and consumption of those to not spread disease or prevent the growth of the healthy eggs.

== Conservation ==
===Threats===
Due to the species being highly endemic, the biggest threat to the Japanese giant salamander is habitat loss. This is due to human activity damming up riverbeds and freshwater sources occupied by the giant salamander. Climate change is also a source for concern to the Japanese giant salamander due to estimated rainfall increasing leading to the destruction of streambeds.<ref>Ministry of the Environment, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, & Japan Meteorological Agency (2018): Climate change in Japan and its impacts. – Synthesis Report on Observations, Projections and Impact Assessments of Climate Change, 2018 Retrieved 05/9/2022 </ref> This introduction of the Chinese giant salamander has lead to hybridization between the two species, posing a big threat to the native species. Studies done from 2011 to 2013 showed that 95% of all Japanese giant salamanders captured were hybrids, and were captured in multiple locations.<ref name="natlzoo"> </ref>

[[File:Andrias_japnonicus_distribution.gif|left|thumb|Japanese giant salamander range. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_giant_salamander#/media/File:Andrias_japonicus_distribution.gif ]]

=== Efforts ===
The Japanese giant salamander was declared a special natural monument in 1951<ref>{{cite web|script-title=ja:オオサンショウウオ|url=https://kunishitei.bunka.go.jp/heritage/detail/401/3129|access-date=2011-09-24|publisher=The Agency for Cultural Affairs|language=ja}}</ref>, federally protecting the species protection. Despite this federal oversight no conservation efforts have been initiated by the government leading non-profits to conduct population assessments themselves, with organizations such as The Japanese Giant Salamander Society promoting conservation education of the species. No efforts have been taken as of today which is detrimental to the
recorded decline of the species population.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Spring Peeper

2022-05-11T15:04:45Z

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The spring peeper or ''Pseudacris crucifer'' is a species of tree frog found throughout the Eastern United States and Canada.
[[File: Spring Peeper.jpg|right|thumb|''P. crucifer'' resting on a plant]]
==Description==
Members of the order Anura, these small frogs are only 20 to 25 mm in length, characterized by their distinctive mating calls in early spring. [1] [2] Their coloration is typically dark to light brown or drab green with a darker “X” shape across their back.[1] However, spring peepers have the ability to change shades of color depending on light and temperature [3] These changes are not drastic but allow the frog to better match the surface it is hiding on, in terms of light and shade to avoid predators. In ideal conditions these shade changes take about fifteen to twenty-five minutes, with temperature changes altering the rate at which spring peepers shift [3]
[[File: peeper blending with bark.jpg|right|thumb| A spring peeper beginning to blend with the bark it rests on [1] ]]
{| class= "wikitable"
|+ ''Pseudacris crucifer''
|-
! Classification || Title
|-
| Kingdom || Animalia
|-
| Phylum || Chordata
|-
| Class || Amphibia
|-
| Order || Anura
|-
| Family || Hylidae
|-
| Genus || Pseudacris
|-
| Species || ''P. crucifer''
|}
==Habitat==
‘’P. crucifer’’ is commonly found in and among bodies of water to breed. These water bodies can be wetlands, streams, lakes, [[Vernal Pools]], and damp forests. [1] While being tree frogs, spring peepers tend to stay on the ground among leaf litter as adults.[1] The total range covers the Eastern United States and Canada.
==Diet==
Spring peepers are insectivores or [[organisms]] that eat [[insects]], such as spiders, ants, and flies. [1] As evidenced by their calls at night peepers are nocturnal and is when they will actively hunt for their prey.
[[File: Spring peeper calling.jpg|left|thumb|''Pseudacris crucifer'' with air-sac extended to ‘peep’ [1] ]]
==Hibernation and Calling==
Spring peepers harness an extraordinary ability to hibernate during the winter. How they do this is by drastically increasing glucose concentrations in their blood through their liver by a process called glycogenolysis. [4] This hyper accumulation supplies energy to the frog letting it survive when temperatures get below freezing. When ''P. crucifer'' go to hibernate, they typically do so in layers of mud on the water’s edge or within/under fallen logs on the forest floor.[1] Upon leaving the hibernation state peepers must overcome diminished muscle performance as a side effect from freezing, as prolonged freezing results in intracellular acidosis. [4] This results in difficulties for the frog to move its muscles as it creates non-available phosphorus for the body like lactic acid build up in humans. Research indicates that the typical recovery period from this state for spring peeper’s is about eleven days.[4] After that period normal locomotion is resumed for the frogs and they have no issues jumping or swimming.
Due to their low temperature tolerances spring peepers are often one of the first signs of spring. As they emerge from hibernation typically in March to breed at night. For mating males will let out a fast high-pitched ‘peep’, which is where the species gets its name from. These males will perch on a piece of vegetation overhanging the water and will call fifteen to twenty times within a minute. [2] During the height of breeding season the spring peeper’s calls can become incredibly loud and can be heard throughout the night. Mating season typically lasts from March through May and is when they call the most, fading out by summer. [2]

==References==
1. Gordon, Jennifer Largett; Monica Mingo; Jon Hirst; Sarah. “Pseudacris Crucifer (Spring Peeper).” Animal [[Diversity]] Web, https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Pseudacris_crucifer/. Accessed 10 May 2022. [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Pseudacris_crucifer/]

2. Lovett, Gary M. “When Do Peepers Peep? Climate and the Date of First Calling in the Spring Peeper (Pseudacris Crucifer) in Southeastern New York State.” Northeastern Naturalist, vol. 20, no. 2, 2013, pp. 333–40. [https://www.caryinstitute.org/sites/default/files/public/reprints/lovett_2013_ne_naturalist.pdf]

3. Kats, Lee B., and Randall G. van Dragt. “Background Color-Matching in the Spring Peeper, Hyla Crucifer.” Copeia, vol. 1986, no. 1, Feb. 1986, p. 109. https://doi.org/10.2307/1444895. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1444895?seq=1]

4. Layne Jr., Jack R., and Matt E. Rice. “Postfreeze Locomotion Performance in Wood Frogs (Rana Sylvatica) and Spring Peepers (Pseudacris Crucifer).” Canadian Journal of Zoology, vol. 81, no. 12, Dec. 2003, pp. 2061–65. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1139/z03-202. [https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/z03-202]

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Polypodiales

2022-05-03T23:57:16Z

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[[File:Evergeen Wood Fern.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1. Evergreen Wood Fern ''Dryopteris intermedia'' [3].]]
This order of ferns can be found anywhere from temperate to tropical climates. Including the [[fern]] pictured in Figure 1, which is commonly found in the North-Eastern U.S. and Canada [3].

==Description==
The Polypodiales order is extremely old and one of the most diverse plant orders extant today. Gene sequencing has determined Polypodiales to have diverged from other fern orders during the Mesozoic Era, in the Cretaceous Period [3]. Polypodiales represent almost 80% of extant fern species in the world [2]. This order displays distinct characteristics for identification, which include sporangia that are connected to a vertical annulus interrupted by the stalk and stomium. Additionally, the sporangial stalks typically are 1-3 cells wide. [7] While growing, their gametophytes are green and heart shaped as seen in Figure 3 [7]. Additionally, polypodiales have a special photoreceptor called a neochrome, which combines red and blue sensing organelles for more efficient photosynthesis [6]. This specialized photoreceptor aids the fern in low-light conditions, allowing effective photosynthesis in areas such as the forest floor.
[[File:Polypodiale.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2. Taxonomic tree for polypodiales lineage developed by PPG I [5].]]

{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"| Scientific Classification
|-
|Kingdom
|Plantae
|-
|Phylum
|Tracheophytes
|-
|Class
|Polypodiopsida
|-
|Order
|Polypodiales
|}

==Phylogeny and Classification==
The sub-orders within polypodiale have had numerous rearrangements since their initial taxonomic placements. Research within the 21st century has redefined the sub-order and subfamily structure of polypodiales. An expansive collaboration called the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (PPG I) was done in 2016 to complete this task, creating the three major sub-orders comprised of eupolypods I, eupolypods II, and cathetogyrates [8][5]. The cathetogyrates is a collection of sub-orders not in eupolypods consisting of Dennstaetiinae, Pteridineae, Lindsaeineae, and Saccolomatineae, seen in Figure 2 [5]. Further classification methodology has been researched based on the re-evaluation by PPG I, including analysis of Leaf Architectural Characters. [8] The research provided empirical evidence and methodology to observe structural characteristics between the suborders and families; further verifying the re-classification done by PPG I [8].

==Life Cycle==
As seen in Fig 3, a spore grows into a heart-shaped gametophyte containing both sex organs. Once fertilized this gametophyte slowly grows creating its own [[rhizosphere]] and begins sprouting the fronds or sporophytes. Over time these sporophytes grow into the widely recognized fern fronds. Once mature the fronds will grow spore nodules known as the sporangium underneath the leaves. Eventually, these sporangia will burst, releasing the spores into the air/water allowing them to grow into gametophytes and restarting the process once more.
[[File:Fern Life Cycle.jpg|thumb|center|Fig. 3. Life cycle for a fern, note the heart shaped gametophyte [1].]]

==Sources==
[1] Bioweb. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~joyellen/bioweb.html

[2] Contributors, W. 2022, April 21. Polypodiales. Wikipedia, The Free Ecyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypodiales

[3] Du, X.-Y., Lu, J.-M., Zhang, L.-B., Wen, J., Kuo, L.-Y., Mynssen, C. M., Schneider, H., & Li, D.-Z. (2021). Simultaneous diversification of Polypodiales and [[angiosperms]] in the Mesozoic. Cladistics, 37(5), 518–539. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12457

[4] Evergreen Wood Fern. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://www.dept.psu.edu/nkbiology/naturetrail/speciespages/evergreen_wood_fern.html

[5] I, P. (2016). A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns. Journal of Systematics and Evolution, 54(6), 563–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/jse.12229

[6] Li, F.-W., Villarreal, J. C., Kelly, S., Rothfels, C. J., Melkonian, M., Frangedakis, E., Ruhsam, M., Sigel, E. M., Der, J. P., Pittermann, J., Burge, D. O., Pokorny, L., Larsson, A., Chen, T., Weststrand, S., Thomas, P., Carpenter, E., Zhang, Y., Tian, Z., … Pryer, K. M. (2014). Horizontal transfer of an adaptive chimeric photoreceptor from bryophytes to ferns. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(18), 6672–6677. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319929111

[7] Smith, A. R., Pryer, K. M., Schuettpelz, E., Korall, P., Schneider, H., & Wolf, P. G. (2006). A classification for extant ferns. TAXON, 55(3), 705–731. https://doi.org/10.2307/25065646

[8] Tan, J. M. P., & Buot, I. E. (2019). Cluster and Ordination Analyses of Leaf Architectural Characters in Classifying Polypodiales sensu PPG. 17.

Polypodiales

2022-05-03T23:46:50Z

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[[File:Evergreen Wood Fern.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1. Evergreen Wood Fern ''Dryopteris intermedia'' [3].]]
This order of ferns can be found anywhere from temperate to tropical climates. Including the [[fern]] pictured in Figure 1, which is commonly found in the North-Eastern U.S. and Canada [3].

==Description==
The Polypodiales order is extremely old and one of the most diverse plant orders extant today. Gene sequencing has determined Polypodiales to have diverged from other fern orders during the Mesozoic Era, in the Cretaceous Period [3]. Polypodiales represent almost 80% of extant fern species in the world [2]. This order displays distinct characteristics for identification, which include sporangia that are connected to a vertical annulus interrupted by the stalk and stomium. Additionally, the sporangial stalks typically are 1-3 cells wide. [7] While growing, their gametophytes are green and heart shaped as seen in Figure 3 [7]. Additionally, polypodiales have a special photoreceptor called a neochrome, which combines red and blue sensing organelles for more efficient photosynthesis [6]. This specialized photoreceptor aids the fern in low-light conditions, allowing effective photosynthesis in areas such as the forest floor.
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"| Scientific Classification
|-
|Kingdom
|Plantae
|-
|Phylum
|Tracheophytes
|-
|Class
|Polypodiopsida
|-
|Order
|Polypodiales
|}

[[File:Polypodiale.jpg|thumb|Fig. 2. Taxonomic tree for polypodiales lineage developed by PPG I [5].]]

==Phylogeny and Classification==
The sub-orders within polypodiale have had numerous rearrangements since their initial taxonomic placements. Research within the 21st century has redefined the sub-order and subfamily structure of polypodiales. An expansive collaboration called the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (PPG I) was done in 2016 to complete this task, creating the three major sub-orders comprised of eupolypods I, eupolypods II, and cathetogyrates [8][5]. The cathetogyrates is a collection of sub-orders not in eupolypods consisting of Dennstaetiinae, Pteridineae, Lindsaeineae, and Saccolomatineae, seen in Figure 2 [5]. Further classification methodology has been researched based on the re-evaluation by PPG I, including analysis of Leaf Architectural Characters. [8] The research provided empirical evidence and methodology to observe structural characteristics between the suborders and families; further verifying the re-classification done by PPG I [8].

[[File:Fern Life Cycle.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3. Life cycle for a fern, note the heart shaped gametophyte [1].]]
==Life Cycle==
As seen in Fig X, a spore grows into a heart-shaped gametophyte containing both sex organs. Once fertilized this gametophyte slowly grows creating its own [[rhizosphere]] and begins sprouting the fronds or sporophytes. Over time these sporophytes grow into the widely recognized fern fronds. Once mature the fronds will grow spore nodules known as the sporangium underneath the leaves. Eventually, these sporangia will burst, releasing the spores into the air/water allowing them to grow into gametophytes and restarting the process once more.

==Sources==
[1] Bioweb. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~joyellen/bioweb.html

[2] Contributors, W. 2022, April 21. Polypodiales. Wikipedia, The Free Ecyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypodiales

[3] Du, X.-Y., Lu, J.-M., Zhang, L.-B., Wen, J., Kuo, L.-Y., Mynssen, C. M., Schneider, H., & Li, D.-Z. (2021). Simultaneous diversification of Polypodiales and [[angiosperms]] in the Mesozoic. Cladistics, 37(5), 518–539. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12457

[4] Evergreen Wood Fern. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://www.dept.psu.edu/nkbiology/naturetrail/speciespages/evergreen_wood_fern.html

[5] I, P. (2016). A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns. Journal of Systematics and Evolution, 54(6), 563–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/jse.12229

[6] Li, F.-W., Villarreal, J. C., Kelly, S., Rothfels, C. J., Melkonian, M., Frangedakis, E., Ruhsam, M., Sigel, E. M., Der, J. P., Pittermann, J., Burge, D. O., Pokorny, L., Larsson, A., Chen, T., Weststrand, S., Thomas, P., Carpenter, E., Zhang, Y., Tian, Z., … Pryer, K. M. (2014). Horizontal transfer of an adaptive chimeric photoreceptor from bryophytes to ferns. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(18), 6672–6677. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319929111

[7] Smith, A. R., Pryer, K. M., Schuettpelz, E., Korall, P., Schneider, H., & Wolf, P. G. (2006). A classification for extant ferns. TAXON, 55(3), 705–731. https://doi.org/10.2307/25065646

[8] Tan, J. M. P., & Buot, I. E. (2019). Cluster and Ordination Analyses of Leaf Architectural Characters in Classifying Polypodiales sensu PPG. 17.

File:Polypodiale.jpg

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Polypodiales

2022-05-03T23:37:55Z

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[[File:Evergreen Wood Fern.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1. Evergreen Wood Fern ''Dryopteris intermedia'' [3].]]
This order of ferns can be found anywhere from temperate to tropical climates. Including the [[fern]] pictured in Figure 1, which is commonly found in the North-Eastern U.S. and Canada [3].

==Description==
The Polypodiales order is extremely old and one of the most diverse plant orders extant today. Gene sequencing has determined Polypodiales to have diverged from other fern orders during the Mesozoic Era, in the Cretaceous Period [3]. Polypodiales represent almost 80% of extant fern species in the world [2]. This order displays distinct characteristics for identification, which include sporangia that are connected to a vertical annulus interrupted by the stalk and stomium. Additionally, the sporangial stalks typically are 1-3 cells wide. [7] While growing, their gametophytes are green and heart shaped as seen in Figure 3 [7]. Additionally, polypodiales have a special photoreceptor called a neochrome, which combines red and blue sensing organelles for more efficient photosynthesis [6]. This specialized photoreceptor aids the fern in low-light conditions, allowing effective photosynthesis in areas such as the forest floor.
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"| Scientific Classification
|-
|Kingdom
|Plantae
|-
|Phylum
|Tracheophytes
|-
|Class
|Polypodiopsida
|-
|Order
|Polypodiales
|}

[[File:Polypodiale.jpeg|thumb|Fig. 2. Taxonomic tree for polypodiales lineage developed by PPG I [5].]]

==Phylogeny and Classification==
The sub-orders within polypodiale have had numerous rearrangements since their initial taxonomic placements. Research within the 21st century has redefined the sub-order and subfamily structure of polypodiales. An expansive collaboration called the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (PPG I) was done in 2016 to complete this task, creating the three major sub-orders comprised of eupolypods I, eupolypods II, and cathetogyrates [8][5]. The cathetogyrates is a collection of sub-orders not in eupolypods consisting of Dennstaetiinae, Pteridineae, Lindsaeineae, and Saccolomatineae, seen in Figure 2 [5]. Further classification methodology has been researched based on the re-evaluation by PPG I, including analysis of Leaf Architectural Characters. [8] The research provided empirical evidence and methodology to observe structural characteristics between the suborders and families; further verifying the re-classification done by PPG I [8].

==Life Cycle==
As seen in Fig X, a spore grows into a heart-shaped gametophyte containing both sex organs. Once fertilized this gametophyte slowly grows creating its own [[rhizosphere]] and begins sprouting the fronds or sporophytes. Over time these sporophytes grow into the widely recognized fern fronds. Once mature the fronds will grow spore nodules known as the sporangium underneath the leaves. Eventually, these sporangia will burst, releasing the spores into the air/water allowing them to grow into gametophytes and restarting the process once more.
[[File:Fern Life Cycle.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3. Life cycle for a fern, note the heart shaped gametophyte [1].]]

==Sources==
[1] Bioweb. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~joyellen/bioweb.html

[2] Contributors, W. 2022, April 21. Polypodiales. Wikipedia, The Free Ecyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypodiales

[3] Du, X.-Y., Lu, J.-M., Zhang, L.-B., Wen, J., Kuo, L.-Y., Mynssen, C. M., Schneider, H., & Li, D.-Z. (2021). Simultaneous diversification of Polypodiales and [[angiosperms]] in the Mesozoic. Cladistics, 37(5), 518–539. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12457

[4] Evergreen Wood Fern. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://www.dept.psu.edu/nkbiology/naturetrail/speciespages/evergreen_wood_fern.html

[5] I, P. (2016). A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns. Journal of Systematics and Evolution, 54(6), 563–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/jse.12229

[6] Li, F.-W., Villarreal, J. C., Kelly, S., Rothfels, C. J., Melkonian, M., Frangedakis, E., Ruhsam, M., Sigel, E. M., Der, J. P., Pittermann, J., Burge, D. O., Pokorny, L., Larsson, A., Chen, T., Weststrand, S., Thomas, P., Carpenter, E., Zhang, Y., Tian, Z., … Pryer, K. M. (2014). Horizontal transfer of an adaptive chimeric photoreceptor from bryophytes to ferns. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(18), 6672–6677. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319929111

[7] Smith, A. R., Pryer, K. M., Schuettpelz, E., Korall, P., Schneider, H., & Wolf, P. G. (2006). A classification for extant ferns. TAXON, 55(3), 705–731. https://doi.org/10.2307/25065646

[8] Tan, J. M. P., & Buot, I. E. (2019). Cluster and Ordination Analyses of Leaf Architectural Characters in Classifying Polypodiales sensu PPG. 17.

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File:Polypodiale Tree.webp

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File:Evergeen Wood Fern.jpg

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Polypodiales

2022-04-22T02:49:53Z

Rtcunnin: Created page with "[[File:Evergreen.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1. Evergreen Wood Fern ''Dryopteris intermedia'' [3].]] This order of ferns can be found anywhere from temperate to tropical climates. Includin..."

[[File:Evergreen.jpg|thumb|Fig. 1. Evergreen Wood Fern ''Dryopteris intermedia'' [3].]]
This order of ferns can be found anywhere from temperate to tropical climates. Including the [[fern]] pictured in Figure 1, which is commonly found in the North-Eastern U.S. and Canada [3].

==Description==
The Polypodiales order is extremely old and one of the most diverse plant orders extant today. Gene sequencing has determined Polypodiales to have diverged from other fern orders during the Mesozoic Era, in the Cretaceous Period [3]. Polypodiales represent almost 80% of extant fern species in the world [2]. This order displays distinct characteristics for identification, which include sporangia that are connected to a vertical annulus interrupted by the stalk and stomium. Additionally, the sporangial stalks typically are 1-3 cells wide. [7] While growing, their gametophytes are green and heart shaped as seen in Figure 3 [7]. Additionally, polypodiales have a special photoreceptor called a neochrome, which combines red and blue sensing organelles for more efficient photosynthesis [6]. This specialized photoreceptor aids the fern in low-light conditions, allowing effective photosynthesis in areas such as the forest floor.
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"| Scientific Classification
|-
|Kingdom
|Plantae
|-
|Phylum
|Tracheophytes
|-
|Class
|Polypodiopsida
|-
|Order
|Polypodiales
|}

[[File:Polypodiale.jpeg|thumb|Fig. 2. Taxonomic tree for polypodiales lineage developed by PPG I [5].]]

==Phylogeny and Classification==
The sub-orders within polypodiale have had numerous rearrangements since their initial taxonomic placements. Research within the 21st century has redefined the sub-order and subfamily structure of polypodiales. An expansive collaboration called the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (PPG I) was done in 2016 to complete this task, creating the three major sub-orders comprised of eupolypods I, eupolypods II, and cathetogyrates [8][5]. The cathetogyrates is a collection of sub-orders not in eupolypods consisting of Dennstaetiinae, Pteridineae, Lindsaeineae, and Saccolomatineae, seen in Figure 2 [5]. Further classification methodology has been researched based on the re-evaluation by PPG I, including analysis of Leaf Architectural Characters. [8] The research provided empirical evidence and methodology to observe structural characteristics between the suborders and families; further verifying the re-classification done by PPG I [8].

==Life Cycle==
As seen in Fig X, a spore grows into a heart-shaped gametophyte containing both sex organs. Once fertilized this gametophyte slowly grows creating its own [[rhizosphere]] and begins sprouting the fronds or sporophytes. Over time these sporophytes grow into the widely recognized fern fronds. Once mature the fronds will grow spore nodules known as the sporangium underneath the leaves. Eventually, these sporangia will burst, releasing the spores into the air/water allowing them to grow into gametophytes and restarting the process once more.
[[File:Life Cycle.jpg|thumb|Fig. 3. Life cycle for a fern, note the heart shaped gametophyte [1].]]

==Sources==
[1] Bioweb. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~joyellen/bioweb.html

[2] Contributors, W. 2022, April 21. Polypodiales. Wikipedia, The Free Ecyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypodiales

[3] Du, X.-Y., Lu, J.-M., Zhang, L.-B., Wen, J., Kuo, L.-Y., Mynssen, C. M., Schneider, H., & Li, D.-Z. (2021). Simultaneous diversification of Polypodiales and [[angiosperms]] in the Mesozoic. Cladistics, 37(5), 518–539. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12457

[4] Evergreen Wood Fern. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://www.dept.psu.edu/nkbiology/naturetrail/speciespages/evergreen_wood_fern.html

[5] I, P. (2016). A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns. Journal of Systematics and Evolution, 54(6), 563–603. https://doi.org/10.1111/jse.12229

[6] Li, F.-W., Villarreal, J. C., Kelly, S., Rothfels, C. J., Melkonian, M., Frangedakis, E., Ruhsam, M., Sigel, E. M., Der, J. P., Pittermann, J., Burge, D. O., Pokorny, L., Larsson, A., Chen, T., Weststrand, S., Thomas, P., Carpenter, E., Zhang, Y., Tian, Z., … Pryer, K. M. (2014). Horizontal transfer of an adaptive chimeric photoreceptor from bryophytes to ferns. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(18), 6672–6677. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319929111

[7] Smith, A. R., Pryer, K. M., Schuettpelz, E., Korall, P., Schneider, H., & Wolf, P. G. (2006). A classification for extant ferns. TAXON, 55(3), 705–731. https://doi.org/10.2307/25065646

[8] Tan, J. M. P., & Buot, I. E. (2019). Cluster and Ordination Analyses of Leaf Architectural Characters in Classifying Polypodiales sensu PPG. 17.

Zygomycota

2022-03-30T02:08:13Z

Rtcunnin:

[[File:Zygomycota.jpg|thumb|Sporangia of Pilobolus kleinii. (Picture taken by Malcom Storey and obtained from Tree of Life.)]]
Zygomycota is a Phylum of the Kingdom Fungi. This phylum's name is derived from the method of sexual reproduction used by its members, which involve the creation of zygosporangia and zygospores. Identification through asexual reproduction is possible, but more difficult, so the former is the preferred way to determine the classification of a Zygomycota. [1] There are approximately 900 known species that fall into this Phylum, which composes approximately one-hundredth of all true fungi. It is believed to be one of the earlier branches of fungi, thought to have diverged before plants colonized land about 600 - 1,400 million years ago. [2] The unique structures for this Phylum are an uncommon example of sexually-reproducing fungus. [3]

== Identification ==
Most isolated specimens of Zygomycota do not have zygospores present (not in active sexual reproduction), so generally identification is based on sporangial morphology. Once the fungus matures and establishes itself on a medium, identification is easier, with emphasis on examination of sporangial morphology. In addition, tease mounts with a drop of 95% alcohol is stated to be quite effective. [4] Identification procedures may vary depending on what phase a Zygomycete is currently in for reproduction. [5] One particularly common example of a Zygomycete, however, is Black Bread Mold (''Rhizobus stolonifer''). Additionally, molds are often Zygomycetes. [6] Beyond their unique zygospores, Zygomycetes share many characteristics with their true fungi brethren, such as their chitin walls and hyphae, but their mycelia lack septa. [2] Overall, the defining traits of Zygomycota (their sexual reproduction structures and mycelia without septa) are what tie its members together, spread out over 124 Genera in 32 Families, all organized within 10 Orders. [6]

== Reproduction ==
Members of Zygomycota reproduce both sexually and asexually, with differing life phases based on what type of reproduction occurs. [5] For sexual reproduction, gametangial fusion occurs and involves the formation of zygospores. Asexual reproduction involves sporangia and sporangiospores. [2] Besides the pros and cons that natively come with both sexual and asexual reproduction, for members of this phylum, zygospores appear better suited for preserving the fungus during times of hardship, while sporangia seem to be better suited for rapid establishment and colonization. [1] The ability to reproduce sexually is a trait that is uncommon among fungi, although it is not exclusive to Zygomycota. [6]

=== Zygospores and Sexual Reproduction ===
Sexual reproduction in Zygomycota is similar to the conjugation process that a microscopic organism such as a protozoan might use. From these similarities, zygospores can also be referred to as Conjugating Fungi. To initiate this form of reproduction, certain hyphae called gametangia form a connection and exchange genetic material in nuclei in the center of the connected area. After it accumulates, septa are created to seal off the cell, meiosis creates chromosomes, and the cell where this has taken place grows thick, resistant walls that eventually disconnects. This site becomes known as a zygosporangium, and when the outer layers wear away (allowing the genetic material to be released if ready), it becomes a zygospore. [3] The gametangia used in this process have different "strains", plus and minus. These strains are morphologically similar but differ physiologically and biochemically. [5]

=== Asexual Reproduction ===
Asexual reproduction in Zygomycetes is centered on the production of sporangia, which themselves form at the ends of specialized hyphae called sporangiophores. Sporangiospores are formed by internal cleaving of cellular cytoplasm, and eventually the outer walls of sporangia will degrade, allowing spores with the same genetic material of the parent to disperse, aided by natural factors, such as water or air. [2]

== Impact on Other Organisms ==
[[File:Bread Mold.jpg|thumb|An illustration of a bread mold and its associated sporangiophores. (Picture obtained from Imagination Station)]]
This Phylum is mostly terrestrial but does have aquatic members, and many parasitic members; [[Insects]] in particular can be ravaged by Zygomycetes, but many larger [[animals]] (including humans) can become infected by them, along with smaller mesofauna, for example [[Nematodes]]. Some plants and fungi are also susceptible to infection by parasitic Zygomycetes. [1] However, some invertebrates have Zygomycetes in their digestive tracts, indicating that some members are mutualistic. Zygomycetes are also frequently neutral decomposers. For humans, arguably the main concern that Zygomycetes pose is their ability to [[soil]] foods. This is not necessarily a bad thing, though, as many foods have been created in which molds play a major role. On the other hand, some species can cause (potentially life-threatening) disease. Those most at risk for this are those with poor immune systems and broken skin. [6] Generally, disease transmission is through the development of spores inside the host, which can range from minor infection (esecially in larger animals) to completely infesting the host and draining it of nutrients, leaving it to die and the Zygomycetes to prepare for further reproduction. However, due to the large range of species (due to Zygomycota being a major Phylum of fungi), the role of Zygomycetes in an ecosystem can vary drastically.

== References ==
[1] "Zygomycota". New Brunswick Museum. Accessed 2018-05-05. http://website.nbm-mnb.ca/mycologywebpages/NaturalHistoryOfFungi/Zygomycota.html

[2] James, Timothy Y. and O'Donnell, Kerry. "Zygomycota". Tree of Life. Accessed 2018-05-06. http://tolweb.org/Zygomycota

[3] "Fungi Reproducing Sexually By Means Of Sporangio and Zygosporangia". New Brunswick Museum. Accessed 2018-05-05. http://website.nbm-mnb.ca/mycologywebpages/NaturalHistoryOfFungi/Sporangia.html#Zygosporangia

[4] "Zygomycota". The University of Adelaide. Accessed 2018-05-06. https://mycology.adelaide.edu.au/descriptions/zygomycetes/

[5] "Fungi - Zygomycota, Conjugating Fungi". Accessed 2018-05-06. http://science.jrank.org/pages/2892/Fungi-Zygomycota-conjugating-fungi.html

[6] "Examples of Zygomycetes." Your Dictionary. Accessed 2018-05-07. http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-zygomycetes.html