Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Scorpions

2023-05-12T17:52:08Z

Rmdonnel:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Scorpion Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Chelicerata
| Arachnida
| Scorpiones
|}

[[File:Scorpion1.jpeg|300px|right]]

== Anatomy ==

Scorpions are [[invertebrates]], which means that they do not have a backbone. All [[arthropods]], including scorpions, spiders, [[insects]], and crustaceans, are defined by their exoskeletons, jointed appendages, and segmented bodies. One of the most characteristic traits of scorpions are their long tails that curl over their backs and end with a venomous stinger. A scorpion's body is divided into two main parts which are the cephalothorax and the abdomen. The cephalothorax is located at the front of the body and are where a scorpion's four pairs of legs with setae are attached to the body. The cephalothorax includes their mouth parts and two large pincers known as pedipalps. Scorpions use their pinchers to help feel out their environment, defend themselves from predators, and to aid in trapping prey. Scorpions have two eyes on top of the cephalothorax but additionally have two to five pairs of eyes on the front corners and sides of their cephalothorax. Despite having multiple pairs of eyes, scorpions do not have good vision. However, their eyes are extremely light sensitive and allow them to see well in the dark or low lighting. The posterior portion of the body is the abdomen and includes the majority of their body length and their long tail, known as the metasoma. The metasoma has 5 segments and ends with the telson, which is the venom bulb. Inside of the telson are two venom glands that send the venom to the aculeus, commonly referred to as their stinger. Some scorpions have multiple toxins in their venom, with some species having over 40 toxins. Only around 30 species of scorpions have venom that is fatal to humans, but scorpion stings are known to cause pain, numbness, tingling, swelling, and warmth in the affected area.

== Habitat and Range ==

1,500 scorpion species have been classified and it is likely that there are hundreds of species yet to be discovered. Of these 1,500 different species, around 40 species live in the United States. Scorpions can be found on every continent except for Antarctica and live in a variety of [[biomes]] including deserts, savannas, and rainforests. However, scorpions tend to prefer arid climates and deserts. Their range typically extends from Canada down to South America, and are found in central Europe, Africa, and Australia. They were accidentally spread to New Zealand and England by humans. Scorpions are solitary [[organisms]] and typically stay in the same territory for their entire lives. Scorpions live in small burrows underground that serve as protection from the weather and from predators. Because scorpions are nocturnal, they typically spend their days underground and emerge at night to hunt. Some scorpions climb trees or bury themselves under leaf litter and rocks instead of burrowing in the ground.

== Diet and Behaviors ==

Scorpions mostly feed on insects, spiders, and small vertebrates like rodents and lizards. Although they prefer insects, they are opportunistic and will feed on a [[diversity]] of organisms when they required. Scorpions typically catch their prey by motionlessly waiting at the entrance to their underground burrows and striking with their stinger or grabbing with their pedipalps when prey wanders by. They use the hairs on their pedipalps to detect prey and can sense small ground vibrations to know when other organisms are around. Some scorpions prefer to seek out their prey or create pitfall traps in [[sand]] or [[soil]] that their prey fall into. They use their claws to snatch and crush smaller prey and use their stingers to take down larger or more difficult prey.
Scorpions don't have a typical jaw and can only ingest liquid forms. They eat their prey by crushing it and covering it in digestive enzymes that dissolves the animal's organs. Once their meal has dissolved, which can take up to an hour, they suck up their liquid prey. Scorpions don't need to feed everyday and typically hunt for a meal once every two or three weeks. They can survive for long periods of time, even as long as 12 months, without food as long as they have water.

== Reproduction ==

Scorpion mating and reproduction can vary from species to species but generally follow similar patterns and rituals. Scorpions that live in temperate regions begin by finding their mates in late spring and early summer and scorpions that inhabit the tropics seek their mates during the rainy season. Once the male scorpion finds his female companion, he holds the female by her pedipalps and leads her in a courtship dance. The pair walks in different directions in synchronization. During the dance, the male looks for an ideal spot on the ground to place his spermatophore. Once he deposits it, he leads the female on top of the spermatophore so she can absorb it and fertilize her eggs. With some species of scorpions, the female may kill the male after the courtship ritual has taken place. Male scorpions have also been observed attaching their aculeus into a soft part of the female's body but biologists are unclear if the males are injecting their venom into the female. Additionally, some scorpion species are capable of reproducing asexually in a process known as parthenogenesis. By reproducing asexually, females do not need a male to fertilize her eggs.

The gestation period of scorpions can last anywhere from a few months to a year depending on the species. Scorpions give birth to live young. When the offspring are born, they climb on their mother's back for protection and remain there until they molt for the first time. They typically molt two weeks after birth. After their first molt, the babies can go out on their own. They will molt five or six more times until they are fully grown.

== References ==

1. Kazilek. “Scorpion Anatomy.” Kazilek, 27 June 2016, https://askabiologist.asu.edu/scorpion-anatomy.

2. Orkin. “Scorpion Habitat - Where Do Scorpions Live?” Orkin, Orkin, 3 Aug. 2021, https://www.orkin.com/pests/stinging-pests/scorpions/scorpion-habitat.

3. “Scorpion - Description, Habitat, Image, Diet, and Interesting Facts.” Animals Network, 22 June 2018, animals.net/scorpion/.

4. “Scorpion.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/animal/scorpion.

5. “Scorpion Life Cycle - Life Cycle of a Scorpion.” Orkin, 3 Aug. 2021, www.orkin.com/pests/stinging-pests/scorpions/scorpion-life-cycle.

6. “Scorpions: National Geographic.” Animals, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/scorpions.

7. “Scorpion.” San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance [[Animals]] and Plants, https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/scorpion.

8. “Scorpion.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 19 Mar. 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpion.

9. “Scorpion Reproduction and Life Cycle: Do Scorpions Lay Eggs?” Study.Com, study.com/learn/lesson/baby-scorpions-life-cycle-reproduction.html.

10. “Scorpion Reproduction.” Scorpion Facts and Information, 2017, www.scorpionworlds.com/scorpion-reproduction/.

11. “Scorpion Sting.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 7 June 2022, https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/scorpion-stings/symptoms-causes/syc-20353859.

Scorpions

2023-05-12T17:51:49Z

Rmdonnel:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Scorpion Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Chelicerata
| Arachnida
| Scorpiones
|}

[[File:Scorpion1.jpeg|300px|right]]

== Anatomy ==

Scorpions are [[invertebrates]], which means that they do not have a backbone. All [[arthropods]], including scorpions, spiders, [[insects]], and crustaceans, are defined by their exoskeletons, jointed appendages, and segmented bodies. One of the most characteristic traits of scorpions are their long tails that curl over their backs and end with a venomous stinger. A scorpion's body is divided into two main parts which are the cephalothorax and the abdomen. The cephalothorax is located at the front of the body and are where a scorpion's four pairs of legs with setae are attached to the body. The cephalothorax includes their mouth parts and two large pincers known as pedipalps. Scorpions use their pinchers to help feel out their environment, defend themselves from predators, and to aid in trapping prey. Scorpions have two eyes on top of the cephalothorax but additionally have two to five pairs of eyes on the front corners and sides of their cephalothorax. Despite having multiple pairs of eyes, scorpions do not have good vision. However, their eyes are extremely light sensitive and allow them to see well in the dark or low lighting. The posterior portion of the body is the abdomen and includes the majority of their body length and their long tail, known as the metasoma. The metasoma has 5 segments and ends with the telson, which is the venom bulb. Inside of the telson are two venom glands that send the venom to the aculeus, commonly referred to as their stinger. Some scorpions have multiple toxins in their venom, with some species having over 40 toxins. Only around 30 species of scorpions have venom that is fatal to humans, but scorpion stings are known to cause pain, numbness, tingling, swelling, and warmth in the affected area.

[[File:Scorpion1.jpeg|300px|right]]

== Habitat and Range ==

1,500 scorpion species have been classified and it is likely that there are hundreds of species yet to be discovered. Of these 1,500 different species, around 40 species live in the United States. Scorpions can be found on every continent except for Antarctica and live in a variety of [[biomes]] including deserts, savannas, and rainforests. However, scorpions tend to prefer arid climates and deserts. Their range typically extends from Canada down to South America, and are found in central Europe, Africa, and Australia. They were accidentally spread to New Zealand and England by humans. Scorpions are solitary [[organisms]] and typically stay in the same territory for their entire lives. Scorpions live in small burrows underground that serve as protection from the weather and from predators. Because scorpions are nocturnal, they typically spend their days underground and emerge at night to hunt. Some scorpions climb trees or bury themselves under leaf litter and rocks instead of burrowing in the ground.

== Diet and Behaviors ==

Scorpions mostly feed on insects, spiders, and small vertebrates like rodents and lizards. Although they prefer insects, they are opportunistic and will feed on a [[diversity]] of organisms when they required. Scorpions typically catch their prey by motionlessly waiting at the entrance to their underground burrows and striking with their stinger or grabbing with their pedipalps when prey wanders by. They use the hairs on their pedipalps to detect prey and can sense small ground vibrations to know when other organisms are around. Some scorpions prefer to seek out their prey or create pitfall traps in [[sand]] or [[soil]] that their prey fall into. They use their claws to snatch and crush smaller prey and use their stingers to take down larger or more difficult prey.
Scorpions don't have a typical jaw and can only ingest liquid forms. They eat their prey by crushing it and covering it in digestive enzymes that dissolves the animal's organs. Once their meal has dissolved, which can take up to an hour, they suck up their liquid prey. Scorpions don't need to feed everyday and typically hunt for a meal once every two or three weeks. They can survive for long periods of time, even as long as 12 months, without food as long as they have water.

== Reproduction ==

Scorpion mating and reproduction can vary from species to species but generally follow similar patterns and rituals. Scorpions that live in temperate regions begin by finding their mates in late spring and early summer and scorpions that inhabit the tropics seek their mates during the rainy season. Once the male scorpion finds his female companion, he holds the female by her pedipalps and leads her in a courtship dance. The pair walks in different directions in synchronization. During the dance, the male looks for an ideal spot on the ground to place his spermatophore. Once he deposits it, he leads the female on top of the spermatophore so she can absorb it and fertilize her eggs. With some species of scorpions, the female may kill the male after the courtship ritual has taken place. Male scorpions have also been observed attaching their aculeus into a soft part of the female's body but biologists are unclear if the males are injecting their venom into the female. Additionally, some scorpion species are capable of reproducing asexually in a process known as parthenogenesis. By reproducing asexually, females do not need a male to fertilize her eggs.

The gestation period of scorpions can last anywhere from a few months to a year depending on the species. Scorpions give birth to live young. When the offspring are born, they climb on their mother's back for protection and remain there until they molt for the first time. They typically molt two weeks after birth. After their first molt, the babies can go out on their own. They will molt five or six more times until they are fully grown.

== References ==

1. Kazilek. “Scorpion Anatomy.” Kazilek, 27 June 2016, https://askabiologist.asu.edu/scorpion-anatomy.

2. Orkin. “Scorpion Habitat - Where Do Scorpions Live?” Orkin, Orkin, 3 Aug. 2021, https://www.orkin.com/pests/stinging-pests/scorpions/scorpion-habitat.

3. “Scorpion - Description, Habitat, Image, Diet, and Interesting Facts.” Animals Network, 22 June 2018, animals.net/scorpion/.

4. “Scorpion.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/animal/scorpion.

5. “Scorpion Life Cycle - Life Cycle of a Scorpion.” Orkin, 3 Aug. 2021, www.orkin.com/pests/stinging-pests/scorpions/scorpion-life-cycle.

6. “Scorpions: National Geographic.” Animals, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/scorpions.

7. “Scorpion.” San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance [[Animals]] and Plants, https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/scorpion.

8. “Scorpion.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 19 Mar. 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpion.

9. “Scorpion Reproduction and Life Cycle: Do Scorpions Lay Eggs?” Study.Com, study.com/learn/lesson/baby-scorpions-life-cycle-reproduction.html.

10. “Scorpion Reproduction.” Scorpion Facts and Information, 2017, www.scorpionworlds.com/scorpion-reproduction/.

11. “Scorpion Sting.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 7 June 2022, https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/scorpion-stings/symptoms-causes/syc-20353859.

Scorpions

2023-05-12T17:51:30Z

Rmdonnel:

Scorpions

2023-05-12T17:51:17Z

Rmdonnel:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Scorpion Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Chelicerata
| Arachnida
| Scorpiones
|}

[[File:Scorpion1.jpeg|300px|left]]

== Anatomy ==

Scorpions are [[invertebrates]], which means that they do not have a backbone. All [[arthropods]], including scorpions, spiders, [[insects]], and crustaceans, are defined by their exoskeletons, jointed appendages, and segmented bodies. One of the most characteristic traits of scorpions are their long tails that curl over their backs and end with a venomous stinger. A scorpion's body is divided into two main parts which are the cephalothorax and the abdomen. The cephalothorax is located at the front of the body and are where a scorpion's four pairs of legs with setae are attached to the body. The cephalothorax includes their mouth parts and two large pincers known as pedipalps. Scorpions use their pinchers to help feel out their environment, defend themselves from predators, and to aid in trapping prey. Scorpions have two eyes on top of the cephalothorax but additionally have two to five pairs of eyes on the front corners and sides of their cephalothorax. Despite having multiple pairs of eyes, scorpions do not have good vision. However, their eyes are extremely light sensitive and allow them to see well in the dark or low lighting. The posterior portion of the body is the abdomen and includes the majority of their body length and their long tail, known as the metasoma. The metasoma has 5 segments and ends with the telson, which is the venom bulb. Inside of the telson are two venom glands that send the venom to the aculeus, commonly referred to as their stinger. Some scorpions have multiple toxins in their venom, with some species having over 40 toxins. Only around 30 species of scorpions have venom that is fatal to humans, but scorpion stings are known to cause pain, numbness, tingling, swelling, and warmth in the affected area.

== Habitat and Range ==

1,500 scorpion species have been classified and it is likely that there are hundreds of species yet to be discovered. Of these 1,500 different species, around 40 species live in the United States. Scorpions can be found on every continent except for Antarctica and live in a variety of [[biomes]] including deserts, savannas, and rainforests. However, scorpions tend to prefer arid climates and deserts. Their range typically extends from Canada down to South America, and are found in central Europe, Africa, and Australia. They were accidentally spread to New Zealand and England by humans. Scorpions are solitary [[organisms]] and typically stay in the same territory for their entire lives. Scorpions live in small burrows underground that serve as protection from the weather and from predators. Because scorpions are nocturnal, they typically spend their days underground and emerge at night to hunt. Some scorpions climb trees or bury themselves under leaf litter and rocks instead of burrowing in the ground.

== Diet and Behaviors ==

Scorpions mostly feed on insects, spiders, and small vertebrates like rodents and lizards. Although they prefer insects, they are opportunistic and will feed on a [[diversity]] of organisms when they required. Scorpions typically catch their prey by motionlessly waiting at the entrance to their underground burrows and striking with their stinger or grabbing with their pedipalps when prey wanders by. They use the hairs on their pedipalps to detect prey and can sense small ground vibrations to know when other organisms are around. Some scorpions prefer to seek out their prey or create pitfall traps in [[sand]] or [[soil]] that their prey fall into. They use their claws to snatch and crush smaller prey and use their stingers to take down larger or more difficult prey.
Scorpions don't have a typical jaw and can only ingest liquid forms. They eat their prey by crushing it and covering it in digestive enzymes that dissolves the animal's organs. Once their meal has dissolved, which can take up to an hour, they suck up their liquid prey. Scorpions don't need to feed everyday and typically hunt for a meal once every two or three weeks. They can survive for long periods of time, even as long as 12 months, without food as long as they have water.

== Reproduction ==

Scorpion mating and reproduction can vary from species to species but generally follow similar patterns and rituals. Scorpions that live in temperate regions begin by finding their mates in late spring and early summer and scorpions that inhabit the tropics seek their mates during the rainy season. Once the male scorpion finds his female companion, he holds the female by her pedipalps and leads her in a courtship dance. The pair walks in different directions in synchronization. During the dance, the male looks for an ideal spot on the ground to place his spermatophore. Once he deposits it, he leads the female on top of the spermatophore so she can absorb it and fertilize her eggs. With some species of scorpions, the female may kill the male after the courtship ritual has taken place. Male scorpions have also been observed attaching their aculeus into a soft part of the female's body but biologists are unclear if the males are injecting their venom into the female. Additionally, some scorpion species are capable of reproducing asexually in a process known as parthenogenesis. By reproducing asexually, females do not need a male to fertilize her eggs.

The gestation period of scorpions can last anywhere from a few months to a year depending on the species. Scorpions give birth to live young. When the offspring are born, they climb on their mother's back for protection and remain there until they molt for the first time. They typically molt two weeks after birth. After their first molt, the babies can go out on their own. They will molt five or six more times until they are fully grown.

== References ==

1. Kazilek. “Scorpion Anatomy.” Kazilek, 27 June 2016, https://askabiologist.asu.edu/scorpion-anatomy.

2. Orkin. “Scorpion Habitat - Where Do Scorpions Live?” Orkin, Orkin, 3 Aug. 2021, https://www.orkin.com/pests/stinging-pests/scorpions/scorpion-habitat.

3. “Scorpion - Description, Habitat, Image, Diet, and Interesting Facts.” Animals Network, 22 June 2018, animals.net/scorpion/.

4. “Scorpion.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/animal/scorpion.

5. “Scorpion Life Cycle - Life Cycle of a Scorpion.” Orkin, 3 Aug. 2021, www.orkin.com/pests/stinging-pests/scorpions/scorpion-life-cycle.

6. “Scorpions: National Geographic.” Animals, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/scorpions.

7. “Scorpion.” San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance [[Animals]] and Plants, https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/scorpion.

8. “Scorpion.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 19 Mar. 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpion.

9. “Scorpion Reproduction and Life Cycle: Do Scorpions Lay Eggs?” Study.Com, study.com/learn/lesson/baby-scorpions-life-cycle-reproduction.html.

10. “Scorpion Reproduction.” Scorpion Facts and Information, 2017, www.scorpionworlds.com/scorpion-reproduction/.

11. “Scorpion Sting.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 7 June 2022, https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/scorpion-stings/symptoms-causes/syc-20353859.

American toad

2023-05-12T17:50:47Z

Rmdonnel: /* References */

'''American toad''''' (Anaxyrus americanus)''

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ American Toad Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
! scope="row" | Family
! scope="row" | Genus
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Chordata
| Amphibia
| Anura
| Bufonidae
| Anaxyrus
|}
Their name has recently changed from ''(Bufo americanus)'' to ''(Anaxyrus americanus)''.
[[File:bufame210.jpg|right|]]
== Description ==
The American toad is a common toad species that can be found throughout the Eastern and Central parts of the United States and Canada. This species is a medium size toad that grows up to 5-9 cm or 2-4 inches in length with females generally being slightly larger than males. Its coloration can change depending on the temperature, humidity, and stress levels of the environment. American toads are predominantly brown and can display hues of red or olive green. Their bellies are whitish or yellow, usually with dark spots. They have noticeable warts on their skin, including two large ones behind their eyes. The warts behind their eyes are their parotoid glands which are major salivary glands found in [[animals]]. These parotoid glands secrete a bufotoxin that is used to deter predators. Bufotoxin is a milky toxin made up of steroid lactones and can cause illness and death in small animals. The bufotoxin in American toads is not fatal to humans but can cause allergic reactions. American toads typically only live to be a few years old in the wild, however, they can live up to around 10 years old in capacity. There is even a case of an American toad living 36 years in capacity until it died due to an accident.

[[File:range23.gif|right]]

== Range and Subspecies ==
American toads can be found throughout most of the Eastern and Central parts of the United States and Canada. They prefer cool woodlands with lots of moisture but can live in meadows, fields, and gardens. American toads require small freshwater ponds for their early days when they start as tadpoles. As they develop, they hydrate their bodies by absorbing moisture through their thin skin, so they require a moist environment to survive. There are currently two recognized subspecies of the American toad - the Eastern American toad ''(Anaxyrus americanus)'' and the Dwarf American toad ''(Anaxyrus charlesmithi)''. The range of the Dwarf American toad is more concentrated and they are found in more southern states while the Eastern American toad occupies a range spanning the East coast of the United States and Canada, excluding the southernmost states.

== Life Cycle and Behavior ==
Depending on temperature and location, mating can being as early as March and ends in July. The males will find a shallow spot in wetlands or ponds and call to attract females. Males generally only call at night but will call during wet days during the peak of mating season.
[https://www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/amphibians/armi/frog_calls/american_toad.wav] Once the mating takes place the female will lay from 2,000-20,000 eggs in a long strand. The eggs will hatch after 3-12 days, typically from around June to August. Once the eggs hatch, they develop into tadpoles and become fully grown in 60 days. An American Toad will reach sexual maturity after 2-4 years. Once the toads reach adulthood they feed during the early morning into the night, as they are mainly nocturnal. American toads often hide in leaf litter to avoid predators. The toads will burrow in moist soils and hibernate in these burrows during the winter.

== Diet and Predators ==
When American toads start off as tadpoles, they are herbivorous and primarily feed on decaying plants. When they become adults, they become carnivorous and eat small creatures such as insects, spiders, worms, and snails. The predators of the American toad include birds, snakes, and small mammals such as raccoons and skunks. There are certain snakes, such as the eastern hognose snake, which is specialized in eating toads due to its immunity to the American toad's bufotoxin. Toads often pee on themselves to make themselves a less appealing meal when they are facing a predator that is unaffected by their toxins. Another defensive behavior is that toads will enlarge their bodies by puffing up to seem too large for a snake to consume.

== References ==

1. Altig, Ronald, et al. Handbook of Larval Amphibians of the United States and Canada. 1st ed., Cornell University Press, 2015. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1tm7g59. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

2. “American Toad.” Illinois Department of Natural Resources, dnr.illinois.gov/education/wildaboutpages/wildaboutfrogs/waftamericantoad.html. Accessed 12 May 2023.

3. (“Eastern American Toad Fact Sheet - Signs of the Seasons: A New England Phenology Program - University of Maine Cooperative Extension”)
“IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54570/56843565. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

4. Grossman, Stacey. “Anaxyrus Americanus (American Toad).” Animal Diversity Web, animaldiversity.org/accounts/Anaxyrus_americanus/.

5. “IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54570/56843565. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

6. Pauly, Gregory B., et al. “THE HISTORY OF A NEARCTIC COLONIZATION: MOLECULAR PHYLOGENETICS AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE NEARCTIC TOADS (BUFO).” Evolution, no. 11, The Society for the Study of Evolution, 2004, p. 2517. Crossref, doi:10.1554/04-208.

7. “Toads.” National Wildlife Federation, www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Amphibians/Toads. Accessed 12 May 2023.

8. Vaughan, Andres, and Joseph R. Mendelson. “Taxonomy and Ecology of the Central American Toads of the Genus Crepidophryne (Anura: Bufonidae).” Copeia, no. 2, American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists (ASIH), May 2007, pp. 304–14. Crossref, doi:10.1643/0045-8511(2007)7[304:taeotc]2.0.co;2.

American toad

2023-05-12T17:47:09Z

Rmdonnel: /* References */

'''American toad''''' (Anaxyrus americanus)''

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ American Toad Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
! scope="row" | Family
! scope="row" | Genus
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Chordata
| Amphibia
| Anura
| Bufonidae
| Anaxyrus
|}
Their name has recently changed from ''(Bufo americanus)'' to ''(Anaxyrus americanus)''.
[[File:bufame210.jpg|right|]]
== Description ==
The American toad is a common toad species that can be found throughout the Eastern and Central parts of the United States and Canada. This species is a medium size toad that grows up to 5-9 cm or 2-4 inches in length with females generally being slightly larger than males. Its coloration can change depending on the temperature, humidity, and stress levels of the environment. American toads are predominantly brown and can display hues of red or olive green. Their bellies are whitish or yellow, usually with dark spots. They have noticeable warts on their skin, including two large ones behind their eyes. The warts behind their eyes are their parotoid glands which are major salivary glands found in [[animals]]. These parotoid glands secrete a bufotoxin that is used to deter predators. Bufotoxin is a milky toxin made up of steroid lactones and can cause illness and death in small animals. The bufotoxin in American toads is not fatal to humans but can cause allergic reactions. American toads typically only live to be a few years old in the wild, however, they can live up to around 10 years old in capacity. There is even a case of an American toad living 36 years in capacity until it died due to an accident.

[[File:range23.gif|right]]

== Range and Subspecies ==
American toads can be found throughout most of the Eastern and Central parts of the United States and Canada. They prefer cool woodlands with lots of moisture but can live in meadows, fields, and gardens. American toads require small freshwater ponds for their early days when they start as tadpoles. As they develop, they hydrate their bodies by absorbing moisture through their thin skin, so they require a moist environment to survive. There are currently two recognized subspecies of the American toad - the Eastern American toad ''(Anaxyrus americanus)'' and the Dwarf American toad ''(Anaxyrus charlesmithi)''. The range of the Dwarf American toad is more concentrated and they are found in more southern states while the Eastern American toad occupies a range spanning the East coast of the United States and Canada, excluding the southernmost states.

== Life Cycle and Behavior ==
Depending on temperature and location, mating can being as early as March and ends in July. The males will find a shallow spot in wetlands or ponds and call to attract females. Males generally only call at night but will call during wet days during the peak of mating season.
[https://www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/amphibians/armi/frog_calls/american_toad.wav] Once the mating takes place the female will lay from 2,000-20,000 eggs in a long strand. The eggs will hatch after 3-12 days, typically from around June to August. Once the eggs hatch, they develop into tadpoles and become fully grown in 60 days. An American Toad will reach sexual maturity after 2-4 years. Once the toads reach adulthood they feed during the early morning into the night, as they are mainly nocturnal. American toads often hide in leaf litter to avoid predators. The toads will burrow in moist soils and hibernate in these burrows during the winter.

== Diet and Predators ==
When American toads start off as tadpoles, they are herbivorous and primarily feed on decaying plants. When they become adults, they become carnivorous and eat small creatures such as insects, spiders, worms, and snails. The predators of the American toad include birds, snakes, and small mammals such as raccoons and skunks. There are certain snakes, such as the eastern hognose snake, which is specialized in eating toads due to its immunity to the American toad's bufotoxin. Toads often pee on themselves to make themselves a less appealing meal when they are facing a predator that is unaffected by their toxins. Another defensive behavior is that toads will enlarge their bodies by puffing up to seem too large for a snake to consume.

== References ==

1. Altig, Ronald, et al. Handbook of Larval Amphibians of the United States and Canada. 1st ed., Cornell University Press, 2015. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1tm7g59. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

2. (“Eastern American Toad Fact Sheet - Signs of the Seasons: A New England Phenology Program - University of Maine Cooperative Extension”)
“IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54570/56843565. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

3. Grossman, Stacey. “Anaxyrus Americanus (American Toad).” Animal Diversity Web, animaldiversity.org/accounts/Anaxyrus_americanus/.

4. “IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54570/56843565. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

5. Pauly, Gregory B., et al. “THE HISTORY OF A NEARCTIC COLONIZATION: MOLECULAR PHYLOGENETICS AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE NEARCTIC TOADS (BUFO).” Evolution, no. 11, The Society for the Study of Evolution, 2004, p. 2517. Crossref, doi:10.1554/04-208.

6. “Toads.” National Wildlife Federation, www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Amphibians/Toads. Accessed 12 May 2023.

7. Vaughan, Andres, and Joseph R. Mendelson. “Taxonomy and Ecology of the Central American Toads of the Genus Crepidophryne (Anura: Bufonidae).” Copeia, no. 2, American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists (ASIH), May 2007, pp. 304–14. Crossref, doi:10.1643/0045-8511(2007)7[304:taeotc]2.0.co;2.

American toad

2023-05-12T17:45:17Z

Rmdonnel: /* References */

'''American toad''''' (Anaxyrus americanus)''

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ American Toad Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
! scope="row" | Family
! scope="row" | Genus
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Chordata
| Amphibia
| Anura
| Bufonidae
| Anaxyrus
|}
Their name has recently changed from ''(Bufo americanus)'' to ''(Anaxyrus americanus)''.
[[File:bufame210.jpg|right|]]
== Description ==
The American toad is a common toad species that can be found throughout the Eastern and Central parts of the United States and Canada. This species is a medium size toad that grows up to 5-9 cm or 2-4 inches in length with females generally being slightly larger than males. Its coloration can change depending on the temperature, humidity, and stress levels of the environment. American toads are predominantly brown and can display hues of red or olive green. Their bellies are whitish or yellow, usually with dark spots. They have noticeable warts on their skin, including two large ones behind their eyes. The warts behind their eyes are their parotoid glands which are major salivary glands found in [[animals]]. These parotoid glands secrete a bufotoxin that is used to deter predators. Bufotoxin is a milky toxin made up of steroid lactones and can cause illness and death in small animals. The bufotoxin in American toads is not fatal to humans but can cause allergic reactions. American toads typically only live to be a few years old in the wild, however, they can live up to around 10 years old in capacity. There is even a case of an American toad living 36 years in capacity until it died due to an accident.

[[File:range23.gif|right]]

== Range and Subspecies ==
American toads can be found throughout most of the Eastern and Central parts of the United States and Canada. They prefer cool woodlands with lots of moisture but can live in meadows, fields, and gardens. American toads require small freshwater ponds for their early days when they start as tadpoles. As they develop, they hydrate their bodies by absorbing moisture through their thin skin, so they require a moist environment to survive. There are currently two recognized subspecies of the American toad - the Eastern American toad ''(Anaxyrus americanus)'' and the Dwarf American toad ''(Anaxyrus charlesmithi)''. The range of the Dwarf American toad is more concentrated and they are found in more southern states while the Eastern American toad occupies a range spanning the East coast of the United States and Canada, excluding the southernmost states.

== Life Cycle and Behavior ==
Depending on temperature and location, mating can being as early as March and ends in July. The males will find a shallow spot in wetlands or ponds and call to attract females. Males generally only call at night but will call during wet days during the peak of mating season.
[https://www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/amphibians/armi/frog_calls/american_toad.wav] Once the mating takes place the female will lay from 2,000-20,000 eggs in a long strand. The eggs will hatch after 3-12 days, typically from around June to August. Once the eggs hatch, they develop into tadpoles and become fully grown in 60 days. An American Toad will reach sexual maturity after 2-4 years. Once the toads reach adulthood they feed during the early morning into the night, as they are mainly nocturnal. American toads often hide in leaf litter to avoid predators. The toads will burrow in moist soils and hibernate in these burrows during the winter.

== Diet and Predators ==
When American toads start off as tadpoles, they are herbivorous and primarily feed on decaying plants. When they become adults, they become carnivorous and eat small creatures such as insects, spiders, worms, and snails. The predators of the American toad include birds, snakes, and small mammals such as raccoons and skunks. There are certain snakes, such as the eastern hognose snake, which is specialized in eating toads due to its immunity to the American toad's bufotoxin. Toads often pee on themselves to make themselves a less appealing meal when they are facing a predator that is unaffected by their toxins. Another defensive behavior is that toads will enlarge their bodies by puffing up to seem too large for a snake to consume.

== References ==

1. Altig, Ronald, et al. Handbook of Larval Amphibians of the United States and Canada. 1st ed., Cornell University Press, 2015. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1tm7g59. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

2. (“Eastern American Toad Fact Sheet - Signs of the Seasons: A New England Phenology Program - University of Maine Cooperative Extension”)
“IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54570/56843565. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

3. Grossman, Stacey. “Anaxyrus Americanus (American Toad).” Animal Diversity Web, animaldiversity.org/accounts/Anaxyrus_americanus/.

4. “IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54570/56843565. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

5. Pauly, Gregory B., et al. “THE HISTORY OF A NEARCTIC COLONIZATION: MOLECULAR PHYLOGENETICS AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE NEARCTIC TOADS (BUFO).” Evolution, no. 11, The Society for the Study of Evolution, 2004, p. 2517. Crossref, doi:10.1554/04-208.

6. Vaughan, Andres, and Joseph R. Mendelson. “Taxonomy and Ecology of the Central American Toads of the Genus Crepidophryne (Anura: Bufonidae).” Copeia, no. 2, American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists (ASIH), May 2007, pp. 304–14. Crossref, doi:10.1643/0045-8511(2007)7[304:taeotc]2.0.co;2.

Rmdonnel: /* Habitat and range */

[[File:Evs463 star-nosed mole.jpeg|300px|thumb|left|''Condylura cristata'']]

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ ''Condylura cristata'' taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
! scope="row" | Family
! scope="row" | Genus
! scope="row" | Species
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Chordata
| Mammalia
| Eulipotyphia
| Talpidae
| Condylura
| C. cristata
|}

== Anatomy ==
Star-nosed moles are small mammals that have dark, velvety fur, small ears and eyes, and large front paws that are used for digging. Their body size is typically around 15 to 20 centimeters and their weight can vary from around 35 to 75 grams. The star-nosed mole is most easily identifiable by its nose, which has 22 tendrils that the mole uses to sense its environment. Star-nosed moles are functionally blind and rely on their nose for navigation and identification. Even though the size of their nose is around 1 centimeter, it is covered in 25,000 sensory receptor organs known as Eimer's organ. Most moles have many of these sensory organs but star-nosed moles have the highest number of them. For comparison, star-nosed moles have around 6 times more sensory organs in their noses than humans have on their hand, meaning that their noses are highly sensitive. Due to their sensitivity, these receptors aid moles in locating and identifying possible food sources and navigating their environment. The journal ''Nature'' awarded star-nosed moles as the fastest-eating mammal as studies have shown that these moles can take 120 milliseconds to identify and eat food. This is in comparison to the average amount of time, which is reported as 227 milliseconds.

== Habitat and range ==
Star-nosed [[moles]] live in moist lowland habitats in the eastern half of North America. They can be found in multiple different [[biomes]], including forests, marshes, shrubland, and mountains. They are semi-aquatic mammals and prefer wet environments but have been found in drier habitats as well. Their status in the wild is of least concern and their population is stable.
[[File:Mole_range.gif]]

== Diet and behaviors ==
Star-nosed moles are primarily vermivorous, meaning that they feed on [[organisms]] such as [[annelids]] and [[nematodes]]. They also eat [[insects]], larvae, crustaceans, mollusks, and small fish. They are excellent swimmers and forage for food on the bottom of freshwater bodies of water. They also forage in [[soil]] by creating shallow tunnels beneath the surface. Moles can be viewed as pests because their burrowing behavior can damage lawns and gardens. However, moles play an important role in eliminating any potential harmful insects and aerating the soil, creating a more productive environment. Because of the amount of time that moles spend in underground burrows, it has been found that they can survive in environments with little oxygen by effectively reusing the air. They are also able to tolerate higher amounts of carbon dioxide than other [[animals]] due to their blood cells having a special variation of hemoglobin.

== Life cycle and reproduction ==
Star-nosed moles have a lifespan of around 2 to 4 years. They are known to be serially monogamous, meaning that they stay with their partner for one breeding season. They begin mating in late winter and early spring and give birth to a litter with around 2 to 7 hairless offspring in late spring and early summer. Females give birth to their young in underground tunnels. When the litter is born, their ears, eyes, and star are sealed shut and don't open and become functional until they are around 2 weeks old. Star-nosed moles are considered to be mature when they reach 10 months old.

== References ==
1. Devereaux, Maiah E. M., et al. “Burrowing Star-Nosed Moles (Condylura Cristata) Are Not Hypoxia Tolerant.” The Company of Biologists, The Company of Biologists, 14 Oct. 2021, https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/224/19/jeb242972/272464/Burrowing-star-nosed-moles-Condylura-cristata-are.

2. Engelhaupt, Erika. “Inside the Bizarre Life of the Star-Nosed Mole, World's Fastest Eater.” Animals, National Geographic, 3 May 2021, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/star-nosed-mole-touch-pain-senses.

3. “The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 7 Aug. 2016, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/41458/115187740.

4. “Mole.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal.

5. “Moles.” National Wildlife Federation, http://nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Mammals/Moles.

6. “Star-Nosed Mole.” Star-Nosed Mole - Facts, Diet, Habitat & Pictures on Animalia.bio, https://animalia.bio/star-nosed-mole.

7. “Star-Nosed Mole.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 19 Mar. 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star-nosed_mole.

2023-05-11T17:52:20Z

Rmdonnel: /* Description */

[[File:bufame210.jpg|right|]]

'''American toad''''' (Anaxyrus americanus)''

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ American Toad Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
! scope="row" | Family
! scope="row" | Genus
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Chordata
| Amphibia
| Anura
| Bufonidae
| Anaxyrus
|}
Their name has recently changed from ''(Bufo americanus)'' to ''(Anaxyrus americanus)''.
== Description ==
The American toad is a common toad species that can be found throughout the Eastern and Central parts of the United States and Canada. This species is a medium size toad that grows up to 5-9 cm or 2-4 inches in length with females generally being slightly larger than males. Its coloration can change depending on the temperature, humidity, and stress levels of the environment. American toads are predominantly brown and can display hues of red or olive green. Their bellies are whitish or yellow, usually with dark spots. They have noticeable warts on their skin, including two large ones behind their eyes. The warts behind their eyes are their parotoid glands which are major salivary glands found in [[animals]]. These parotoid glands secrete a bufotoxin that is used to deter predators. Bufotoxin is a milky toxin made up of steroid lactones and can cause illness and death in small animals. The bufotoxin in American toads is not fatal to humans but can cause allergic reactions. American toads typically only live to be a few years old in the wild, however, they can live up to around 10 years old in capacity. There is even a case of an American toad living 36 years in capacity until it died due to an accident.

[[File:range23.gif|right]]

== Range and Subspecies ==
American toads can be found throughout most of the Eastern and Central parts of the United States and Canada. They prefer cool woodlands with lots of moisture but can live in meadows, fields, and gardens. American toads require small freshwater ponds for their early days when they start as tadpoles. As they develop, they hydrate their bodies by absorbing moisture through their thin skin, so they require a moist environment to survive. There are currently two recognized subspecies of the American toad - the Eastern American toad ''(Anaxyrus americanus)'' and the Dwarf American toad ''(Anaxyrus charlesmithi)''. The range of the Dwarf American toad is more concentrated and they are found in more southern states while the Eastern American toad occupies a range spanning the East coast of the United States and Canada, excluding the southernmost states.

[[File:range23.gif|right]]

== Life Cycle and Behavior ==
Depending on temperature and location, mating can being as early as March and ends in July. The males will find a shallow spot in wetlands or ponds and call to attract females. Males generally only call at night but will call during wet days during the peak of mating season.
[https://www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/amphibians/armi/frog_calls/american_toad.wav] Once the mating takes place the female will lay from 2,000-20,000 eggs in a long strand. The eggs will hatch after 3-12 days, typically from around June to August. Once the eggs hatch, they develop into tadpoles and become fully grown in 60 days. An American Toad will reach sexual maturity after 2-4 years. Once the toads reach adulthood they feed during the early morning into the night, as they are mainly nocturnal. American toads often hide in leaf litter to avoid predators. The toads will burrow in moist soils and hibernate in these burrows during the winter.

== Diet and Predators ==
When American toads start off as tadpoles, they are herbivorous and primarily feed on decaying plants. When they become adults, they become carnivorous and eat small creatures such as insects, spiders, worms, and snails. The predators of the American toad include birds, snakes, and small mammals such as raccoons and skunks. There are certain snakes, such as the eastern hognose snake, which is specialized in eating toads due to its immunity to the American toad's bufotoxin. Toads often pee on themselves to make themselves a less appealing meal when they are facing a predator that is unaffected by their toxins. Another defensive behavior is that toads will enlarge their bodies by puffing up to seem too large for a snake to consume.

== References ==

Altig, Ronald, et al. Handbook of Larval Amphibians of the United States and Canada. 1st ed., Cornell University Press, 2015. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1tm7g59. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

(“Eastern American Toad Fact Sheet - Signs of the Seasons: A New England Phenology Program - University of Maine Cooperative Extension”)
“IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54570/56843565. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

Pauly, Gregory B., et al. “THE HISTORY OF A NEARCTIC COLONIZATION: MOLECULAR PHYLOGENETICS AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE NEARCTIC TOADS (BUFO).” Evolution, no. 11, The Society for the Study of Evolution, 2004, p. 2517. Crossref, doi:10.1554/04-208.

Vaughan, Andres, and Joseph R. Mendelson. “Taxonomy and Ecology of the Central American Toads of the Genus Crepidophryne (Anura: Bufonidae).” Copeia, no. 2, American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists (ASIH), May 2007, pp. 304–14. Crossref, doi:10.1643/0045-8511(2007)7[304:taeotc]2.0.co;2.

“IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54570/56843565. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

American toad

2023-05-11T17:51:52Z

Rmdonnel: /* Range and Subspecies */

[[File:bufame210.jpg|right|]]

'''American toad''''' (Anaxyrus americanus)''

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ American Toad Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
! scope="row" | Family
! scope="row" | Genus
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Chordata
| Amphibia
| Anura
| Bufonidae
| Anaxyrus
|}
Their name has recently changed from ''(Bufo americanus)'' to ''(Anaxyrus americanus)''.
== Description ==
The American toad is a common toad species that can be found throughout the Eastern and Central parts of the United States and Canada. This species is a medium size toad that grows up to 5-9 cm or 2-4 inches in length with females generally being slightly larger than males. Its coloration can change depending on the temperature, humidity, and stress levels of the environment. American toads are predominantly brown and can display hues of red or olive green. Their bellies are whitish or yellow, usually with dark spots. They have noticeable warts on their skin, including two large ones behind their eyes. The warts behind their eyes are their parotoid glands which are major salivary glands found in [[animals]]. These parotoid glands secrete a bufotoxin that is used to deter predators. Bufotoxin is a milky toxin made up of steroid lactones and can cause illness and death in small animals. The bufotoxin in American toads is not fatal to humans but can cause allergic reactions. American toads typically only live to be a few years old in the wild, however, they can live up to around 10 years old in capacity. There is even a case of an American toad living 36 years in capacity until it died due to an accident.

== Range and Subspecies ==
American toads can be found throughout most of the Eastern and Central parts of the United States and Canada. They prefer cool woodlands with lots of moisture but can live in meadows, fields, and gardens. American toads require small freshwater ponds for their early days when they start as tadpoles. As they develop, they hydrate their bodies by absorbing moisture through their thin skin, so they require a moist environment to survive. There are currently two recognized subspecies of the American toad - the Eastern American toad ''(Anaxyrus americanus)'' and the Dwarf American toad ''(Anaxyrus charlesmithi)''. The range of the Dwarf American toad is more concentrated and they are found in more southern states while the Eastern American toad occupies a range spanning the East coast of the United States and Canada, excluding the southernmost states.

[[File:range23.gif|right]]

== Life Cycle and Behavior ==
Depending on temperature and location, mating can being as early as March and ends in July. The males will find a shallow spot in wetlands or ponds and call to attract females. Males generally only call at night but will call during wet days during the peak of mating season.
[https://www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/amphibians/armi/frog_calls/american_toad.wav] Once the mating takes place the female will lay from 2,000-20,000 eggs in a long strand. The eggs will hatch after 3-12 days, typically from around June to August. Once the eggs hatch, they develop into tadpoles and become fully grown in 60 days. An American Toad will reach sexual maturity after 2-4 years. Once the toads reach adulthood they feed during the early morning into the night, as they are mainly nocturnal. American toads often hide in leaf litter to avoid predators. The toads will burrow in moist soils and hibernate in these burrows during the winter.

== Diet and Predators ==
When American toads start off as tadpoles, they are herbivorous and primarily feed on decaying plants. When they become adults, they become carnivorous and eat small creatures such as insects, spiders, worms, and snails. The predators of the American toad include birds, snakes, and small mammals such as raccoons and skunks. There are certain snakes, such as the eastern hognose snake, which is specialized in eating toads due to its immunity to the American toad's bufotoxin. Toads often pee on themselves to make themselves a less appealing meal when they are facing a predator that is unaffected by their toxins. Another defensive behavior is that toads will enlarge their bodies by puffing up to seem too large for a snake to consume.

== References ==

Altig, Ronald, et al. Handbook of Larval Amphibians of the United States and Canada. 1st ed., Cornell University Press, 2015. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1tm7g59. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

(“Eastern American Toad Fact Sheet - Signs of the Seasons: A New England Phenology Program - University of Maine Cooperative Extension”)
“IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54570/56843565. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.

Pauly, Gregory B., et al. “THE HISTORY OF A NEARCTIC COLONIZATION: MOLECULAR PHYLOGENETICS AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE NEARCTIC TOADS (BUFO).” Evolution, no. 11, The Society for the Study of Evolution, 2004, p. 2517. Crossref, doi:10.1554/04-208.

Vaughan, Andres, and Joseph R. Mendelson. “Taxonomy and Ecology of the Central American Toads of the Genus Crepidophryne (Anura: Bufonidae).” Copeia, no. 2, American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists (ASIH), May 2007, pp. 304–14. Crossref, doi:10.1643/0045-8511(2007)7[304:taeotc]2.0.co;2.

“IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54570/56843565. Accessed 12 Apr. 2021.