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Soil Horizons

2025-05-09T13:34:12Z

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[[File:Soil Horizons.gif|thumb|A basic diagram of the most common Master Horizons of a soil profile, with the E Horizon omitted]]
[[Soil]] Horizons are the distinct layers of a soil profile. They are divided into these layers, referred to as "Master Horizons" (from top to bottom): O Horizon, A Horizon, E Horizon, B Horizon, C Horizon, and R Horizon. There also exists an H Horizon, F Horizon, and an L Horizon, each of which revolve around organic material, somewhat similarly to the O Horizon, but with more specific qualities and generally more obscure. The number and composition of horizons in different soils has tremendous [[diversity]]; the most well-developed soils might have all of these layers, and the least-developed soils might only have an A and a D horizon.

= Main Master Horizons =

Master Horizons are the main layers of a soil profile, described below.

== O Horizon ==

The O Horizon is composed of organic material that has accumulated and been modified (physically and chemically) over time, typically from the remains of plant and [[animals]] [1]. This horizon is most easily observed in soils that are rarely, if ever, disturbed and with plenty of foliage and/or [[organisms]] nearby to contribute to its development, such as forests. In more barren locations such as grasslands, an O Horizon is rarer. [1] Due to the fact that its presence is determined by external factors (outside of the original parent materials that form soils), it is the only layer not dominated by mineral substances. This layer has three well-accepted subordinate horizons: Oi (slightly decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]), Oe (moderately decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]), and Oa (highly decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]). [1] Microbial activity is high in this layer, utilizing the abundance of [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and [[decomposing]] it in ways that allow it to contribute to the soil profile.

== A Horizon ==
The A Horizon is a well-weathered and fertile layer dominated by mineral particles but still rich in [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], especially if covered by an O Horizon, which can leach decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] into the A Horizon. This is a much thicker layer than the O Horizon, dominated by highly weathered mineral particles (the most highly weathered from the parent material of the soil), and typically darker and coarser than other Soil Horizons. (Elements pg. 53) The A Horizon is considered ''topsoil''. If this layer has [[properties]] of both an A and an E Horizon, it is considered an A Horizon if it is dominated by humidified [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]. [4] Subterranean life (including microfauna, [[mesofauna]], and [[macrofauna]]) tends to be the most abundant in this layer due to the rich, soft, and well-weathered environment of the soil.

== E Horizon ==
The E in "E Horizon" stands for eluviation, another word for leaching. This name is appropriate because, in this layer [[clay]], iron, and aluminum oxides leach into the lower layers (mostly the B Horizon). [1] Like the O Horizon, this layer is not always present, but when it is, it's usually in forested areas and rarely in grasslands. Because of the loss of material through eluviation, it tends to be noticeably lighter than the layers above and below it. [1]

== B Horizon ==
The B Horizon is also known as the subsoil. B Horizons are often greatly composed of material illuviated (washed in from) layers above it, mostly clay, iron, aluminum oxides (deposited by elluviated water), and minerals that formed in the layer. [1]

== C Horizon ==
The C Horizon, also known as the substratum is unconsolidated material above [[bedrock]]. [2] It is insufficiently weathered to be considered soil, but still considered a layer of a soil profile. Subterranean life is far scarcer in this layer, and [[plant roots]] do not usually extend here, although it is usually soft enough for root penetration. [4] It is essentially a transitional layer from bedrock to the soil.

== R Horizon ==
This layer is simply bedrock with minimal to no weathering visible. It is composed of the parent material that would eventually be transformed into soil. Excavating this horizon generally requires specialized equipment, and roots are usually unable to take advantage of what cracks may be in this layer. This layer is the boundary between what lies beneath the soil. [2]

== Other Master Horizons ==
These master horizons are dominated by plant-based organic matter in well-drained soils, occurring most commonly in forests. [5] These layers are generally more obscure than the previously mentioned Soil Horizons due to these specialized circumstances. Also, some may consider these horizons to be Subordinate O Horizons rather than their own Master Horizons.

=== L Horizon ===
The L Horizon stands for "Litter Horizon" and is dominated by plant material with minimal to no visible [[decomposition]], with plant elements easy to identify. [5]

=== F Horizon ===
The F Horizon stands for "Fermentation Horizon" and is composed of moderately decomposed plant material, but the plant origins are still distinguishable. [5]

=== H Horizon ===
The H Horizon stands for "Humic Horizon" and is composed of a material that is well humified and decomposed by water, and identifying plant material is difficult. [5]

= Transitional Horizons =
Soil Horizons do not always form distinct bands with unique and easily identified properties. Often Soil Horizons form Transitional Horizons, which have two forms. [3] The first is when a horizon has dominant properties of one Soil Horizon and subordinate properties of another; these Transitional Layers are designated by putting the dominant horizon properties letter first, followed by the subordinate horizon; an example would be a BC horizon, with properties more like a B Horizon but still demonstrating sufficient similarities to a C Horizon. [3] The second form of a Transitional Horizon is when the properties of both horizons are very comparable in representation; these have the letters separated with a "/", such as a B/C horizon, which is almost equally a B and a C Horizon. [3]

= Subordinate Horizons =
In order to more accurately describe the characteristics of the master horizons, lowercase letters from the Latin Alphabet are added. depending on the characteristics of the soil. Almost all letters are used, with the exception of ''l'' and ''u''. Instead, there are ''jj'' and ''ss'' distinctions. Subordinate horizon symbols include the following: [3]

a: Highly decomposed organic matter is present

b: The soil horizon has been buried

c: Concretions/Nodules of Fe, Al, Mn, or Ti cement is present

d: The soil is dense from natural or artificial means, and root access is restricted

e: Moderately decomposed organic matter is present

f: The soil is frozen

g: Strong gleying/mottling is present

h: The organic matter was illuviated

i: Slightly decomposed organic matter is present

j: Jarosite is present

jj: Cryoturbation / Frost churning is present

k: Carbonate buildup is present

m: Continuous cementation is present

n: Sodium buildup is present

o: Iron and Aluminum oxides buildup is present

p: The soil has been heavily disturbed, typically by tillage

q: Silica buildup is present

r: Bedrock is weathered or soft

s: Organic matter and Iron and Aluminum Oxides were illuviated (not to be confused with h and o, which are only organic matter and Iron and Aluminum Oxides, respectively)

ss: Slickensides are present

t: Buildup of silicate clays is present

v: Pilinthe is present

x: Fragipan is present

y: Buildup of gypsum is present

z: Buildup with salts more soluble than gypsum is present

= Factors Affecting the Formation of Soil Horizons =
Main articles: [[Pedogenesis]], [[Jenny Equation]]

Soil Horizon formation depends on many factors, most famously described by Hans Jenny's "fundamental equation": '''s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …)'''

In this equation, soil is described as being a function of climate, organisms, relief/slope, parent material, time, and any other potential factors that he had not considered at the time of the formula's creation. Climate affects the rates of both physical and chemical weathering, Organisms affect the rate of soil formation and contribute organic matter to it, Relief affects the amount of water and erosion in a soil, Parent Material affects the initial properties of developing and mature soils, and time is required for these factors to go into effect and eventually form a soil and its Soil Horizons. [6] Other factors are almost certain to be contributing as well, but at a negligible or unknown scale.

= References =
[1] Brady, Nile C.; Weil, Ray R.. ''Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soil''. (Second Edition) Pearson Education, Inc. 2004. pg 53-55. Retrieved 2018-03-05.

[2] Turenne, Jim. ''Soil Horizons (a Basic Power Point Presentation)''. Retrieved 2018-03-06. http://nesoil.com/properties/horizons/

[3] ''Soils Glossary Appendix''. Soil Science Society of America. 2018. Retrieved 2018-03-06 https://www.soils.org/publications/glossary/appendix/

[4] Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations. ''World reference base for soil resources''. Rome 1998. Appendix 1: Soil Horizon Designations. Retrieved 2018-03-07. http://www.fao.org/docrep/W8594E/w8594e0g.htm

[5] Forest Floor. ''Soil Horizons''. Retrieved 2018-03-07. http://forestfloor.soilweb.ca/definitions/soil-horizons/

[6] Lamb, John A.; Rehm, George W.. ''Five factors of soil formation''. University of Minnesota. Retrieved 2018-03-07. https://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/soils/soil-properties/five-factors-soil-formation/

Earthworm

2025-05-09T13:32:50Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

The Earthworm is the common name for [[invertebrates]] in the order of Opisthopora or Haplotaxida, which includes hundreds of species, with many different families. As a result, there is great [[diversity]] within the term "earthworms". They have other folk names such as nightcrawler, angleworm, dewworm, rainworm, etc. [1]
[[File:earthworms.jpg|thumb|right|Earthworm]]
==Overview==
[[File:Earthwormdigestive.jpg|thumb|right|Earthworm digestive system - tube within a tube]]
They have a tube within a tube digestive system, with segmentation all along their body, each segment called an annuli. Each external segment has corresponding internal segmentation and setae/bristles to help with movement. They move by contracting and extending circumferential and longitudinal muscles that are in each segment, as well as using the setae on every segment to get a grip. [4]

Earthworms breathe through their skin, and their whole body is covered with a mucous layer that protects from desiccation (i.e. drying out). They have no eyes, instead using cells on the outside of their body that are light sensitive. [4]

They are hermaphrodites, each earthworm exhibiting both male and female sexual organs.

Earthworms live in temperate and tropical soils all over the world, anywhere there is appropriate water content and temperature for at least part of the year. Though, they are most abundant in forests and grasslands of temperate and tropical regions. Earthworm diet includes any [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] they encounter, like plant matter, fungi, bacteria, or any other organism small enough to be eaten. Their digestive tract is one way, they eat with their mouth on one end and excrete waste at the other end of their body. The same muscles that allow for their movement through [[soil]] also push their food through their digestive system. [1][4]

==Scientific Classification==
[[File:earthworm-morphology.png|right|thumb|Basic Components of Earthworms]]
'''Kingdom''' - Animalia

'''Phylum''' - Annelida

'''Class''' - Clitellata

'''Order''' - Opisthopora/Haplotaxida

==Reproduction==
[[File:caccoon.jpg|right|thumb|Earthworm Cocoon]]
Earthworms can only produce sexually, not asexually. The popular myth that if one cuts an earthworm in half, it will regenerate into two earthworms is '''false'''. While earthworms can regenerate small parts of their bodies, they cannot be split into two. Earthworms have both male and female sexual organs, but still need a partner to reproduce. The clitellum is the slightly discolored segment about one-third of the body length away from the head that produces mucous that aids with mating. The worms line up in opposite directions and exchange sperm, using the excreted mucous as a protectant/pathway. The sperm is then stored in sperm sacs and later released along with the eggs into cocoons secreted from the mucous of the clitellum. This forms the lemon-shaped cocoons to the right, which can have one or more embryos inside, depending on the species. New earthworms emerge from these cocoons in a few weeks, depending on the species. [2][5][6]

==Earthworm Classification into Subcategories==
Earthworms are often classified into a few basic categories, based on morphology, feeding habits, and their microhabitats within the soil. These are called, epigeic, endogeic, and anecic.
[[File:types-of-earthworm.png|right|thumb|Categories of Earthworm]]
===Epigeic Earthworms===
[[Epigeic Earthworms]] tend to be the smallest of the three, less than 10 cm, and the most pigmented. They live mainly on leaf litter or surface soil and eat litter and small microbes. These worms might make temporary small tunnels through the litter and topsoil. [7]

===Endogeic Earthworms===
Endogeic Earthworms are moderately sized and unpigmented. They inhabit the mineral level of the soil, ranging from 0-80 cm below ground. Subcategories of endogeic earthworms are: Polyhumic, Mesohumic, Endo-anecic, and Oligohumic. These all inhabit slightly different zones with different [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] content. [7]

'''Polyhumic worms''' live on surface soil or in the root zone and prefer soil with high organic content. They are small-sized, less than 15 cm. They tend to make temporary horizontal burrows. [7]

'''Mesohumic worms''' live in soil depths of 0-20 cm and feed on soil from depths of 0-10 cm. These worms make extensive horizontal burrows and are of medium size, 10-20cm. [7]

'''Endo-Acecic worms''' live in depths of 0-50 cm, and some make more permanent burrows. They feed on soil from depths of 0-10 cm. They are greater than 20cm in length. [7]

'''Oligohumic worms''' live in depths of 15-80 cm and feed on soil from depths of 20-40 cm. They are greater than 20 cm in length and tend to be the largest out of all of these categories. [7]

===Anecic Earthworms===
These worms live in permanent burrows in the soil. They feed on surface leaf litter that they drag deep into their burrows, as well as soil from any depth they encounter. They are dorsally pigmented (i.e. their back is pigmented) and are greater than 15 cm. [7]

==Ecology==
Earthworms are ecosystem engineers and play very important roles in soil formation and processes. Some of their largest effects are as a result of their burrows, as well as their digestion of soil and castings. Earthworms of the endogeic and anecic variety make systems of burrows underground, both horizontal and vertical. These burrows, whether temporary or permanent, are a source of aeration for the soil and improve water intake by the soil. [3]

These burrows are also lined with earthworm castings. Casts are made as earthworms ingest mineral soil and/or [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], then mix them in the gut. This is mixed with gut secretions from the earthworm that enrich it. As earthworms digest soil, the soil is colonized in the earthworm's gut, by the microbes that live there. When the cast is excreted, the microbes continue to live on in it. This makes earthworm burrows a "hot-spot" for microbial activity, and are thus named the [[Drilosphere]]. The earthworms excrete this mixture as either a slurry or separate pellets. These could be within or on top of the soil, depending on the worm category. Earthworm excretions have a high [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] content, and thus enrich the soil around them and increase fertility. [7] Experiments found that on long-term, no-till soil from the [[drilosphere]], that the soil was enriched in NO3−, NH4+ and soluble organic C. These soils hosted far greater populations of nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria when compared to nondrilosphere soil. [9]

==Invasive Earthworms in North America==
Much of the land of North America has lacked earthworms since after the last ice age because they could not survive under glaciers. After the last great ice age, the forests and land of North America had adapted to decompose [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] without the use of earthworms, relying mainly on fungi, bacteria, and time. This led to a thick layer of hummus being present over most forest soils. When the Americas were found by colonizers from Europe and Asia, they brought with them their earthworms. They were likely brought accidentally or on purpose, by bringing plants, dumping their ship ballast, and/or through use as fish bait. Since then, these alien worms have been slowly colonizing more and more of North America and changing soil structure and processes as they do. [7][8]

These introduced worms decompose [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] at a much faster rate than previously done by fungi and bacteria, which leads to a significantly thinner layer of hummus present. It is not clear yet what the specific effects of this will be, as well as the effects of interactions between alien earthworms and native earthworms(of previously non-glaciated areas). [7]

==References==

[1] "Earthworm" Wikipedia, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthworm

[2] "Earthworm" National Geographic, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/common-earthworm

[3] Edwards, Clive A. "Earthworms" Natural Resources Conservation Service Soils, USDA, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053863

[4] "Earthworm Biology – The Science of the Natural [[Decomposers]]" BiologyWise, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://biologywise.com/earthworm-biology

[5] Painter, Tammie. "How Do Earthworms Reproduce?" Sciencing.com, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://sciencing.com/bring-the-outdoors-inside-with-these-nature-kits-for-kids-13763822.html

[6] Clark, Josh. "How Earthworms Work", HowStuffWorks, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://animals.howstuffworks.com/animal-facts/earthworm3.htm

[7] Coleman, David C., Callaham, Mac A., Crossley, D. A. "Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]", Third Edition, Retrieved from pages 155-168.

[8] "Invasive earthworms in North America" Wikipedia, Retrieved April 28, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_earthworms_of_North_America

[9] Parkin, Timothy B., Berry, Edwin C. "Microbial nitrogen transformations in earthworm burrows" ScienceDirect.com, Retrieved April 29, 2021, from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(99)00085-1

Diplopoda

2025-05-09T13:32:46Z

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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(240,150,110)|'''Scientific Classification'''<ref name="ITIS">Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). n.d. Diplopoda. https://itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=154409#null</ref><ref name="Kraft">Kraft, S. & Pinto, L. (2024). Meet the Millipede. Pest Control Technology. https://www.pctonline.com/article/meet-the-millipede/</ref>
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Millipede curled.jpg|426px|right|Caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subkingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bilateria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Infrakingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Protostomia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Superphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Ecdysozoa
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Myriapoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Diplopoda
|}

Diplopods, more commonly known as millipedes, are long, segmented [[invertebrates]] belonging to the subphylum [[Myriapoda]]. The Latin meaning of the name Diplopoda, 'having double feet', refers to the distinctive features of millipedes, in which they possess two pairs of legs per body segment <ref name="Merriam">Merriam-Webster. n.d. Diplopoda. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Diplopoda</ref><ref name="Ohio">Hennen, D. & Brown, J. n.d. Millipedes of Ohio Field Guide. Ohio Division of Wildlife. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://dam.assets.ohio.gov/image/upload/ohiodnr.gov/documents/wildlife/backyard-wildlife/Millipedes%20of%20Ohio%20Pub%205527.pdf</ref>. While their common name means 'thousand feet', most millipede species possess 47 to 197 pairs of legs<ref name="Tohono">Tohono Chul. n.d. Millipede Facts. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://tohonochul.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Millipede_Facts_Worksheet.pdf</ref>. However, in 2020, the first millipede species with over one thousand legs was discovered in Western Australia — ''Eumillipes persephone'', with 1,306 legs<ref name="Marek">Marek, P., ''et al.'' (2021). The first true millipede—1306 legs long. ''Scientific Reports''. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02447-0</ref>. There are currently around 12,000 described species and 16 orders within the class Diplopoda<ref name="Sierwald">Sierwald, P. & J.E. Bond. (2007). Current Status of the Myriapod Class Diplopoda (Millipedes):Taxonomic [[Diversity]] and Phylogeny. ''Annual Review of Entomology''. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17163800/</ref>.

== Characteristics and Morphology ==
Most millipedes are long and either cylindrical or flat in shape. However, pill millipedes, belonging to the family Glomeridae, are stout and resemble [[isopods]] and, in similar fashion, can roll into a ball when disturbed.<ref name="Pill">Australian Museum. (2020). Pill Millipedes. https://australian.museum/learn/animals/centipedes/pill-millipedes/</ref>. Most millipede species have hard, calcareous exoskeletons that protect them from predators and large forces faced when burrowing in [[soil]]<ref name="Borrell">Borrel, B. (2004). Mechanical [[properties]] of calcified exoskeleton from the neotropical millipede, ''Nyssodesmus python''. ''Journal of Insect Physiology''. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022191004001593</ref>. Millipedes may roll into a spiral as a defense mechanism, where their harder exoskeleton on the top of each of their body segments, or tergites, protect their legs and more vulnerable underside. Millipedes lack a waxy layer on their epicuticle, making them vulnerable to desiccation<ref name="Coleman">Coleman, D.C., M.A. Callaham Jr., & D.A. Crossley Jr. (2017). ''Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]] - 3rd Edition''. Academic Press.</ref>. The size of millipedes vary greatly across different species, with the smaller species measuring at around 2 mm long and the largest species, ''Archispirostreptus gigas'', growing up to 13 inches long<ref name="Tohono"></ref>.
 
Millipedes bear a head with one pair of antennae, a pair of simple eyes known as ocelli, and a mouth. Their mouths consist of an upper lip (labrum), a pair of mandibles, and a grinding plate (gnathochilarium). The rest of their bodies are made up of many segments, with the number of segments varying with species and age. The first segment connected to the head, called the collum, has no legs and is also present in their closest relative clade [[Pauropoda]]. The following three segments bear only one pair of legs. Succeeding segments bear two pairs of legs, while the final few segments bear no legs. The last segment, called the telson, has a pair of anal valves which can open to release feces from the millipedes' digestive tract<ref name="Sierwald"></ref><ref name="Ohio></ref>. Millipedes move fairly slowly compared to their centipede relatives belonging to the subphylum [[Chilopoda]]. They move their legs in a wave-like motion, referred to as metachronal locomotion. Their many legs can produce a surprising amount of force, necessary to direct themselves when burrowing<ref name="Walk">Garcia, A. ''et al.'' (2021). Fundamental understanding of millipede morphology and locomotion dynamics. ''Bioinspiration & Biomimetics''. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33007767/</ref>. The species ''Diopsiulus regressus'' exhibits a unique behavior of jumping; however, this behavior is an escape reaction rather than a locomotive strategy<ref name="Chinese">National Science and Technology Library. (1973). A jumping millipede. ''Nature''. http://archive.nstl.gov.cn/Archives/browse.do?action=viewDetail&articleID=55ab74dff07239e2&navig=9565bcbb40dbfbe9&navigator=category&flag=byWord&subjectCode=null&searchfrom=null#:~:text=regressus%20Silvestri%20at%2064%20and%202%2C000%20frames%20s%20~l.%20The%20sudden%20body&text=1%20Side%20view%20of%20a%20jump%2C%20from,to%20left%2C%20of%20the%20millipede%20Diopsiulus%20regressus.</ref>.
 
Many millipede species possess glands called ozopores that run along the length of their bodies and can release chemical compounds that may be toxic or repel certain parasitic or predatory [[organisms]]. The chemicals secreted vary across species and include, but are not limited to, hydrogen cyanide, ''p''-benzoquinones, phenols, alkaloids, and terpenoids. Millipedes that bear ozopores often have bright aposematic coloring. Other species that do not secrete defensive chemicals may bear similar coloring patterns as a result of Mullerian mimicry<ref name="Sierwald"></ref><ref name="Shear">Shear, W.A. (2015). The chemical defenses of millipedes (diplopoda): Biochemistry, physiology and ecology. ''Biochemical Systematics and Ecology''. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305197815001167</ref>. While these secretions may be irritating or toxic to certain organisms, other organisms may use millipede secretions to their advantage. Black lemurs (''Eulemur macaco'') have been observed biting millipedes and rubbing their defensive secretions on their bodies. Research has shown that the lemurs may do this to repel [[insects]] such as mosquitoes, but the they also seem to enter an intoxicated state<ref name="Lemurs">Banerji, U. (2016). Lemurs Get High on Their Millipede Supply. ''Atlas Obscura''. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/lemurs-get-high-on-their-millipede-supply</ref>. Other research shows that these defensive secretions may also attract predators such as [[Dung Beetle|dung beetles]]<ref name="Beetle"> Rodríguez‑López, M.E. ''et al.'' (2021). Attraction of Canthon vazquezae ([[Coleoptera]]: Scarabaeinae) to Volatiles Released by ''Messicobolus magnificus'' (Diplopoda: Spirobolida). ''Journal or Insect Behavior''. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10905-021-09785-x</ref>.

[[File:Gonopods.png|426px|left|thumb|Gonopods of the millipede species ''Sigmocheir furcata''<ref name="Gonopods">Marek, P. ''et al.'' (2014). A species catalog the millipede family Xystodesmidae (Diplopoda: Polydesmida). Virginia Museum of Natural History. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267810849_A_species_catalog_the_millipede_family_Xystodesmidae_Diplopoda_Polydesmida</ref>]]

== Reproduction and Life Cycle ==

Male millipedes have sex organs, called gonopods, on their seventh body segment. The eighth leg pair is modified to transfer a sperm packet called a spermatophore to the vulva of a female millipede, which is located behind the second pair of legs. During mating, males will crawl onto the backs of females and stimulate them with their legs while producing a calming sound. If the female is uninterested, she will coil up to prevent the male from depositing his spermatophore. Gravid females burrow into warm soil, where they lay eggs and encapsulate them in their feces. The number of eggs per brood varies across species, ranging from tens to hundreds of eggs. Nymphs hatch from the eggs and usually have six body segments and three pairs of legs. As they outgrow their exoskeletons, they will retreat to a sheltered area to molt. Some species will burrow underground or build molting chambers out of dirt, while other species can produce silk and spin a web around themselves<ref name="Ohio"></ref>. Millipedes exhibit amorphic development, meaning that they grow more body segments each with a pair of legs after every molt. They will often eat their exoskeletons after they molt to recycle nutrients like calcium or protein. Millipedes typically live 2–10 years depending on the species<ref name="Tohono"></ref>.

== Diet and Feeding Behaviors ==

Millipedes are primarily [[detritivores]], consuming dead organic plant matter. They are selective feeders, choosing to feed on leaf litter with higher calcium contents and avoiding freshly fallen leaves or leaves with high polyphenol contents. Some species feed on live plants, and species with modified sucking mouth parts may consume plant sap, accumulating alkaloids in their tissues which may be used to produce their defensive secretions. Various species also eat fungi, [[algae]], and [[lichen]]. Some diplopods are obligate [[coprophagia|coprophages]], meaning they must eat their own feces. This may be due to the close relationship millipedes have with the microbiota within their guts that are necessary for the breakdown of cellulose and [[lignin]]<ref name="Coleman"></ref><ref name="Sierwald"></ref>.

[[File:Mites.jpg|351px|right|thumb|Symbiotic ''Julolaelaps gigas'' mites on ''Archispirostreptus gigas''<ref name="Reddit">sofkeya. (2023). what are these little bugs on my millipedes and how can i get rid of them?[Online forum post]. Reddit. https://www.reddit.com/r/millipedes/comments/14dnxn2/what_are_these_little_bugs_on_my_millipedes_and/</ref>]]

== Distribution ==

Millipedes are found in every continent except for Antarctica in a wide variety of habitats. They are particularly abundant in calcium-rich areas with high rainfall, particularly tropical and temperate forests. On average, tropical species are larger than temperate species. Some species spend their whole lives in the soil, while others reside in the leaf litter or other cryptozoic habitats like under rocks or [[decomposing]] tree bark. Some species are arboreal, meaning that they live on trees and branches, and these species are typically found in humid environments. Despite being vulnerable to desiccation, millipedes can also be found in arid climates, where they become active after rains and seek refuge by burrowing under vegetation or debris<ref name="Coleman"></ref><ref name="Sierwald"></ref>.

== Ecological Functions ==

Diplopods play an important role in [[decomposition]], as they are capable of fragmenting large dead plant materials, making them bioavailable for microbiota and therefore stimulating [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. They are very important in boreal coniferous forests, as they have been found to consume up to 36% of the annual conifer litter in these regions<ref name="Sierwald"></ref>. Millipedes are also big contributors to the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of calcium, as research shows they process 15–20% of the calcium input into hardwood forest floors<ref name="Coleman"></ref>. Their burrowing also helps loosen and aerate the soil, promoting a healthier soil ecosystem<ref name="Ohio"></ref>.

Millipedes serve as hosts to many parasites and [[mites]]; however, most mite interactions are examples of commensalism. Some mites and millipedes even have symbiotic relationships, where mites keep the bodies of millipedes clean and receive protection from predators in return<ref name="Symbiotic">Giant Millipedes. (2020). Millipede Health Problems. https://www.giantmillipedes.com/millipede-health-problems#:~:text=One%20thing%20you%20may%20notice,of%20things%20you%20could%20try.</ref>.

Millipedes are not crop pests, but they may carry mites or diseases that could be harmful to crops if introduced into non-native habitats. They are not harmful to humans and do not transmit diseases to humans; however, their chemical secretions may cause blisters and are potentially toxic to pests. They do not cause harm to buildings and are considered more of a nuisance pest<ref name="Pest">Rottler. n.d. Millipede. https://www.rottler.com/pests/occasional-invaders/millipede/</ref>.

== References ==

Decomposition

2025-05-09T13:32:43Z

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==Introduction==
Decomposition is the process in which large or complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones. This process is essential to a healthy ecosystem because it aids in the [[Nutrient Cycling]] of molecules such as phosphorus, nitrogen, water, carbon, and sulfur. In fact, soil [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], which includes plant or animal matter, holds three times as much carbon as either the atmosphere or living vegetation [1]. This is important because it is carbon and nitrogen that often limits the productivity of an ecosystem. Factors that affect decomposition rate are temperature, water content, climate, [[soil]] type, and substrate quality [2]. [[File:SOM.jpg|thumb|This diagram demonstrates the relationship between moisture, rate of litter breakdown, fauna, and soil organic matter accumulation. As fauna, litter breakdown rates, and moisture decrease, the accumulation of soil organic matter increases. This is a way of demonstrating how the rate of decomposition decreases based on environmental factors.]]
While macroorganisms such as earthworms, flies, [[insects]], and snails are involved in the early process of decomposition, it is often the work of enzymes, bacteria, and fungi that aid in the cycling of nutrients back into the soil [3].
__TOC__

== Quantification ==
The quantification of litter breakdown has only been established in recent years, and describes the relationship between existing litter, annual production, and time. The decomposition of [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] can be described by the following equations:

[[File:Equation.png|none|]]
k=rate of breakdown

X=litter on ground

[[File:Equation2.png|none|]]

L=annual production

Xss=base level of litter

Different climates and regions will have different rates of decomposition based on the ratio between the annual production and the base level of litter. For example, rates within evergreen forests vary widely. In tropical forests the rate is 4, in eastern pine it is .25, and in alpine taiga it is .02. This is because the temperature and moisture of the region heavily impacts the value of ''k''. Decomposition, in general, is very difficult to measure on a wide scale due to the heterogeneity of soil and litter. One way to measure decomposition is burying mesh leaf litter bags, which help to isolate an area of interest and test on a small scale. Large scale and long term experiments are much more difficult. Decomposition will never result in zero litter remaining. This is because the remaining matter is highly recalcitrant, meaning it has a high resistance to breakdown. This is because the remaining compounds are lignins, fats, and cellulose. This may also include some resistant polymers, by-products of microbial decomposition [3].

== Molecular Breakdown ==

===Breakdown of Detritus===

[[File:Decomposition Diagram.jpg|thumb|This diagram demonstrates that when starting with the same leaf litter type, an increase in [[detritivores]] or an increase in leaf litter types, will both result in an increase in the rate of litter breakdown. This diagram is based on a study, which suggested that an increase in leaf litter types (species) will result in higher rates of decomposition, comparable to an increase in detritivores.[5]]In the early stages of decomposition, [[detritivores]] and other [[organisms]] will begin to consume the dead [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]. Detritivores eat detritus, the name given to disintegrated organic materials. These macroorganisms break apart large material such as plant and animal residue, tissue of [[soil organisms]], and any substances produced by soil organisms. By breaking down these large particles, they increase the surface area available for bacteria and fungi.
While detritivores aid in the initial stages of decomposition, it is the work of fungi and bacteria that metabolize [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and break it down into inorganic compounds. The fungi and bacteria that thrive on dead matter are called saprophytes [3]. Saprophytes can secrete chemicals that digest the molecules and result in the mineralization of the compounds.

===Mineralization===

Mineralization is the process by which organic compounds are broken down into water-soluble inorganic compounds as the result of microbial activity [4]. These compounds are broken down by [[microorganisms]] like fungi and bacteria, which secrete chemicals that aid in decomposition. These chemicals include enzymes, which can decompose plant litter that contain high amounts of cellulose and [[lignin]] [2]. There are various forms of enzymes, which aid in the breakdown of different types of compounds. For example, oxidative enzymes are best at [[decomposing]] complex substrates like lignin, while hydrolytic enzymes breakdown simpler compounds such as starches and sugars. The process of mineralization is essential to nutrient cycling because it allows insoluble organic compounds to become water-soluble and available to plants. Mineralization is one of the main processes, which occur in carbon and nitrogen cycling. These cycles are essential to the livelihood of an ecosystem.

[[File:soil-profile.jpg|thumb|left|A simple diagram depicting the layers of soil. Humus is the top most layer in soils.[6]]]Different molecules within soil [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] breakdown at different speeds depending on their molecular structure. From fastest to slowest, the breakdown is as follows:

1. Sugars, starches, and simple proteins

2. Proteins

3. Hemicelluloses

4. Cellulose

5. Lignins and fats

When the mineralization of a compound is complete, it becomes bioavailable for plants to use, thus recycling the nutrient from the dead plant or animal back into the system. This partially digested, nutrient-rich, and bioavailable soil is called [[humus]].

===Humification===

Humification is the process by which [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], which has already been mineralized, is further broken down through the processes of weathering, freeze-thaw cycle, and erosion. This physical decomposition allows it to be more available to plants for use. Humus is mostly found in the topsoil layer, and as the soil is undergoing physical weathering, the water-soluble minerals leech into the surrounding soil water by the force of gravity. As the minerals travel down into the soil, [[plant roots]] can uptake this mineral rich water. Humus also helps to retain soil moisture and keeps soil aerated [3].

== References ==

[1] Schmidt M.W.I., Torn M.S., Abiven S., Dittmar T., Guggenberger G., Janssens I.A., Kleber M., Kögel-Knabner I., Lehmann J., Manning D.A.C., Nannipieri P., Rasse D.P., Weiner S., and Trumbore S.E. 2011. Persistence of soil organic matter as an ecosystem property. Nature 478 (7367): 49.

[2] “Decomposition.” Soil Biology, biology.soilweb.ca/decomposition/.

[3] Terry, Watkins. “Decomposition.” Organic, Process, Soil, and Humus - JRank Articles, science.jrank.org/pages/1967/Decomposition.html.

[4] Olson, J. S. 1963. Energy storage and the balance of producers and [[decomposers]] in ecological systems. [[Ecology]] 44:322-331.

[5] Ecology: [[Diversity]] in the afterlife, N&V, Nature 509, 173–174 (08 May 2014) doi:10.1038/509173a

[6] “What Is Soil?” All About Soil | Soils 4 Kids, Soil Science Society of America, www.soils4kids.org/about.

Alfisols

2025-05-09T13:32:11Z

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Alfisols are mildly acidic soils with significant accumulation of clays, possessing a soil moisture regime that is moist for most of the year [6]. These are latitudinally the most widespread of the twelve [[soil]] orders defined by the United States Department of [[Agriculture]] (USDA) [3]. Alfisols are typically well-drained and commonly used for agriculture.

== Definition ==

Alfisols are found in a variety of climates around the world. Some areas where they are prominent include West Africa immediately south of the Sahara Desert, eastern India, much of Europe and western Russia, the Midwest and Great Lakes regions of the United States, parts of the Australia coastline, and various other areas of the world [5].

The distribution of alfisols often forms a buffer between other soil orders with differing soil moisture regimes [5]. In warm climates they can occur adjacent to [[aridisols]] (dry soils), separating them from various other soil orders associated with humid climates. An example where this occurs is in Texas, where alfisols in central and east Texas separate the dry West Texas soils from the humid southeastern United States. In mesic or cool climates Alfisols often occur adjacent to Mollisols (grassland soils).

== Description ==

Diagnostic features of alfisols include a thin ochric epipedon, which is a light-colored surface horizon (see: [[Soil Horizons]]), and a prominent argillic horizon [2]. The argillic horizon is a product of silicate [[clay]] accumulation in the B horizon via illuviation, and cation exchange capacity in this horizon is over 35% saturated with base-forming cations [2]. Soil water potential greater than 1500 kPa is considered a “moist” soil moisture regime, and alfisols typically exceed this for most of the year, although for at least 3 months of the year soil moisture in alfisols falls below this threshold [6].
[[File:Alfisol soil profile.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Alfisol soil profile [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/class/maps/?cid=nrcs142p2_053590]]]

Temperate forests and cropland commonly occur on alfisols, and net primary productivity is usually high. In some areas, particularly eastern Europe/western Russia and the Midwestern United States, there is substantial occurrence of loess [3]. Loess refers to the depositional products of [[soil erosion]] by wind. These soils are generally very fertile, as evidenced by the loess deposits in the intensively cultivated Midwestern United States.

== Distribution of Suborders in the United States ==
Five suborders of alfisols occur in the United States, comprising 13.9% of land area in the U.S. [10]:

Aqualfs- often cultivated for common crops including corn, rice, and soybeans.

Ustalfs- occur mainly in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains in semiarid climates.

Cryalfs- found at higher elevations, particularly in the Rocky Mountains. Often forested due to cool climate and short growing season.

Xeralfs- found on the west coast, often used as cropland or pastureland.

Udalfs- udic soil moisture regime, found in humid climates.

[[File:AlfisolsSuborders.jpeg | ]]

Suborder information and map from USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service [10]

== Ecology ==

Around the world, alfisols are used intensively for agriculture. In the United States, particularly the Midwest and Great Lakes regions, major crops include grains, corn, and hay [3]. Dairy farming is also common in these areas. Alfisols in Mediterranean climates (i.e. Europe and California) are cultivated for fruits, nuts, and various specialty crops such as olives [3]. An important process that occurs in alfisol agroecosystems is crop straw [[decomposition]], which increases soil [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and nutrient availability [6]. Alfisols that are low in [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] are susceptible to soil erosion, particularly in agricultural areas [1]. A variety of best management practices for agriculture are utilized in these areas, such as crop rotations, cover cropping, and fallowing [1].

[[File:Enchytraeids.JPG|200px|thumb|left|Enchytraeids in soil [https://www.wur.nl/en/Research-Results/Chair-groups/Environmental-Sciences/Soil-Biology-Group/Research/The-Soil-Biota/Enchytraeids-potworms.htm]]]
The geographic and climatic [[diversity]] of alfisols means that a greater variety of flora and fauna exists compared to other soil orders. Astigmatic [[mites]] are often found at their greatest densities in agroecosystems after events that increase soil [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], such as harvest, tillage, and the application of soil amendments [8]. Enchytraeids are often found at higher densities in alfisols compared to other soils – they are typically associated with high acidity and [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] found in temperate forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas [4,11]. In forested and cultivated alfisols, enchytraeid populations typically occur in the upper soil horizons where [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] is highest, but may be found at greater depths in grasslands soils (usually mollisols) [4,5].Other prominent soil fauna in agroecosystems include Carabidae (ground beetles) and various species of mound-building and humivorous [[termites]] [9].

== References ==

[1]Adekiya, A.O., and others. Soil productivity improvement under different fallow types on Alfisol of a derived savanna [[ecology]] of Nigeria. 2021. Heliyon. 7:e06759.

[2]Brady, Nyle C., and Weil, Ray R. “Elements of the Nature and [[Properties]] of Soils.” 2000. Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ.

[3]Christopherson, Robert W. “Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography, Tenth Edition.” 2017. Pearson. Hoboken, NJ.

[4]Coleman, David C., Callaham Jr., Mac A., and Crossley Jr., D. A. “Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]], Third Edition.” 2018. Academic Press. Cambridge, MA.

[5]Davidson, D.A., Bruneau, P.M.C., Grieve, I.C., and Young, I.M. Impacts of fauna on an upland grassland soil as determined by micromorphological analysis. 2002. Applied Soil Ecology. 20:133-143.

[6]Soil Taxonomy, Second Edition. 1999. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. pg. 163.

[7]Li, Ji-Fu, and Zhong, Fang-Fang. Nitrogen release and re-adsorption dynamics on crop straw residue during straw decomposition in an Alfisol. 2021. Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 20(1):248–259.

[8]Perdue, J.C., and Crossley Jr., D.A. Seasonal abundance of soil mites ([[Acari]]) in experimental agroecosystems: effects of drought in no-tillage and conventional tillage. 1989. Soil Tillage Res. 15:117-124.

[9]Purvis, G., and Fadel, A. The influence of cropping rotations and soil cultivation practice on the population ecology of carabids ([[Coleoptera]], Carabidae) in arable land. 2002. Pedobiologia. 46:452-474.

[10]USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Alfisols Map. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/class/maps/?cid=nrcs142p2_053591

[11]van Vliet, P.C.J., West, L.T., Hendrix, P.F., and Coleman, D.C. The influence of [[Enchytraeidae]] (Oligochaeta) on the soil [[porosity]] of small microcosms. 1993. Geoderma. 56:287-299.

Main Page

2025-05-09T13:31:43Z

Njhenshu:

=[[Soil Ecology]] WIKI from the University at Buffalo=
[[File:Rhizo.jpg|230px|thumb|left|Soil ecology encompasses interactions between plants, soils, and the organisms that live within them.]] [[Soil]] is a vast reservoir for a wide [[diversity]] of [[organisms]]. [[Plant roots]] explore this [[diversity]] daily. Various other [[animals]] consume smaller creatures either intentionally or unintentionally by [[foraging]] on [[plant roots]], [[insects]], and [[microorganisms]].
Soil [[ecology]] is the study of how these [[soil organisms]] interact with other organisms and their environment - their influence on and response to numerous [[soil processes]] and [[properties]] form the basis for delivering [[essential ecosystem services]]. Some of the key processes in soil are [[nutrient cycling]], soil [[aggregate formation]], and [[biodiversity interactions]]. Sometimes, individual species can strongly influence overall soil ecology, such as [[Black Willow]].
The [[diversity]] and abundance of [[soil life]] exceeds that of any other ecosystem. [[Plant establishment]], competitiveness, and growth is governed largely by the [[ecology belowground]], with many interactions attributed to the interconnectivity of [[Plant roots]] due to [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] in the [[rhizosphere]]. Therefore, a deep understanding of these systems are an essential component of plant sciences and [[terrestrial ecology]]. You can read more about early soil scientists like [[Vasily Dokuchaev]] here.

Many of the concepts of soil ecology were developed by Hans Jenny and his creation of the [[Jenny Equation]]. These concepts envelop the ideas of the abiotic interactions of [[Organisms]] and plants.
_______

Algunas paginas en Espanol:

[[Biodiversidad del Suelo]]

[[Diversidad]]

[[Ecología de Suelo]]

[[Servicios del Ecosistema]]

[[Suelo]]

Vegetable Mould

2025-05-02T19:18:45Z

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==Definition==

[[File:vegetable.jpg|thumb|right|Image from Darwin's book, The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms, with Observations on their Habits [7]]]
Vegetable mould is the layer of dark colored, uniformly fine soil particles that cover the surface of land in moderately humid climates. This layer of mould, known as a form of soil [[humus]], can reach a depth of 40 cm or more in the soil profile. [[Earthworm]] secretions (or castings) primarily compose vegetable mould, and the layer is a few inches thick. Vegetable mould is located in the O Horizon of the [[Soil Horizons]].

==Earthworm Contribution==

Earthworms sift finer soils from coarser soils, mix the soil with mineral particles, and saturate it with intestinal secretion. Earthworm burrowing, casting, grazing, and dispersal change the soil's physico-chemical and biological status and could cause drastic shifts in the density, [[diversity]], structure and activity within the [[drilosphere]]. [1] While feeding, earthworms promote microbial activity that accelerate the rates of breakdown and stabilization of humic portions of [[Organic Matter|organic matter]].

[[File:wormss.jpg|frame|left|Drawing of earthworm castings [7]]]

==Observations and Experiments==

[[Charles Darwin]] first noted the importance of earthworm species in the creation of vegetable mould in his book, “The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Action of Worms, with Observations on their Habits”. [2] Darwin cited results from a number of his experiments which showed that 0.5 cm of soil is brought to the surface in worm casts annually. Most earthworms live at a soil depth of 25-30 cm; therefore, this surface soil is worked over the most thoroughly. [3] Darwin has observed through experiments a value of 18.12 tons of earth per acre is brought to the surface in dry casts. The constant production of vegetable mould by earthworms can be observed by the estimated rate at which objects on the surface are buried and by weighing the earth brought up in a given time. Vegetable mould and worms are also able to preserve ancient objects under the ground. This happens due to objects being surrounded by worm castings and excretions of the vegetable mould. [3]

[[File:Veggie.jpeg|frame|120x60px|[7]]]

==Mould Benefits==

Vegetable mould creates fertile soil. Earthworms prepare the ground for the growth of fibrous-rooted plants and many types of seedlings by helping to expose and sift the vegetable mould. With vegetable mould, soil is in a state fitted to retain moisture and absorb soluble substances. [4] Nitrification is possible with vegetable mould in soil as well. The constant movement by worms in soil allows for materials to be buried beneath accumulated castings of worms, and then brought to a decayed state. [5] All humic substances are able to chelate soil nutrients and act as a storehouse of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and zinc. Humic substances can also improve nutrient uptake, especially phosphorous, sulfur, and nitrogen. [6]

==See also==

*[[Soil]]
*[[Soil Horizons]]
*[[Soil Textures]]
*[[Founders of Soil Concepts]]
*[[Humus]]
*[[Annelids]]
*[[Animals]]

==References==

[1]
Edwards, Clive A., ed. Earthworm [[ecology]]. CRC press, 2004.

[2]
Darwin, Charles, 1809-1882. The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Action of Worms, with Observations on their Habits. J. Murray, London, 1892.

[3]
Hayes, M. B. "Darwin’s ‘vegetable mould’ and some modern concepts of humus structure and soil aggregation." Earthworm Ecology. Springer, Dordrecht, 1983. 19-33.

[4]
Martin, J. P., and K. Haider. "Microbial activity in relation to soil humus formation." Soil Science 111.1 (1971): 54-63.

[5]
Wild, Alan. Soils and the Environment: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA;Cambridge;, 1993.

[6]
Mayhew, Lawrence. "Humic substances in biological [[agriculture]]." Rev ACRES 34.1-2 (2004): 80-88.

[7]
“THE FORMATION OF VEGETABLE MOULD THROUGH THE ACTION OF WORMS WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THEIR HABITS.” The Formation of Vegetable Mould, by Charles Darwin, www.gutenberg.org/files/2355/2355-h/2355-h.htm.

Varroa destructor

2025-05-02T19:18:44Z

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The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.

[[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right|600px| A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]

==Taxonomy==

'''Kingdom:''' Animalia

'''Phylum:''' [[Arthropoda]]

'''Class:''' Arachnida

'''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]

'''Family:''' Varroidae

'''Genus:''' Varroa

'''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''

==Description==

Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].

''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].

[[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]
[[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]

==Habitat and Range==
The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].

''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].

==Life Cycle==

When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures.

The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''.

Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].

[[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]

==Impacts on Western honey bees==

Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly.

On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].

==Management==

Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites.

A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake.

[[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]

The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip.
[[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]

The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].

==References==

[1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.

[2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det

[3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite

[4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf

[5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/

[6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023.

[7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf

Uropygi

2025-05-02T19:18:43Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(200,150,90)|'''Scientific Classification'''<ref name="ITIS">Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). n.d. Uropygi. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=82710#null</ref><ref name="Maltais">Maltais, B. (2016). ''The Vinegaroon: A Salad with Frankenstein'' [Photograph]. https://www.macrophotobug.com/vinageroon-whip-scorpion-arizona/</ref>
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Uropygi.jpg|501px|right|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subkingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bilateria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Infrakingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Protostomia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Superphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Ecdysozoa
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Chelicerata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Arachnida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Uropygi
|}
The arachnid order Uropygi contains [[organisms]] more commonly known as whip scorpions or vinegaroons. Although they may be referred to as 'whip scorpions', they are not actually true [[scorpions]] (Order Scorpiones). The name 'vinegaroon' was coined off their unique ability to spray a mixture of acetic acid, caprylic acid, and water as a defense mechanism. Vinegar typically consists of 5–20% acetic acid; however, the chemical mixture secreted by vinegaroons typically contains up to 83% acetic acid, which can irritate and deter predators<ref name="ThoughtCo">Helmenstine, A.M. (2019). Vinegar Chemical Formula. ThoughCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/vinegar-chemical-formula-and-facts-608481</ref><ref name ="Smolinske">Smolinske, S.C., S.A. Seifert, B.W. Warrick, & Y. Tadfor. (2022). Vinegaroon exposures reported to a Poison center. ''Toxicon''. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0041010122002732</ref>.
== Characteristics and Morphology ==
As members of the class Arachnida, vinegaroons possess four pairs of legs. The first pair of legs are much thinner than the rest, as they are modified into sensitive, antenna-like structures. The remaining legs are used for walking. They have one pair of eyes on the front of their cephalothorax (front body segment) and up to five pairs on the sides. They are typically nocturnal and have poor eyesight, relying on their antenniform legs to sense their surroundings<ref name="AnimalFact">AnimalFact. (2024). Vinegaroon. https://animalfact.com/vinegaroon-uropygi/</ref>. They bear a pair of large pedipalps, or appendages with pincer-like structures, used for capturing and holding onto prey, defending against predators, or digging up [[soil]] for burrowing. They use their chelicerae (mouthparts) to chew prey. Their opisthosoma (abdomen) consists of twelve body segments with a whip-like flagella (tail) on the end, explaining the name "whip scorpion". This tail has a similar use to their antenniform legs in sensing vibrations and olfactory chemicals in the air<ref name="A&M">Texas A&M AgriLife Extension. n.d. Vinegaroon. https://texasinsects.tamu.edu/vinegaroon/</ref>. Vinegaroons have two pygidial glands at the base of their flagella where their vinegar-like secretions are produced. They can aim their tail towards predators when they feel threatened and release the acetic acid mixture with surprising accuracy<ref name="PBS">PBS Deep Look. (2022).''The Vinegaroon Sprays Acid to Foil Its Foes'' [Video]. https://www.pbs.org/video/the-vinegaroon-sprays-acid-to-foil-its-foes-3csgr1/</ref>. Vinegaroons typically grow around 9 cm (~3.5 in) long when fully grown, but this size may vary between species<ref name="Oakland">Oakland Zoo. n.d. Giant Vinegaroon. https://www.oaklandzoo.org/animals/giant-vinegaroon</ref>.

== Reproduction and Life Cycle ==
When mating, males will produce a packet of sperm, called a spermatophore, and transfer it to the female's genitals. Some species may exhibit a courtship "dance" when both the male and female are willing to mate. Males will hold the female's first pair of legs in their chelicerae and deposit the spermatophore on the ground, where it is picked up by the female. Males of other species may directly transfer the spermatophore to the female using their pedipalps<ref name="AnimalFact"></ref>.

[[File:Young_Vinegaroons.jpg|401px|left|thumb|''Typopeltis crucifer'' female with young attached to her back.<ref name="flickr">cowyeow. (2012). ''Vinegaroon with Young'' [Photograph]. Uploaded to flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/cowyeow/10035768716</ref>]]
Gravid females will then burrow into the soil and incubate their young. The female will lay a brood sac which will remain attached to her opisthosoma. After a couple months, the eggs in the brood sac will develop into nymphs and hatch. The amount of young per brood may vary across species, but typically lies between 20–40. The young resemble their adult forms, except they are white in color and have red or pink pedipalps. They will remain attached to the back of their mother using suckers until they undergo their first molt. Vinegaroons typically molt four times in four years until they reach adulthood<ref name="Oakland"></ref>. They typically live 4–7 years in the wild, with females living longer than males<ref name="AnimalFact"></ref>.

== Diet and Feeding Behaviors ==
Vinegaroons are voracious predators and mostly feed on [[invertebrates]], such as worms, [[slugs]], [[insects]], scorpions, [[Diplopoda|millipedes]], and [[isopods]]. Larger species may also feed on small vertebrates like lizards<ref name="AnimalFact"></ref>. Vinegaroons are often preyed upon by birds, lizards, and small mammals.

== Distribution ==
Vinegaroons live in warmer climates including grasslands, scrubland, deserts, and tropical regions. They can also be found in pine forests and mountainous areas. They tend to hide under rotting wood, rocks, or burrowed in the soil and come out at night to hunt<ref name="A&M"></ref>.

== References ==
<references />

Terrestrial ecology

2025-05-02T19:18:40Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

== '''Defining and Researching Terrestrial Ecology''' ==
'''''Terrestrial [[Ecology]]''''' specifies the relations of [[organisms]] and their physical environment on land. Terrestrial Ecology can be further defined through categorization of terrestrial [[biomes]] and terrestrial ecosystems. Interaction is the main factor in understanding what is happening in an ecosystem. When studying and researching terrestrial ecosystems look for specific factors that are unique from one another, such as the '''Biotic''' and '''Abiotic''' factors. The interactions between these factors are unique and can help you to understand a particular process and ecosystem, and affect the benefits that humans gain within an ecosystem through [[essential ecosystem services]].

= '''Terrestrial Ecosystems vs Terrestrial Biomes''' =

Terrestrial ecosystems and terrestrial biomes are different from each other. Terrestrial ecosystems can be defined as a community of interaction between many living organisms and nonliving things on land. Terrestrial Biomes can be defined as an area, on land, that can be classified by the animals and plants that live within it. In some cases, there can be a few different ecosystems within a terrestrial biome. This means that biomes are on a larger geographical scale than ecosystems and biomes directly affect or make up the interactions within an ecosystem and the organisms within it.

[[File:biomes.jpg]]

== '''Factors of Terrestrial Ecosystems''' ==

----
Terrestrial ecosystems can be categorized through ''biotic'' and ''abiotic'' factors. The interactions that occur between biotic and abiotic factors can help us to better understand what is happening within a particular ecosystem and to further classify those factors and the ecosystem itself. Biotic factors or biological factors are the autotrophs, heterotrophs, and [[decomposers]] of a particular ecosystem. You may remember these as producers or autotrophs, consumers or heterotrophs, and decomposers or detrivores. These biotic factors evidence the differentiation in ecosystems and biomes, for example and in most cases, an autotroph that typically lives in a cold, wet climate would not be able to survive in a hot, dry climate such as a desert or savanna. Abiotic factors are physical components to a ecosystem and these components affect the biological diversity. In short, abiotic factors directly affect biotic factors. Abiotic factors are the unique aspects of the climate, the weather, the type of [[soil]] in the region, and the water within the ecosystem. An example of this may be the type of soil within an ecosystem, whether it is [[silt]], [[clay]],[[loam]], silt loam, [[sand]], sand loam, clay loam, sandy clay loam, and etc. A widely accepted method to classifying the type of soil through [[Soil Textures]] and this can present evidence of unique characteristics of [[Soil Structures]] within different ecosystems.

[[File:abiotic.jpg|500px|]]
(Jnana Prabodhini Educational Resource Center, 2015. July 21)

----

== '''Biotic Factors''' ==

'''Autotrophs'''

-''Autotrophs'' are organisms that create their own food by converting inorganic compounds into organic compounds. They are primary producers because they reside at the base of the food chain pyramid. There are two types of Autotrophs, '''Chemoautotrophs''' and '''Photoautotrophs'''.

''Chemoautotrophs'' are bacteria that create energy with the chemical energy within inorganic compounds. This proccess occurs through "chemosynthesis" or the creation of organic compounds by bacteria and these bacteria use energy from chemical reactions that occur without sunlight. They use inorganic compounds like Carbon Dioxide to create sugars. For example, "Sulfur Reducers" are chemoautotrophs and they use inorganic sulfur compounds as a source of energy. Sulfur reducers can be found in locations that release sulfur such as near vents and active volcanoes on the ocean floor.
Chemoautotrophs are said to be mainly found within the ocean and in the intestines of animals.

''Photoautotrophs'' are plants and bacteria that contain "chloroplasts" and chloroplasts are able to create energy by converting energy from photons into chemical energy in sugars or other molecules. This occurs in process of photosynthesis. Photoautotrophs play a vital role in terrestrial ecosystems because they are a major provider in energy or food to animals. Plants or photoautotrophs are the primary or base within a food chain pyramid. However there are factors that make each ecosystem unique, so primary or base photoautotrophs will be different within different ecosystems.

Autotrophs can be differentiated by the type of energy they use. ''Chemoautotrophs'' use '''chemical energy''' and ''Photoautotrophs'' use '''light energy'''.

[[File:chemoauto.jpg|600px|]]
[[File:photoautos.jpg|500px|]]
(Rowden, Ashley.Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. "Sea floor - Vents and seeps.")

----

'''Heterotrophs'''

''Heterotrophs'' are living organisms that gain energy and nutrition through consuming other organisms. The organisms form cells and body parts by using nutrients as "building blocks." [[Animals]] and most [[microorganisms]] are heterotrophs that can be classified by the organisms they consume. Humans are considered to be heterotrophs, we rely heavily on other organisms. For example, a large portion to most of our diets, [[Monocots]] are grains such as barley, rice and wheat. These grains are in many of the products we consume on a daily basis and even for every meal such as bread or even rice. Even fruits like coconut, pineapples and dates, can be classified as Monocots. Heterotrophs are secondary and tertiary consumers.

''Herbivore'': Organisms that eat plants

''Carnivore'': Organisms that eat animals

''Omnivore'': Organisms that eat both plant and animals

''Decomposers'' that break down plants or animals can also be considered ''heterotrophic'' based on that they eat other organisms.

----
'''Decomposers'''

"Decomposers," are organisms who feed on dead plant and animal material and also feed on waste. Decomposers break down and partly digest organic material. This feeding process aids in the maintenance of [[Nutrient Cycling]] and restoration of rich soil. ''Nutrient Cycling'' is the moving of organic and inorganic materials through an ecosystem, to provide nutrients. For example, earthworms feed on live and dead organic material. [[Earthworm]] secretions primarily create the organic composition of the "O Horizon," a layer of organic soil that classifies an ecosystem's Soil [[Properties]]. This was found to be true by [[Charles Darwin]], who studied soil or [[Vegetable Mould]] and its decomposers. The soil properties directly affect the biotic factors within an ecosystem and largely influence the decomposers of the ecosystem. There are three types of decomposers, ''Protists'', ''Fungi'', and ''Bacteria''.

'''"Protists,"''' a single celled organism. Protists look for dead insects or other microorganisms to eat. There are four important types of protists: Flagelletes, Naked [[Amoeba]], Testate Amoeba, and Cilliates.

[[File:Euglena_diagram.jpg|100px|]] ''Flagelletes'': Very common, eat bacteria and are categorized with the "whip-like" tail they have.

(Miklos, Claudio. 2011 October, 29)

[[File:amoeba.jpg|100px|]]''[[Naked Amoeba]]'': Less common in dry soil and they eat everything. They look like a splattered, blob of jelly.

(EnchantedLearning.com, Copyright2001-2016)

[[File:TestateAmoeba.jpg|100px|]]''Testate Amoeba'': They rapidly reproduce and die. Testate Amoeba are categorized by their "test" or hat-like shell.

(Lahr, Dan. 2014. March,12)

[[File:ciliates.jpg|100px|]]''[[Ciliates]]': More common in moist habitats whether its seasonally or constant. Cilliates have a hairy-looking outer ring.

(Egmond, Wim Van, "Ciliates")
----

'''"Fungi"''' are any single-celled or multi-nucleus organism that decomposes organic material in order to live such as mildew, yeast, mushrooms and mold. Mycorrhizal fungi is a term used to describe a relationship between these "fungi" and plant life. Mycorrhizal fungi release and distribute nitrogen and phosphorus from dead plant material. This release of nitrogen and phosphorus from mycorrhizal fungi are the primary source within terrestrial ecosystems and in the uptake in these nutrients within plants of these ecosystems. Mycorrhizal relationships also offer defense against insects and other organisms that may be looking for a source of nutrients. ''[[Nutrient Cycling]]'' is also known as "Ecological Cycling" and this refers to the processes of recycling resources that sustain all life on Earth such as carbon, nitrogen, water and etc. For example, one of the most vital roles within nutrient cycling in terrestrial ecosystems are the role of Mycorrhizal fungi. AMF or [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]], is widely believed to be the first to form a relationship among the first terrestrial plants on Earth.

[[File:fungals.jpg]]
(Mckee, Shannon. 2017. April, 17)

Our "true" fungi are ''basidiomycetes'', ''ascomycetes'', and ''zygomycetes'' and these fungi develop relationships with plants which is called mycorrhiza.

[[File:tomato_feat__zygomycota_by_alexiseptimus.jpg|100px|]] ''Zygomycetes'': Grows rapidly on food through hyphal network.

(AlexiSeptimus)

[[File:Aleuria-aurantia-2.jpg|100px|]] ''Ascomycetes'': They grow in hyphae and are common in soil and aquatic habitats.

(Smith, David. 2014 March, 13)

[[File:emeticrussula.jpg|100px|]]''Basidiomycete''s: They are the most commonly known because they are like our backyard mushrooms and they are important decomposers.

(CSERC.org)

----

'''"Bacteria"''' are single-celled microbes that are capable of living in almost all types of environments and temperatures. Without bacteria, humans would not exists and this is due to the role bacteria play in productivity within plants. They work to help with the rate of utilization of Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Hydrogen and this is why bacteria are vital for all life. The picture below illustrates nitrogen fixing in the atmosphere. [[Diazotrophs]] are the unique microorganisms such as bacteria and Archaea, who are the only organisms able to incorporate and fix the nitrogen in the atmosphere by producing more nitrogen. The nitrogen becomes more readily available for organisms like autotrophs or plants.

[[File:8418272.gif|300px|]]
(Kayaken, 2017. March, 3)
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== '''Abiotic Factors''' ==

'''Climate and Weather:''' The condition of the atmosphere over long geological periods. Weather is the daily conditions of the ecosystem such as temperature, pressure, cloudiness and moisture that make up a biomes climate. Both weather and climate can affect an ecosystem. Climate has a long term affect and only if the climate is changing. Weather has a short term affect on an ecosystem such as daily productiveness. For example, if there is an increase in acidic rain from air pollution, this will directly affect pH level within soils and also kill flora and fauna.

'''Soil:''' It is the basis of which organisms live at and near the surface of the Earth and similar bodies altered by biological, chemical, and/or physical agents and processes. Soil is, has a high level of [[diversity]]. The soil [[properties]] are widely heterogeneous due to factors like climate, weather, type of organisms, the type of topography, the parent material and the time from which the ecosystem began. Hans Jenny, a natural scientist, furthered this understanding of soil formation through the [[Jenny Equation]], S=F(cl,o,r,p,t....). All are large factors in soil formation and how rich the soil is, and this directly affects biotic factors. This can be further defined through the term [[Pedogenesis]] or soil formation and this term was coined by Hans Jenny. For example, freshwater marshes have a great diversity of organisms and very rich soil. The tundra has a low biodiversity due to its extremely cold weather, climate and poor soil condition.

'''Water:''' It is a constituent or a part of a whole. Water is vital for living organisms. Water is a factor of an ecosystem because biotic factors adapt to water conditions. The flora or plant life is directly affected by the amount of precipitation and moisture within the soil. The moisture within soil can be greater in areas that have smaller pore spaces and for example, clay holds on to more nutrients and water than sand. One can classify these types of soil through testing the [[Soil Textures]]. Another example, desert fauna, are adapted to life with extreme heat and dry climate. Beetles in particular are forced to wait until there is moisture in the air from fog, and they collect this moisture by running to the top of sand dunes and tipping there backs to the sky. As moisture collects on the back of the beetle, the drops run down into the beetles mouth. The harsh climate of the desert has affected the fauna to adapt to hot and dry climate.

[[File:Beetlejuice.jpg|400px|]]
(Namib Beetle Illustration. Roberto Osti, Biomechanics)

== '''Putting It All Together''' ==

Biome: Grasslands/Wetlands

Type of Ecosystem: Swamps and Marshes

Type of Swamp and Marsh: Freshwater

Climate: Wet, humid season. Dry season.

Freshwater swamps and marshes are the most productive ecosystems on land. The lower elevation and warm, humid climate creates an ecosystem that is very productive in the simultaneous relationship between biotic and abiotic factors. Marshes resupply groundwater and they manage the flow of water to streams. Marshes play a vital role near "watersheds" by reducing the amount of damage from flooding and this is done through the storing of excess water. Marshes regulate extra sediments and pollutants through [[decomposition]] and nutrient cycling. Microorganisms and vegetation feed on the excess nutrients provided by the extra sediments and pollutants such as nitrogen or phosphorous from fertilizers, a very relevant challenge within pollution in [[agriculture]]. There is a great diversity of flora and fauna or plants and animals within wetlands. Flora and fauna are the biotic factors within ecosystems or the autotrophs and heterotrophs. The abiotic factors like the humid climate, overly saturated soil, and excess water directly affect the flora and fauna within swamps and marshes. Specifically, freshwater marshes, show the greatest efficiency and productivity for nutrient cycling and converting of resources than any other ecosystem. For example, [[Black Willow]], a type of tree that has roots made for taking in moisture and for living in soil that has a high level of moisture, like the wetlands. Decomposers play a vital role in the nutrient cycling and carbon distribution within a freshwater marsh. Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, are most common within fresh water marshes, these decomposers convert a large amount of plant litter or "detritus" into Carbon Dioxide and nitrogen as a result of respiration and nitrogen fixing. Respiration occurs at a more productive rate within wet climates opposed to dry climates. When the fungi develop mycorrhizal relationships with plants, in an ecosystem that is humid and has excess water in the soil, the plants and fungus in theory would be working at a greater level of productivity. With more active plants, come higher levels of nutrients. For herbivores, this can create a competitive ecosystem for both space and nutrients. Many [[insects]] live in swamps and marshes and many feed on plants. The mycorrhizal relationships within swamps and marshes are not only great for nutrient cycling but also defense against these insects. The fungi release spores that can kill the insects trying to eat Another adaptation and protection against abiotic factors, are [[Flavonoids]]. [[Flavonoids]] are within all plants on Earth and they provide protection against UV, Protection against invasive pathogens, and signaling symbiosis. The flora and fauna within an ecosystem have developed adaptations to aid in interaction with both biotic and abiotic factors within their ecosystem. The biotic and abiotic factors have a unique symbiotic relationship that allows organisms to coincide with each other and their environment and this is what makes studying terrestrial ecology so interesting.

== References ==

Adl, M.S., V.V.S.R. Gupta. 2006, July. "Protists in [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]] and forest nutrient cycling." http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A149615503/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&xid=dff4638c.

Beacom, Betsy. 2017, April 25. "[[Food chains|Food Chains]] In Deciduous Forests." https://sciencing.com/food-chains-deciduous-forest-7449795.html

Blanchfield, Deirdre S. 2011 June, 13. "Biotic community." http://ic.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/ic/scic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?disableHighlighting=&displayGroupName=Reference&docIndex=&source=&prodId=&mode=view&limiter=&display-query=&contentModules=&action=e&sortBy=&windowstate=normal&currPage=&dviSelectedPage=&scanId=&query=&search_within_results=&p=SCIC&catId=&u=sunybuff_main&displayGroups=&documentId=GALE%7CCV2644151534&activityType=BasicSearch&failOverType=&commentary=

Blanchfield, Deirdre S. Gale "[[Detritivores]]." 2016. May, 25. http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CV2644150372/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&xid=6309b795.

Biology-online.org. 2015, June 14. "Diazotroph." https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Diazotroph

Bragg, O.M. Mineyeva, T Yu. Sirin, A.A. Jones, Peter. 2016, Dec. 14. "Towards Ecosystem-Based Restoration of Peatland Biodiversity."
http://mires-and-peat.net/media/map19/map_19_01.pdf

Diffen.com. Diffen LLC.Web."Autotroph vs Heterotroph."
https://www.diffen.com/difference/Autotroph_vs_Heterotroph

EPA. 2017. September, 1. "Wetlands Classification and Types." https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/wetlands-classification-and-types#marshes

Freedman, Bill.K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner. The Gale Encyclopedia of Science. 2014."Heterotroph." http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CV2644031108/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&xid=d35a52f8.

Forseth, Irwin N. 2010. "Terrestrial Biomes" https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/terrestrial-biomes-13236757

Gale, World of Biology. 2006. April, 3. "Heterotroph." http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CV2431500310/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&xid=90cec2db.

Geyer,Wayne A. Row, John M. 2010, May. "Black Willow." https://plants.usda.gov/factsheet/pdf/fs_sani.pdf

Lerner. K Lee. Lerner. Brenda Wilmoth. 2014 The Gale Encyclopedia of Science. "Autotroph." http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CV2644030216/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&xid=14fc9a52.

National Geographic Society. 2011, January 21. "biome" https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/biome/

Mack, Steve. 2007. Nov, 1. "How do Bacteria Produce Energy Without Mitochondria." http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2007-11/1193962676.Mi.r.html

Moreno, J. Perez. Read. D.J. 2003. March, 3. "Mycorrhizas and Nutrient Cycling in Ecosystems- A Journey Towards Relevance." http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/doi/10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00704.x/full

Richardson, Curtis J. 2010, October 1. "The Everglades: North America's Subtropical Wetland." http://ll3md4hy6n.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.882004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsummon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Everglades%3A+North+America%27s+subtropical+wetland&rft.jtitle=Wetlands+Ecology+and+Management&rft.au=Richardson%2C+Curtis+J&rft.date=2010-10-01&rft.pub=Springer&rft.issn=0923-4861&rft.eissn=1572-9834&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=5&rft.spage=517&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007%2Fs11273-009-9156-4&rft.externalDBID=BSHEE&rft.externalDocID=238262864&paramdict=en-US

University of Michigan. 2017. October, 20. "Microbes: Transformers of Matter and Material." https://globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/kling/microbes/microbes.html

U.S Department of Interior. 2015. Sept, 28. "What are Wetlands." https://www.nwrc.usgs.gov/fringe/where.html

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Picture References

AlexiSeptimus. "Tomato feat. [[Zygomycota]]" https://www.deviantart.com/art/Tomato-feat-Zygomycota-51107074

CSERC. Central Sierra Environmental Resource Center.
http://www.cserc.org/sierra-fun/photo-gallery-northern-yosemite/mushrooms-fungi/?pid=51

Egmond, Wim van. "Ciliates." http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/cilidr.html

EnchantedLearning.com. Copyright 2001-2016. "Amoeba." http://www.enchantedlearning.com/paint/subjects/protists/amoeba.shtml

Jnana Prabodhini Educational Resource Center. 2015. July, 21. "Characteristics of Living Things."
https://www.slideshare.net/ERCJPP/characteristics-of-living-things-50750349

Kayaken. 2017. March, 3. "Awesome Photos Of [[Nitrogen cycle|Nitrogen Cycle]] Apbio Werle Ecology Ch 50 55" http://big5kayakchallenge.com/photos-of-nitrogen-cycle/awesome-photos-of-nitrogen-cycle-apbio-werle-ecology-ch-50-55/

Lahr, Dan. 2014. March, 12. "Testate Amoeba CSI." https://testateamoebaeresearch.wordpress.com/category/dan-lahr/

Mckee, Shannon. 2017. April, 17. "[[Mycorrhizae]]: Boost Plant Growth and Yield." http://www.mantisplantprotection.com/mycorrhizae-boost-plant-growth-yield/

Miklos, Claudio. 2011. October, 29. "Euglena Diagram." https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17172675

Osti, Robert. "Illustration of Namib Beetle Harvesting Rainwater" https://asknature.org/strategy/water-vapor-harvesting/#jp-carousel-8302

Rowden, Ashley. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. "Sea floor - Vents and seeps." Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/diagram/8960/photosynthesis-and-chemosynthesis

Smith, David. 2014. March, 13. "David Smith Ascomycetes." http://nefsg.co.uk/portfolio/david-smith-ascomycetes

Trend Enterprises. "Photosynthesis." http://www.trendenterprises.com/ProdOneDetail.cfm?ItemId=T-38192&Description=Photosynthesis+Learning+Chart#.WqgbECjwbIU

Termites

2025-05-02T19:18:39Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

==Overview==
[[File:TermiteNest.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Figure 1: Termite mound in Australia<ref name="Carter">Carter, Gareth. “Image Taken during Fieldwork to Pilbara Region in WA.” Australian Museum, 12 Aug. 2020, australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/termites/.</ref>]]
Termites are [[insects]] belonging to the order Isoptera. There are more than 2,000 species of termites, which are divided into three main categories<ref name= "Krishna">Krishna, Kumar. “Termite.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 8 Apr. 2020, www.britannica.com/animal/termite.</ref>. These categories are subterranean, drywood, and dampwood<ref name="Orkin1">Orkin. “Types of Termites - Different Kinds of Termite Species.” Orkin Termite Treatment, Pest Control & Exterminator Service, Orkin, 23 Mar. 2022, www.orkin.com/pests/termites/types-of-termites.</ref>. Termites live together in colonies, taking on different roles in the system to create harmony and order<ref name="Layton">Layton, Blake. “Termite Biology (Eastern Subterranean Termites and Formosan Termites).” Mississippi State University Extension Service, Mississippi State University, 4 Mar. 2017, extension.msstate.edu/content/termite-biology-eastern-subterranean-termites-and-formosan-termites#:~:text=Termite%20colonies%20contain%20three%20types,percent%20of%20the
%20colony%20members.</ref>.

{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"| Scientific Classification
|-
|Kingdom
|Animalia
|-
|Phylum
|[[Arthropoda]]
|-
|Class
|Insecta
|-
|Order
|Isoptera
|}

==Habitat==
[[File:TermiteMapRevisedPNNL.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Figure 2: Termite infestation probability map of the continental United States<ref name="EERE">EERE. “Ermite Infestation Probability Map, Adapted from the 2021 International Residential Code (IRC), Figure R301.2(7).” Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy, 2 Sept. 2021, basc.pnnl.gov/images/termite-infestation-probability-map-adapted-2021-international-residential-code-irc-figure.</ref>]]
Termites are found all over the world, with species existing in every continent except Antarctica<ref name="Simon">Simon, Dany, and Gilad Ben-Zvi. “The Formosan Termite.” The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, 25 Nov. 2021, smnh.tau.ac.il/en/the-formosan-termite/.</ref>. Termites do best in warm climates, so they are most often found in the tropics<ref name="Wildlife">“Termites.” National Wildlife Federation, 24 Oct. 2017, www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Termites.</ref>. Subterranean termites are found underground, as they must maintain contact with [[soil]] to get moisture. Because of this, subterranean termites may be more destructive if they are found in a home. This is due to reproducing in large amounts underground, allowing for them to go undetected as damage is occurring. Drywood termites and dampwood termites are both found above ground. Drywood termites can be found in wood that is either living or decayed since they do not require a moisture source. Dampwood termites do not need contact with soil, but they do require a moisture source. Because of this, they are found in decayed wood that has consistent access to water<ref name= "Orkin1"></ref>.

==Diet and Feeding Habits==
Termites feed mainly on cellulose, the main component of wood<ref name="Krishna2">Krishna, Kumar. “Nutrition.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 31 Jan. 2001, www.britannica.com/animal/termite/Nutrition.</ref>. Termites will also consume plant litter and soil [[humus]]. They will eat almost all cellulose material, including carpet, insulation, cardboard, etc<ref name="Orkin4">Orkin. “What do Termites Eat - Termite Diet and Feeding Habits.” Orkin Termite Treatment, Pest Control & Exterminator Service, Orkin, 23 Mar. 2022, www.orkin.com/pests/termites/what-do-termites-eat.</ref>. In order to digest their food, termites have bacteria and [[protozoa]] in their stomachs that produce enzymes to help break down cellulose<ref name="Wildlife"></ref>. Only workers feed directly; reproductives and soldiers must be fed by workers since they do not have these enzymes. The process of transferring food from workers to the rest of the colony happens mostly through the mouth, with workers regurgitating cellulose into the mouths of other termites<ref name="Orkin3">Orkin. “What Do Termites Eat: Termite Diet and Feeding Habits.” Orkin, Orkin, 29 Mar. 2022, www.orkin.com/pests/termites/what-do-termites-eat.</ref>.

==Colony Roles==
Termites fall into one of three roles in the colony: reproductives, workers, or soldiers. Each role has different characteristics that help keep the colony thriving.
[[File:QueenTermite.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Figure 3: Reproductive termite<ref name="Payne">Payne Pest Management. “Flying Termites FAQ's.” Payne Pest Management, 31 Aug. 2021, paynepestmgmt.com/flying-termites-faqs/.</ref>]]

*'''Reproductives:''' It is the job of the reproductive termites to mate and keep the colony growing. The main reproductives in a colony are the queen and king. However, there may be other reproductives if the colony is large enough<ref name="Layton"></ref>. The queen and king have wings that allow them to leave their respective colonies and mate to form a new colony. Termites reproduce by laying eggs, and a queen can lay thousands of eggs each year<ref name="Waldvogel">Waldvogel, Michael, and Patricia Alder. “Termites - Biology and Control: NC State Extension Publications.” Termites - Biology and Control | NC State Extension Publications, NC State Extension Publications, 7 Apr. 2022, content.ces.ncsu.edu/termites-biology-and-control.</ref>. Queens have a long lifespan and can survive for decades, but most commonly live between 10 and 20 years<ref name="Terminix1">Terminix. “Termite Life Cycle and Lifespan.” Terminix, Https://Www.terminix.com/, 6 May 2022, www.terminix.com/termites/life-cycle/.</ref>.

*'''Workers:''' Workers make up the vast majority of termites in the colony<ref name="Layton"></ref>. It is their job to gather food for the colony, build the nest, repair the nest after damage, and care for the queen<ref name="Waldvogel"></ref>. Worker and soldier termites do not have wings or reproductive organs<ref name= "Krishna"></ref>. Their life span is much shorter than that of the reproductives, lasting only 2 years on average<ref name="Orkin2">Orkin. “Termite Life Cycle & Lifespan - How Long Do Termites Live?” Orkin Termite Treatment, Pest Control & Exterminator Service, Orkin, 23 Mar. 2022, www.orkin.com/pests/termites/life-cycle.</ref>.
[[File:SoldierTermites.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Figure 4: Soldier termites<ref name="Terminix2">Terminix. “Getting to Know Soldier Termites.” Terminix, 25 Mar. 2015, www.terminix.com/termite-control/infestation/getting-to-know-soldier-termites/.</ref>]]

*'''Soldiers:''' Soldier termites protect the colony from predators, most notably ants. Soldiers possess large mandibles to aid them in defense<ref name="Layton"></ref>. The lifespan of soldier termites is comparable to workers, lasting approximately 2 years<ref name="Orkin2"></ref>.

==Termite Damage==
[[File:TermiteDamage.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Figure 5: Exterior of house with termite damage<ref name="Moore">Moore Law Firm. “Termite Lawyer, Termite Lawsuit In Mobile, AL.” Moore Law Firm, 22 May 2020, www.moorelawfirm-al.com/termite-lawyer/.</ref>]]
Termites are a prevalent pest in the United States, and can easily make their way into houses through cracks, water buildup, or rotting wood<ref name="Dehan">Dehan, Andrew. “Termite Damage: How to Identify and Repair It.” Rocket Homes, Rocket Homes, 2 Mar. 2022, www.rockethomes.com/blog/homeowner-tips/termite-damage.</ref>. Damage is often done to homes as a result of termite infestation, and can be costly to repair if not caught right away. Termites chew through both softwood and hardwood, causing structural damage and even foundation problems<ref name="Griffin">Griffin Pest Solutions. “What Does Termite Damage Look like?” Griffin Pest Solutions, Griffin Pest Solutions, 2 May 2022, www.griffinpest.com/what-termite-damage-looks-like/.</ref>. Some signs of termite damage to look for include:
*Hollowed out wood
*Maze of tunnels in wood
*Wood bending or buckling
*Mud tubes
*Termite remnants (i.e., wings, waste, etc.)
*Cracked or peeling paint

==References==
<references />

Soldier Beetles

2025-05-02T19:18:30Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum !! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || [[Arthropoda]] || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetles have four life stages: Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Adult. Eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, larvae are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity. Pupae form in early summer, and adults emerge starting in late July <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones can produce compounds to help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Along with their important ecological role, soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually grayish-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are also some of the largest soldier beetles at 8 to 15 millimeters long. They are yellow to orange, with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soil Horizons

2025-05-02T19:18:24Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

[[File:Soil Horizons.gif|thumb|A basic diagram of the most common Master Horizons of a soil profile, with the E Horizon omitted]]
[[Soil]] Horizons are the distinct layers of a soil profile. They are divided into these layers, referred to as "Master Horizons" (from top to bottom): O Horizon, A Horizon, E Horizon, B Horizon, C Horizon, and R Horizon. There also exists an H Horizon, F Horizon, and an L Horizon, each of which revolve around organic material, somewhat similarly to the O Horizon, but with more specific qualities and generally more obscure. The number and composition of horizons in different soils has tremendous [[diversity]]; the most well-developed soils might have all of these layers, and the least-developed soils might only have an A and a D horizon.

= Main Master Horizons =

Master Horizons are the main layers of a soil profile, described below.

== O Horizon ==

The O Horizon is composed of organic material that has accumulated and been modified (physically and chemically) over time, typically from the remains of plant and [[animals]] [1]. This horizon is most easily observed in soils that are rarely, if ever, disturbed and with plenty of foliage and/or [[organisms]] nearby to contribute to its development, such as forests. In more barren locations such as grasslands, an O Horizon is rarer. [1] Due to the fact that its presence is determined by external factors (outside of the original parent materials that form soils), it is the only layer not dominated by mineral substances. This layer has three well-accepted subordinate horizons: Oi (slightly decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]), Oe (moderately decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]), and Oa (highly decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]). [1] Microbial activity is high in this layer, utilizing the abundance of [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and [[decomposing]] it in ways that allow it to contribute to the soil profile.

== A Horizon ==
The A Horizon is a well-weathered and fertile layer dominated by mineral particles but still rich in [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], especially if covered by an O Horizon, which can leach decomposed [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] into the A Horizon. This is a much thicker layer than the O Horizon, dominated by highly weathered mineral particles (the most highly weathered from the parent material of the soil), and typically darker and coarser than other Soil Horizons. (Elements pg. 53) The A Horizon is considered ''topsoil''. If this layer has [[properties]] of both an A and an E Horizon, it is considered an A Horizon if it is dominated by humidified organic matter. [4] Subterranean life (including microfauna, [[mesofauna]], and [[macrofauna]]) tends to be the most abundant in this layer due to the rich, soft, and well-weathered environment of the soil.

== E Horizon ==
The E in "E Horizon" stands for eluviation, another word for leaching. This name is appropriate because, in this layer [[clay]], iron, and aluminum oxides leach into the lower layers (mostly the B Horizon). [1] Like the O Horizon, this layer is not always present, but when it is, it's usually in forested areas and rarely in grasslands. Because of the loss of material through eluviation, it tends to be noticeably lighter than the layers above and below it. [1]

== B Horizon ==
The B Horizon is also known as the subsoil. B Horizons are often greatly composed of material illuviated (washed in from) layers above it, mostly clay, iron, aluminum oxides (deposited by elluviated water), and minerals that formed in the layer. [1]

== C Horizon ==
The C Horizon, also known as the substratum is unconsolidated material above [[bedrock]]. [2] It is insufficiently weathered to be considered soil, but still considered a layer of a soil profile. Subterranean life is far scarcer in this layer, and [[plant roots]] do not usually extend here, although it is usually soft enough for root penetration. [4] It is essentially a transitional layer from bedrock to the soil.

== R Horizon ==
This layer is simply bedrock with minimal to no weathering visible. It is composed of the parent material that would eventually be transformed into soil. Excavating this horizon generally requires specialized equipment, and roots are usually unable to take advantage of what cracks may be in this layer. This layer is the boundary between what lies beneath the soil. [2]

== Other Master Horizons ==
These master horizons are dominated by plant-based organic matter in well-drained soils, occurring most commonly in forests. [5] These layers are generally more obscure than the previously mentioned Soil Horizons due to these specialized circumstances. Also, some may consider these horizons to be Subordinate O Horizons rather than their own Master Horizons.

=== L Horizon ===
The L Horizon stands for "Litter Horizon" and is dominated by plant material with minimal to no visible [[decomposition]], with plant elements easy to identify. [5]

=== F Horizon ===
The F Horizon stands for "Fermentation Horizon" and is composed of moderately decomposed plant material, but the plant origins are still distinguishable. [5]

=== H Horizon ===
The H Horizon stands for "Humic Horizon" and is composed of a material that is well humified and decomposed by water, and identifying plant material is difficult. [5]

= Transitional Horizons =
Soil Horizons do not always form distinct bands with unique and easily identified properties. Often Soil Horizons form Transitional Horizons, which have two forms. [3] The first is when a horizon has dominant properties of one Soil Horizon and subordinate properties of another; these Transitional Layers are designated by putting the dominant horizon properties letter first, followed by the subordinate horizon; an example would be a BC horizon, with properties more like a B Horizon but still demonstrating sufficient similarities to a C Horizon. [3] The second form of a Transitional Horizon is when the properties of both horizons are very comparable in representation; these have the letters separated with a "/", such as a B/C horizon, which is almost equally a B and a C Horizon. [3]

= Subordinate Horizons =
In order to more accurately describe the characteristics of the master horizons, lowercase letters from the Latin Alphabet are added. depending on the characteristics of the soil. Almost all letters are used, with the exception of ''l'' and ''u''. Instead, there are ''jj'' and ''ss'' distinctions. Subordinate horizon symbols include the following: [3]

a: Highly decomposed organic matter is present

b: The soil horizon has been buried

c: Concretions/Nodules of Fe, Al, Mn, or Ti cement is present

d: The soil is dense from natural or artificial means, and root access is restricted

e: Moderately decomposed organic matter is present

f: The soil is frozen

g: Strong gleying/mottling is present

h: The organic matter was illuviated

i: Slightly decomposed organic matter is present

j: Jarosite is present

jj: Cryoturbation / Frost churning is present

k: Carbonate buildup is present

m: Continuous cementation is present

n: Sodium buildup is present

o: Iron and Aluminum oxides buildup is present

p: The soil has been heavily disturbed, typically by tillage

q: Silica buildup is present

r: Bedrock is weathered or soft

s: Organic matter and Iron and Aluminum Oxides were illuviated (not to be confused with h and o, which are only organic matter and Iron and Aluminum Oxides, respectively)

ss: Slickensides are present

t: Buildup of silicate clays is present

v: Pilinthe is present

x: Fragipan is present

y: Buildup of gypsum is present

z: Buildup with salts more soluble than gypsum is present

= Factors Affecting the Formation of Soil Horizons =
Main articles: [[Pedogenesis]], [[Jenny Equation]]

Soil Horizon formation depends on many factors, most famously described by Hans Jenny's "fundamental equation": '''s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …)'''

In this equation, soil is described as being a function of climate, organisms, relief/slope, parent material, time, and any other potential factors that he had not considered at the time of the formula's creation. Climate affects the rates of both physical and chemical weathering, Organisms affect the rate of soil formation and contribute organic matter to it, Relief affects the amount of water and erosion in a soil, Parent Material affects the initial properties of developing and mature soils, and time is required for these factors to go into effect and eventually form a soil and its Soil Horizons. [6] Other factors are almost certain to be contributing as well, but at a negligible or unknown scale.

= References =
[1] Brady, Nile C.; Weil, Ray R.. ''Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soil''. (Second Edition) Pearson Education, Inc. 2004. pg 53-55. Retrieved 2018-03-05.

[2] Turenne, Jim. ''Soil Horizons (a Basic Power Point Presentation)''. Retrieved 2018-03-06. http://nesoil.com/properties/horizons/

[3] ''Soils Glossary Appendix''. Soil Science Society of America. 2018. Retrieved 2018-03-06 https://www.soils.org/publications/glossary/appendix/

[4] Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations. ''World reference base for soil resources''. Rome 1998. Appendix 1: Soil Horizon Designations. Retrieved 2018-03-07. http://www.fao.org/docrep/W8594E/w8594e0g.htm

[5] Forest Floor. ''Soil Horizons''. Retrieved 2018-03-07. http://forestfloor.soilweb.ca/definitions/soil-horizons/

[6] Lamb, John A.; Rehm, George W.. ''Five factors of soil formation''. University of Minnesota. Retrieved 2018-03-07. https://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/soils/soil-properties/five-factors-soil-formation/

Soil

2025-05-02T19:18:23Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

[[File:Soil.jpg|thumb|A soil profile. [24]]]
Soil is a mixture of minerals, liquids, gases, [[organisms]], and [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] that when together can support life. The Earth’s soil is called the [[pedosphere]], which has 4 main functions: it is a means of water storage, purification and supply; it is a medium for plant growth; it is habitat for organisms that modify the soil; it is a modifier of Earth’s atmosphere.

Things like the lithosphere, the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the hydrosphere interact with soil. In soil there is a solid phase of [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and minerals, as well as a water and gas holding porous phase. [1,2,3] Soils are sometimes treated as a 3-state system of solid, liquids, and gases.[4]

Soil is influenced by temporally interacting with factors of the [[Jenny Equation]] S= f (cl, o, r, p, t, …) where S is soil formation, f is for a function of, cl is climate, o is organisms, r is relief (topography), p is parent material, and t is time. The ‘…’ was left just in case there were more factors that could be considered in the future.[5] Soil is continually being subjected to many chemical, physical, and biological processes. This includes weathering with erosion.

A characteristic of most soils is that they have a dry bulk density between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm^3, but while also having a particle density that can go from 2.6 to 2.7 g/cm^3.

Soil science has two basic branches of study: edaphology and pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things. [6] Pedology is focused on the formation, description (morphology), and classification of soils in their natural environment. [7] In engineering terms, soil is included in the broader concept of [[regolith]], which also includes other loose material that lies above the [[bedrock]]. [8]

==Soil Function==
Soil is a major component of the Earth's ecosystem. The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming, to rainforest destruction and water pollution. With respect to Earth's carbon cycle, soil is an important carbon reservoir, and it is potentially one of the most reactive to human disturbance and climate change. [9]

Soil can act as a habitat for [[soil organisms]], a regulator of water quality, an atmosphere composition modifier, an engineering medium, a recycling system for organic wastes and nutrients, and a medium of plant growth. This makes it a very import provider of [[ecosystem services]]. Since soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains most of the Earth's genetic [[diversity]]. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial and in the main still unexplored. [10]

==Composition==
[[File:Soil Horizons.gif|thumb|left|A basic diagram of the most common Master Horizons of a soil profile, with the E Horizon omitted [22]]]
Soil is typically 50% pores half/half occupied with water and gas, and solids like minerals or [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]. [11] The pore space allows for the infiltration and movement of air and water, both of which are critical for life in soil. [12] Compaction creates problems for this.

Over time, soil will develop a soil profile which consists of multiple layers or [[soil Horizons]] that differ in one or more [[properties]] ([[Soil Textures|texture]], structure, [[porosity]], density, etc.). [13] They differ in thickness and don’t exhibit hard boundaries. The formation of these layers is reliant on the parent material, the modification processes of the parent materials, and soil forming factors that influence those processes. The biological influences on soil [[properties]] are strongest near the surface, while the geochemical influences on soil [[properties]] increase with depth.

The [[soil texture]] is determined by the relative proportions of the individual particles of [[sand]], [[silt]], and [[clay]] that make up the soil. The interaction of the individual mineral particles with [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], water, gases via biotic and abiotic processes causes those particles to flocculate (stick together) to form aggregates or peds. [14] Where these [[Aggregate formation|aggregates]] can be identified, a soil can be said to be developed, and can be described further in terms of color, porosity, consistency, reaction (acidity), etc. [[File:USDA_Soil_Texture.png|280px|thumb|right|USDA Soil Texture Triangle [21]]]

==Formation==
Soil formation, or [[pedogenesis]], is a combination of the effects of chemical, biological, physical, and anthropogenic processes on soil parent material. Soil is formed when [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] has accumulated and colloids are washed downward, leaving deposits of clay, [[humus]], iron oxide, carbonate, and gypsum, producing a distinct layer called the B horizon. These constituents are moved from one level to another by water and animal activity. Resulting in the forming of layers. Movement of materials in the soil causes the forming of [[soil horizons]]. [15]

==Forming Factors==
There are 5 factors that influence how soil is formed. Those being climate, organisms, relief (topography), parent material and time. These factors make up the soil formation equation or the [[Jenny Equation]] S=f (cl, o, r, p, t). [[File:Jenny.png|The Jenny Equation [23]|thumb]]
===Parent Material===

Parent material is the mineral material that forms soil. Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks are the source of mineral material within soils. The parent material is transformed into a soil through being transported, deposited, physically weathered and precipitated. [16]
==Soil Physical Properties==
The physical [[properties]] of soil include [[Soil Textures|texture]], [[Soil Structures|structure]], bulk density, consistency, temperature, porosity, color, and resistivity. [17] [[Soil Textures|Soil texture]] is determined by the mixture proportions of 3 soil mineral particles: [[sand]], [[silt]], and [[clay]]. At the next larger scale, [[soil structures]] called peds or more commonly soil [[Aggregate Formation|aggregates]] are created from the soil separates when iron oxides, carbonates, clay, silica and humus, coat particles and cause them to adhere into larger, relatively stable secondary structures. Bulk density is an estimate of soil compaction. Consistency is the ability for soil materials to stick to one another. Porosity is the empty space part of the soil volume which is occupied by water or gases. Temperature and color explain themselves. Resistivity has to do with the soils’ resistance to conduction of electric currents. Throughout the [[soil horizons]] these [[properties]] can vary. Soil aeration and water filtration ability can be determined from most of these [[properties]]. [18]
[[
Influence of Soil Texture on Properties of Soils [19]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Property/behavior
!Sand
!Silt
!Clay
|-
|Water-holding capacity
|Low
|Medium to high
|High
|-
|Aeration
|Good
|Medium
|Poor
|-
|Drainage rate
|High
|Slow to medium
|Very slow
|-
|Soil organic matter level
|Low
|Medium to high
|High to medium
|-
|Decomposition of organic matter
|Rapid
|Medium
|Slow
|-
|Warm-up in spring
|Rapid
|Moderate
|Slow
|-
|Compactability
|Low
|Medium
|High
|-
|Susceptibility to wind erosion
|Moderate (High if fine sand)
|High
|Low
|-
|Susceptibility to water erosion
|Low (unless fine sand)
|High
|Low if aggregated, otherwise high
|-
|Shrink/Swell Potential
|Very Low
|Low
|Moderate to very high
|-
|Sealing of ponds, dams, and landfills
|Poor
|Poor
|Good
|-
|Suitability for tillage after rain
|Good
|Medium
|Poor
|-
|Pollutant leaching potential
|High
|Medium
|Low (unless cracked)
|-
|Ability to store plant nutrients
|Poor
|Medium to High
|High
|-
|Resistance to pH change
|Low
|Medium
|High
|}
==References==

1. Voroney, R. Paul & Heck, Richard J. (2007). "The soil habitat". In Paul, Eldor A. Soil microbiology, ecology and biochemistry (PDF) (3rd ed.). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. pp. 25–49.

2. Danoff-Burg, James A. "The terrestrial influence: geology and soils". Earth Institute Center for Environmental Sustainability. New York, New York: Columbia University Press.

3. Taylor, Sterling A. & Ashcroft, Gaylen L. (1972). Physical edaphology: the physics of irrigated and nonirrigated soils. San Francisco, California: W.H. Freeman.

4. McCarthy, David F. (2006). Essentials of soil mechanics and foundations: basic geotechnics (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

5. Gilluly, James; Waters, Aaron Clement & Woodford, Alfred Oswald (1975). Principles of geology (4th ed.). San Francisco, California: W.H. Freeman.

6. "Glossary of Terms in Soil Science". Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

7. Amundson, Ronald. "Soil preservation and the future of pedology" (PDF). Faculty of Natural Resources. Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand. Retrieved 17 December 2017.

8. Simonson, Roy W. (1957). "What soils are". The yearbook of agriculture 1957 (PDF) (1st ed.). Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office.

9. Davidson, Eric A. & Janssens, Ivan A. (2006). "Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change" (PDF). Nature. 440 (9 March 2006): 165‒73.

10. Torsvik, Vigdis & Øvreås, Lise (2002). "Microbial diversity and function in soil: from genes to ecosystems" (PDF). Current Opinion in Microbiology. 5 (3): 240‒45. doi:10.1016/S1369-5274(02)00324-7.
11. McClellan, Tai. "Soil composition". University of Hawai‘i – College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. Retrieved 29 April 2018.

12. Vannier, Guy (1987). "The porosphere as an ecological medium emphasized in Professor Ghilarov's work on soil animal adaptations". Biology and Fertility of Soils. 3 (1): 39–44. doi:10.1007/BF00260577.

13. Vannier, Guy (1987). "The porosphere as an ecological medium emphasized in Professor Ghilarov's work on soil animal adaptations". Biology and Fertility of Soils. 3 (1): 39–44. doi:10.1007/BF00260577.

14. Buol, Stanley W.; Southard, Randal J.; Graham, Robert C. & McDaniel, Paul A. (2011). Soil genesis and classification (6th ed.). Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell.

15. Bronick, Carol J. & Lal, Ratan (January 2005). "Soil structure and management: a review" (PDF). Geoderma. 124 (1/2): 3–22. Bibcode:2005Geode.124....3B. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2004.03.005.

16. Bishop, Janice L.; Murchie, Scott L.; Pieters, Carlé L. & Zent, Aaron P. (2002). "A model for formation of dust, soil, and rock coatings on Mars: physical and chemical processes on the Martian surface" (PDF). Journal
of Geophysical Research. 107 (E11): 1–17. Bibcode:2002JGRE..107.5097B. doi:10.1029/2001JE001581

17. Donahue, Miller & Shickluna 1977, pp. 20–21.

18. Gardner, Catriona M.K.; Laryea, Kofi Buna & Unger, Paul W. (1999). Soil physical constraints to plant growth and crop production (PDF) (1st ed.). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

19. Tamboli, Prabhakar Mahadeo (1961). The influence of bulk density and aggregate size on soil moisture retention (PDF). Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University.

20. Brady, Nyle C. (1984). The nature and properties of soils (9th ed.). New York, NY: Collier Macmillan.

21. A soil texture diagram redrawn from the USDA webpage. Retrieved 22 October 2011, from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SoilTexture_USDA.png

22. http://soils.usda.gov/education/resources/lessons/profile/profile.jpg

23. See [[Jenny Equation]]

24. “SOIL FORMATION.” Science Zone Jamaica, 23 Feb. 2014, https://sciencezoneja.wordpress.com/2014/02/23/soil-formation/.

Small creaters

2025-05-02T19:18:22Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

== '''Small Soil animals''' ==
In order to learn what is in the [[soil]], one has to be able to physically see and be able to identify. This gets done most effectively by scientists testing areas of the soil that they've found interest in. Certain [[Soil Sampling Methods]] are used to collect each organism, some working better than others depending on what it is that one's trying to catch.

Sometimes it's best to take the visual approach when trying to learn about what's in the soil. Looking at a sample and feeling the soil in your hands can give great ideas as to the characteristics of the soil, [[Soil textures]], and the [[Soil organisms]]. Although this might be the case, it's not the same for microfauna. There are so many customized niches in the soil that may cause one creature to be in one area and never be found anywhere else, due to soil heterogeneity that also challenges those preforming [[Root sampling methods]].

== Nematodes ==
[[Nematodes]] are a diverse part of the animal realm, inhabiting a ride range of habitats/environments. They have been found in almost every type of ecosystem out their, ranging from salt and fresh water, to soils from the polar regions straight down to the equator.
Around an estimated 90 percent of nematodes species identified reside in the top 15 cm of the soil fauna. Unlike worms, they do not decompose [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], instead they are free living [[organisms]]. Nematodes that cause plant diseases to farmed crops have received a lot more attention then any of the others.How ever, most nematodes in the soil do not cause harm, in-fact most cause a beneficial help to the over all health of the soil and even to humans and our goals.

'''Impacts:'''The majority are of no harm or even have a beneficial use to us humans and our lives. Yet those that live in the soil and are plant eaters, find them selves in direct competition with us humans. With devastating consequences for them and us. They eat the plants, thereby hindering/harming the plants ability to perform basic functions like water or mineral uptake. When they begin to harm a farmers profit margins, which results in the use of chemical warfare being declared upon them. Killing them, along with more unknown species, along with poisoning our drinking water supply.

'''Bacterial-feeders''': consume bacteria.

'''Fungal-feeders''': feed by puncturing the cell wall of fungi and sucking out the internal contents.

'''Predatory nematodes''': eat all types of nematodes and [[protozoa]]. They eat smaller organisms whole, or attach themselves to the cuticle of larger nematodes, scraping away until the prey’s internal body parts can be extracted.

'''Omnivores''': eat a variety of organisms or may have a different diet at each life stage. Root-feeders are plant parasites, and thus are not free-living in the soil.

'''FUN FACT's''' Nematode were part of an ongoing research project conducted on the space shuttle Columbia, they were able to survive re-entry breakup back into and through the earths atmosphere.

They are one of natures ways of controlling the bacteria population of getting to out of hand.

== Earthworms (oligochaeta) ==

'''"It may be doubted whether there are many other [[animals]] which have played so important a part in the history of the world, as have these lowly organised creatures."

''([[Charles Darwin]])''
'''

Earthworms are know as ecosystem engineers, as their impact to the habitats they inhabit is huge. Without them a huge portion of dead litter would not be decomposed in a timely fashion or not at all. Along side bacteria and fungi, they are responsible for recycling nutrients and carbon back into the soil so plants and other organisms may use it again the next growing season or right away.

This occurs because the wonderful earth worms eat leaves, dung, dead animals and by doing so unlock nutrients like carbon, nitrogen and many more. These nutrients are then pooped out by the worms back into the soil, becoming an important building block and structure of the soil world.

Earth Worms can impact [[agriculture]] by increasing the productivity by 20-30%. This is further proven by the fact that in New Zealand once land was approved for agriculture, their native species disappeared leaving their soil [[earthworm]] free. Once non-native species were introduced productivity increased by 25-30%.

== '''Soil Fauna: Classification''' ==

Five major groupings are widely accepted: classification based on body size; time spent in the soil; location or habitat in the soil profile; feeding strategies; and method of locomotion in the soil

'''body size:''':For those organisms that would be considered "small", we are interested in anything over the size of 2mm. How ever this method can be confusing, as different species of worms, for example, could be smaller then 2mm, while others are larger. Thus causing confusion sto which group that species should be put in.
The size a animal can reach is not just dependent upon what species it is, but also in what kind of soil it lives in. Two members of the same species can differ in size just simply by being located in different part of a valley system, or being located in different temperate zones.
This information can be used to also establish what kind of nutrients are in the soil, or are not in the soil. Can be used to compare two sites of soil to each other.

'''feeding habits:'''
[[File:FeedingClassification.jpg]]

'''locomotion within the soil:'''
Earth Worms can get around by using their bristles. Bristles are paired in groups on a segment of its body, they grab onto the burrow and push/slide it along. Using the bristles as a way to grab onto the side and lunge them selves forward.

Nematodes get around by contractions of their longitudinal muscles, this causes their body to flex and then move around by basically throbbing back and forth.

'''Reproductive Strategies''': We can distinguish between organisms based on how they do the nasty.
Examples of reproduction styles: Sexual/parthenogenesis/asexual.
Or based on if they have a specific time from mating to just opportunists.

== References ==

Nationwide, SARE. “Small and Medium-Size Soil Animals.” SARE: Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education, www.sare.org/Learning-Center/Books/Building-Soils-for-Better-Crops-3rd-Edition/Text-Version/The-Living-Soil/Small-and-Medium-Size-Soil-Animals.

Hendricks, David M. “5. Animals and Soil in Arizona.” Animals and Soil In, www.library.arizona.edu/exhibits/swetc/azso/body.1_div.5.html.

“Earthworms' Role in the Ecosystem.” Science Learning Hub, www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/9-earthworms-role-in-the-ecosystem.

Scutigera Coleoptrata

2025-05-02T19:18:18Z

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[[File: Scutigera Coleoptrata-1024x768.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Scutigera Coleoptrata]]

==General Description==

''Scutigera Coleoptrata'' or more commonly known as the House Centipede is native to the Mediterranean but has spread throughout most the world with the help of human transport. The House Centipede is equipped with 15 pairs of thin long legs, with 1 extra long pair at the back that can exceed it's body length. The centipedes long legs allow it to run at speeds of 42 miles/hr, faster than any human being.[2] There bodies are generally grayish-yellow, and are marked with 3 long stripes running down its back longitudinally. An adult individuals body will be around 1-1.5 in, but with legs and antenna extended could reach 3-4 inches. [1]
== Taxonomy ==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Subphylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Order
! scope="col" | Family
! scope="col" | Genus
! scope="col" | Species
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| [[Arthropoda]]
| [[Myriapoda]]
| [[Chilopoda]]
| Scutigeromorpha
| Scutigeridae
| Scutigera
| S. Coleoptrata
|}

==Habitat==
[[File:360_F_383867688_Z24bBZCSxXeLnsFSmJ7NfKHYf31UzDUO.jpg|300px|thumb|left| Wild Individual]]
As previously mentioned House centipedes are native to the Mediterranean region but were accidentally introduced to Pennsylvania in 1849.[1] In their native range they can be found outdoors in moist leaf litter and rotting wood.[3] They can also be found in dark, humid areas such as crevices under rocks and caves.[4] In the new region the house centipedes couldn't survive the cold winters of the Northeast which caused them to rely on the warmth of peoples homes. In their natural range, the Mediterranean, they didn't need to occupy peoples homes because the warmer winters there were suitable for them. House centipedes are capable of migrating and burrowing in response to changing environmental conditions such as extreme cold or drought.[4] In the present day they occupy peoples homes across several continents, which they never would've been able to do without human intervention. In the Summers in North America they can be found outdoors but still in areas near buildings.[1] House centipedes are synanthropes meaning they are a species that lives near, and benefits from an association with humans and the articial habitats they create and inhabit.[2] They inhabit spaces such as houses, farms, gardens and even garbage dumps.

==Diet==
House centipedes are generalist predators they feed on [[silverfish]], worms, snails, cockroaches, spiders, fly larvae and many other small [[arthropods]].[4] A high occurence of house centipedes can indicate that some prey [[arthropod]] is also in abundance. The centipedes make use of their fast speed and actively chase down their prey. [3] Like many other centipedes they have a pair of modified legs underneath their mouthparts which can administer a venomous sting to prey or be used in self defense.[3]

==Development and Reproduction==
[[File: Picture 3-560x420.jpg|thumb|right|200px| Juvenile Scutigera Coleoptrata]]
Immature centipedes hatch from eggs appearing very similar to adults, except with only 4 pairs of legs.[4] As they develop they will go through 5 developmental moults, each time gaining more and more leg pairs.[3] After all 5 molts they have 14 pairs of legs and are considered mature. House centipedes development is much slower than that of many other [[insects]], taking upwards of 3 years to reach sexual maturity.[3] They are a dioecious species with internal fertilization, and are stimulated by pheromones and sound signals.[4] Courtship involves the male circling and tapping other centipedes looking for a receptive female.[4] Once the male finds a mate he spins a silk pouch in which he places his sperm, the female will then take the pouch and fertilize her eggs.[4] The female will lay their eggs in the [[soil]] and cover them up with a sticky substance.[4] The females are known to produce an average of 35-100 eggs.[5] For 2 weeks after hatching the mother stays with her babies and provide some degree of protection for the young.[4]

==Ecosystem Role==
House centipedes are nocturnal carnvivores that consume smaller [[invertebrates]], in particular insects and arthropods. If the centipedes were wiped out it would be disastrous for domestic ecosystems, they are top predators in their food web, and if eliminated would alter the whole system.[2] They provide a food source to larger predators such as birds,reptiles, and mammals.[5]
==References==
[1] Jacobs, S. 2013. House Centipedes.https://extension.psu.edu/house-centipedes

[2] Marlatt, C.L. 2016, June 9. Domestic [[Ecology]]: A Brief Biohistory of the House Centipede. https://thehistorybandits.com/2016/06/09/domestic-ecology-a-brief-biohistory-of-the-house-centipede/

[3] Dugas, K. House Centipede (Scutigera Coleoptrata). https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/CAES/DOCUMENTS/Publications/Fact_Sheets/Entomology/House_Centipede_Scutigera.pdf

[4] Ricks, W. 2001. Scutigera Coleoptrata. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Scutigera_coleoptrata/

[5] Missouri Department of Conservation. House Centipede Scutigera Coleoptrata. https://education.mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/house-centipede

[6] Hadley, D. 2018. House Centipedes, Scutigera Coleoptrata. https://www.thoughtco.com/house-centipede-scutigera-coleoptrata-1968230

Scorpions

2025-05-02T19:18:18Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Scorpion Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| [[Arthropoda]]
| Chelicerata
| Arachnida
| Scorpiones
|}

[[File:Scorpion1.jpeg|300px|right]]

== Anatomy ==

Scorpions are [[invertebrates]], which means that they do not have a backbone. All [[arthropods]], including scorpions, spiders, [[insects]], and crustaceans, are defined by their exoskeletons, jointed appendages, and segmented bodies. One of the most characteristic traits of scorpions are their long tails that curl over their backs and end with a venomous stinger. A scorpion's body is divided into two main parts which are the cephalothorax and the abdomen. The cephalothorax is located at the front of the body and are where a scorpion's four pairs of legs with setae are attached to the body. The cephalothorax includes their mouth parts and two large pincers known as pedipalps. Scorpions use their pinchers to help feel out their environment, defend themselves from predators, and to aid in trapping prey. Scorpions have two eyes on top of the cephalothorax but additionally have two to five pairs of eyes on the front corners and sides of their cephalothorax. Despite having multiple pairs of eyes, scorpions do not have good vision. However, their eyes are extremely light sensitive and allow them to see well in the dark or low lighting. The posterior portion of the body is the abdomen and includes the majority of their body length and their long tail, known as the metasoma. The metasoma has 5 segments and ends with the telson, which is the venom bulb. Inside of the telson are two venom glands that send the venom to the aculeus, commonly referred to as their stinger. Some scorpions have multiple toxins in their venom, with some species having over 40 toxins. Only around 30 species of scorpions have venom that is fatal to humans, but scorpion stings are known to cause pain, numbness, tingling, swelling, and warmth in the affected area.

== Habitat and Range ==

1,500 scorpion species have been classified and it is likely that there are hundreds of species yet to be discovered. Of these 1,500 different species, around 40 species live in the United States. Scorpions can be found on every continent except for Antarctica and live in a variety of [[biomes]] including deserts, savannas, and rainforests. However, scorpions tend to prefer arid climates and deserts. Their range typically extends from Canada down to South America, and are found in central Europe, Africa, and Australia. They were accidentally spread to New Zealand and England by humans. Scorpions are solitary [[organisms]] and typically stay in the same territory for their entire lives. Scorpions live in small burrows underground that serve as protection from the weather and from predators. Because scorpions are nocturnal, they typically spend their days underground and emerge at night to hunt. Some scorpions climb trees or bury themselves under leaf litter and rocks instead of burrowing in the ground.

== Diet and Behaviors ==

Scorpions mostly feed on insects, spiders, and small vertebrates like rodents and lizards. Although they prefer insects, they are opportunistic and will feed on a [[diversity]] of organisms when they required. Scorpions typically catch their prey by motionlessly waiting at the entrance to their underground burrows and striking with their stinger or grabbing with their pedipalps when prey wanders by. They use the hairs on their pedipalps to detect prey and can sense small ground vibrations to know when other organisms are around. Some scorpions prefer to seek out their prey or create pitfall traps in [[sand]] or [[soil]] that their prey fall into. They use their claws to snatch and crush smaller prey and use their stingers to take down larger or more difficult prey.
Scorpions don't have a typical jaw and can only ingest liquid forms. They eat their prey by crushing it and covering it in digestive enzymes that dissolves the animal's organs. Once their meal has dissolved, which can take up to an hour, they suck up their liquid prey. Scorpions don't need to feed everyday and typically hunt for a meal once every two or three weeks. They can survive for long periods of time, even as long as 12 months, without food as long as they have water.

== Reproduction ==

Scorpion mating and reproduction can vary from species to species but generally follow similar patterns and rituals. Scorpions that live in temperate regions begin by finding their mates in late spring and early summer and scorpions that inhabit the tropics seek their mates during the rainy season. Once the male scorpion finds his female companion, he holds the female by her pedipalps and leads her in a courtship dance. The pair walks in different directions in synchronization. During the dance, the male looks for an ideal spot on the ground to place his spermatophore. Once he deposits it, he leads the female on top of the spermatophore so she can absorb it and fertilize her eggs. With some species of scorpions, the female may kill the male after the courtship ritual has taken place. Male scorpions have also been observed attaching their aculeus into a soft part of the female's body but biologists are unclear if the males are injecting their venom into the female. Additionally, some scorpion species are capable of reproducing asexually in a process known as parthenogenesis. By reproducing asexually, females do not need a male to fertilize her eggs.

The gestation period of scorpions can last anywhere from a few months to a year depending on the species. Scorpions give birth to live young. When the offspring are born, they climb on their mother's back for protection and remain there until they molt for the first time. They typically molt two weeks after birth. After their first molt, the babies can go out on their own. They will molt five or six more times until they are fully grown.

== References ==

1. Kazilek. “Scorpion Anatomy.” Kazilek, 27 June 2016, https://askabiologist.asu.edu/scorpion-anatomy.

2. Orkin. “Scorpion Habitat - Where Do Scorpions Live?” Orkin, Orkin, 3 Aug. 2021, https://www.orkin.com/pests/stinging-pests/scorpions/scorpion-habitat.

3. “Scorpion - Description, Habitat, Image, Diet, and Interesting Facts.” Animals Network, 22 June 2018, animals.net/scorpion/.

4. “Scorpion.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/animal/scorpion.

5. “Scorpion Life Cycle - Life Cycle of a Scorpion.” Orkin, 3 Aug. 2021, www.orkin.com/pests/stinging-pests/scorpions/scorpion-life-cycle.

6. “Scorpions: National Geographic.” Animals, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/scorpions.

7. “Scorpion.” San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance [[Animals]] and Plants, https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/scorpion.

8. “Scorpion.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 19 Mar. 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpion.

9. “Scorpion Reproduction and Life Cycle: Do Scorpions Lay Eggs?” Study.Com, study.com/learn/lesson/baby-scorpions-life-cycle-reproduction.html.

10. “Scorpion Reproduction.” Scorpion Facts and Information, 2017, www.scorpionworlds.com/scorpion-reproduction/.

11. “Scorpion Sting.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 7 June 2022, https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/scorpion-stings/symptoms-causes/syc-20353859.

Pseudoscorpions

2025-05-02T19:18:08Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(200,150,90)|'''Scientific Classification'''<ref name="ITIS">ITIS USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature, USGS, n.d. Retrieved from https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=690741#null</ref>
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:fakeboys.jpg|400px|right|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Chelicerata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Arachnida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Pseudoscorpiones
|}

Pseudoscorpions, also referred to as false scorpions or book scorpions, are small arachnids with pincer-like appendages that resemble those of [[scorpions]]. These appendages, called pedipalps, function similarly to claws and are relatively large in comparison to their overall size. Generally reaching lengths of about 2–8 millimeters at maturity, pseudoscorpions often go undetected or are mistaken for ticks. However, unlike ticks, pseudoscorpions are not regarded as harmful to humans. In fact, they prey upon many small [[arthropods]], aiding with pest control<ref name="Lewis"> Lewis, D. (n.d.). The Benefits of Pseudoscorpions. Retrieved from https://www.extension.iastate.edu/news/2008/mar/071001.htm</ref>.

== Characteristics and Morphology ==

[[File:scorp.jpg|350px|left|thumb|Drawings of a pseudoscorpion and a scorpion from JH Comstock’s book. Note that the scale is different for each drawing.<ref name="Comstock">Comstock, J. H., & Gertsch, W. J. (1980). The spider book: A manual for the study of the spiders and their near relatives, the scorpions, pseudoscorpions, whip-scorpions, harvestmen, and other members of the class arachnida, found in America North of Mexico, with analytical keys for their classification and popular accounts of their habits. Ithaca: Comstock.</ref>]] Pseudoscorpions superficially resemble true scorpions; however, they lack an elongated metasoma (tail) and stinger at the end of their abdomens<ref name="Australia">Government of Western Australia. (n.d.). What are pseudoscorpions? Retrieved from http://www.museum.wa.gov.au/catalogues/pseudoscorpions/what-are-pseudoscorpions</ref>. Another crucial difference between the two types of arachnids is size. The common house pseudoscorpion, ''Chelifer cancroides'', will usually only grow between 2.5–4.5 millimeters (0.10–0.18 in). Generally, pseudoscorpions have an average size of 3 mm (0.1 in), much smaller than the average scorpion<ref name="All">All About Pseudoscorpions - The Predatory False Scorpion. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.chaosofdelight.org/pseudoscorpions</ref>.

Pseudoscorpions have flat, teardrop shaped bodies with rounded ends. The lower abdomen of a pseudoscorpion, also called the opisthosoma, is composed of 12 segmented sections. These segments are protected by plates made of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitin chitin]. Located on the sides of its cephalothorax (head and thorax), a pseudoscorpion may have 1–2 pairs of eyes, or no eyes at all<ref name="Jacobs">Jacobs Sr., S, (2013). Pseudoscorpions (Department of Entomology). Retrieved from http://ento.psu.edu/extension/factsheets/pseudoscorpions</ref>.

As members of the class Arachnida, these small [[invertebrates]] have 8 legs. Pseudoscorpions move by shuffling their legs similar to crabs, allowing them to move as quickly backwards as they do forwards<ref name="Hahn">Hahn, J., & Kells, S. (2018). Pseudoscorpions. Retrieved from https://extension.umn.edu/insect-relatives/pseudoscorpions</ref>.

Most pseudoscorpions have yellowish to brown mahogany abdomens, though the pedipalps often contrast in color. These pedipalps grow over twice the length of their legs, measuring 7–9 mm across when fully extended<ref name="Jacobs"></ref>. Pedipalps consist of an immobile hand and a finger. The finger is mobile and controlled by adductor muscles. A venom gland and venom duct are usually located in the finger. Additionally, pseudoscorpions possess a gland located within their chelicerae (jaws) for the purpose of producing silk. Pseudoscorpions use this silk to make cocoons for mating, molting, or enduring cold weather<ref name="All"></ref>.

[[File:ya.png|400px|thumb| Female ''Gymnobisium sp.'' — size reference.<ref name="Neethling">Neethling, J.A. (n.d.), Pseudoscorpions: Cryptic Predators of the Soil. Retrieved from http://sergsa.org/pseudoscorpions-cryptic-predators-soil/</ref>|right]]

== Reproduction and Life Cycle ==
Male pseudoscorpions produce packets of sperm called spermatophores, which they deposit on surfaces for females to take into their bodies. Males often deposit spermatophores even in the absence of a female. Males of certain pseudoscorpion species also perform mating dances to attract females after depositing a spermatophore, during which they grasp the female with their pedipalps and guide her to the spermatophore to fertilize her eggs<ref name="Australia"></ref>. Males of other pseudoscorpion species may directly transfer spermatophores into the female with their pedipalps.

The eggs mature within a female's brood pouch, which is connected to the abdomen. In a single brood, 20–50 young can hatch. Young remain with the mother for a brief period after hatching, eventually dispersing<ref name="Jacobs"></ref>. Most pseudoscorpion species have a lifespan of several years, during which they go through three molting stages before reaching maturity. Pseudoscorpions spend an average of 2 to 3 years as mature adults<ref name="Missouri">Missouri Department of Conservation: Pseudoscorpions. (n.d) Retrieved from https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/pseudoscorpions</ref>.

== Diet and Feeding Behaviors ==

Pseudoscorpions are carnivorous, preying on a variety of small [[insects]], [[mites]], and larvae. Often targeting common house pests such as booklice, clothes moths, dust mites, and ants, pseudoscorpions are able to survive indoors for extended periods<ref name="Missouri"></ref>. Pseudoscorpions use the venom glands in their pedipalps to immobilize prey. They deposit semi-corrosive saliva on their prey to facilitate smooth external digestion before ingesting the liquid remains. This venom is a key mechanism in the feeding process of pseudoscorpions, yet it is harmless to humans and pets<ref name="Lewis"></ref>.

== Distribution ==

There are over 3,300 identified species of pseudoscorpions. They are found worldwide, ranging from tropical regions, where the densest and most diverse populations are found, to temperate cold regions. Pseudoscorpions have also spread to island territories, with endemic species being recorded in the Canary Islands and the Maltese Islands.
Across these regions, these [[organisms]] can be found in many different types of habitats and environments<ref name="Comstock"></ref>. They are typically located under tree bark, within tree hollows, beneath the [[soil]] surface, under leaf litter, under stones, in rock fractures, inside caves, on ocean shores, and within buildings and homes. Pseudoscorpions are commonly found indoors in rooms with many books, feeding on booklice and dust mites that often inhabit bookshelves, which led to the coining of the name 'book scorpions'<ref name="Missouri"></ref>.

== References ==
<references />

Protura

2025-05-02T19:18:08Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

[[File:Protura_Ecology.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Proturan in soil<ref name="Festival">[https://www.flickr.com/photos/andybadger/8643077843 "Festival of Proturans Part II poss. Acerentomon sp."] by [https://www.flickr.com/photos/andybadger/ Andy Murray] is licensed under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/ CC BY-SA 2.0]</ref>.]]

==Description==
Protura is derived from the Greek word "proto", meaning first, and "ura", meaning tail. "Protura" refers to the lack of advanced or specialized structures at the back of the abdomen. Proturans, commonly nicknamed "coneheads", are a type of [[hexapod]] that reside in [[soil]] environments. These [[organisms]] are very small, either microscopic or barely visible to the naked eye. Proturans, despite having six legs, are not considered to be true [[insects]], though this is controversial. Instead, they are a unique order within the [[Animals|animal]] kingdom believed to be a sister group to [[collembola]], but they may be considered their own separate class. They are collectively comprised of more than 800 species across most continents<ref name="Tipping">Tipping, C. (2004). "Proturans (Protura)". Encyclopedia of Entomology. Springer, Dordrecht:1842–1843. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-48380-7_3467</ref>.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 12px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Taxonomic Ranks'''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Domain:
|style="min-width:6em; |Eukaryota
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropod]]a
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Clade:
|style="min-width:6em; |Pancrustacea
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Hexapod]]a
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Protura]]
|-
|colspan="2" |<ref name="ITIS"> Retrieved May 6, 2023, from the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) on-line database, www.itis.gov, CC0. https://doi.org/10.5066/F7KH0KBK</ref>
|}

The determination of a proturan's morphological taxonomy is highly difficult, and only a small number of taxonomists possess the expertise to achieve this. The location and length ratio, particularly of foretarsal bristles, play a key role in species identification when observing characteristics such as bristle arrangement or pattern. Alternatively, small splices of their DNA can be studied and compared for species identification. While their complete taxonomic rank is still being figured out, we do know that all proturans reside within a suborder of either Eosentomoidea or Acerentomoidea<ref name="Resch">Resch, M. C., J. Shrubovych, D. Bartel, N. U. Szucsich, G. Timelthaler, Y. Bu, M. Walzl, & G. Pass. (March 2014). "Where taxonomy based on subtle morphological differences is perfectly mirrored by huge genetic distances: DNA barcoding in Protura (hexapoda)". PLoS ONE 9. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090653</ref>.

==Ecology==

Proturans have a poor capacity to disperse, which is mostly due to water and human-mediated transmission. They are also [[soil]]-obligate, meaning they are restricted to [[soil]] habitats and have "mutual" interactions with those environments. However, for up to five days, they can live and move when immersed in freshwater. This fact has helped us discover how proturans have used debris rafts for long-distance traveling, similar to that of other microscopic [[soil]]-dwelling [[arthropods]] such as [[mites]]<ref name="Rellini">Galli, L. & I. Rellini. (July 2020). "The geographic distribution of Protura ([[Arthropoda]]: Hexapoda): A Review". Biogeographia – The Journal of Integrative Biogeography 35. https://doi.org/10.21426/B635048595</ref>. Their distribution in aggregates is most likely influenced by their diet, the quality and availability of fungal hyphae, and the creation of aggregation pheromones. Proturans often group together to create species assemblages that represent certain environments. Additionally, they frequently have populations with a high ratio of females to males <ref name="Capurro">Galli, L., M. Capurro, E. Colasanto, T. Molyneux, A. Murray, C. Torti, and M. Zinni (January 2020). "A synopsis of the [[ecology]] of Protura (Arthropoda: Hexapoda)". Revue suisse de Zoologie 126(2), 155-164. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3463443</ref>.

==Anatomy==

There are several main characteristics that may be shared throughout the various species of proturans. These include the presence or absence of a tracheal system, the size and shape of the rostrum (mouthparts), the number of segments of the abdominal appendages, and the presence or absence of teeth on the lid covering the large glands on the sides of their exoskeleton<ref name="Shrubovych">Galli, L., J. Shrubovych, Y. Bu, & M. Zinni. (July 2018). "Genera of the Protura of the world: Diagnosis, distribution, and key". ZooKeys 772:1–45. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.772.24410</ref>. Essentially all proturans do not have any antennae or compound eyes. To make up for the loss of antennae, the growth and usage of abundant and diverse appendages, namely sensilla on their prolegs (fleshy stubs), may be used as sensory parts instead<ref name="Allen">Allen, R. T., A. Lawrence, & R. L. Brown. (August 2014). "A comparative study of the sensory structures among three basal hexapodclades (Arthropoda: [[Collembola]], Protura, [[Diplura]]) using scanning electronmicrographs". Microscopy and Microanalysis 20:1280–1281. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1431927614008137</ref>.

==Reproduction==

Proturans have been shown to not exhibit courtship activities. Males deposit sperm packets on the ground for females to pick up. Eggs are laid in early spring.

[[file:protura.jpg]]

[[File:Protura_Anatomy.jpg|300px|thumb|center|Parts of a proturan<ref name="flickr">[https://www.flickr.com/photos/93467196@N02/21404515062 "protura_flickr"] by [https://www.flickr.com/photos/93467196@N02/ Frost Museum] is licensed under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/ CC BY-SA 2.0]</ref>.]]

==References==

<references />

: 10. “Proturans: Protura - Behavior and Reproduction.” Behavior And Reproduction - Species, Soil, Leaf, and Segments - JRank Articles, https://animals.jrank.org/pages/2279/Proturans-Protura-BEHAVIOR-REPRODUCTION.html . Accessed 7 Mar. 2025.

: 11. http://tiny.cc/s7ic001 A photo of a proturan found in a sample of podacarpus standleyei by Ethan Bannister . 29 Jan. 2025. University at Buffalo .

: 12. “Protura.” Ncsu.edu, https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-identification/class-protura/. Accessed 7 Mar. 2025.

Mole cricket

2025-05-02T19:17:41Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| [[Arthropoda]]
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose [[soil.]] <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and [[insects]] are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive [[soil]] burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater [[soil]] moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil, [[soil processes]], [[soil organisms]], and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disturb soil ecosystems, and consume crops, disrupting [[agriculture.]] Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Methods for Sampling Macroarthropods

2025-05-02T19:17:38Z

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Macroarthropods are a wildly diverse group, with several of their species scattered throughout the orders of [[Arthropoda]]. Most are large enough in size that they can be sampled as individuals and counted with the naked eye, allowing for hand collection and sorting to be a viable means of population sampling.[1]
[[File:Millipedelitter.png|thumb|right|Diplopoda]]
Many techniques rely on the natural characteristics of the specimen to aid in the sampling of individuals. Cryptozoa, for instance, are crepuscular (active during twilight) or nocturnal, and sampling techniques for these groupings rely on the use of light to drive individuals through the substrate toward a sampling mechanism.[2] Dependence on humidity levels or other defense mechanisms also drives many of the sampling techniques for this grouping of [[soil]] [[organisms]].

==Berlese or Tullgren Extraction==
[[File:Tullgren.jpg|thumb|right|Berlese-Tullgren extraction funnel diagram]]
A Berlese-Tullgren funnel, also known as a Berlese trap, utilizes a desiccation gradient to move specimens through the substrate toward a collection vessel. Heat applied to the upper layers of a collected mass of substrate slowly dries it out from the top down, forcing the [[invertebrates]] to migrate down through the soil as they chase their desired levels of humidity. At the very bottom lies a collection vessel containing either a 70% alcohol solution or ethylene glycol which acts as a preservative.[2]

===Sample Size===
Sample sizes for this technique can vary but are limited to a 0.1-2.5 m2 collection.[1] Larger samples may be necessary for taxa that happen to have smaller population densities. This occurs if the population density is smaller than 1-2 individuals per mm2. In cases such as these, it may be necessary to conduct a thorough examination of the soil sample and hand-sort collected specimens.

===DIY===
[[File:Tullgran funnels.jpg|thumb|left|Berlese-Tullgren funnel lab setup]]
Formerly, manufactured funnels are available for purchase however, these can be expensive with some units costing between $100 to $600 for a more complicated unit[2]. Many choose to construct their own versions using cheaper materials. Regardless of design, all have the same foundational structure. A heat lamp is placed over a funnel containing some sort of large-diameter sieve to prevent debris from falling down the funnel opening. Below the opening of the funnel, a container filled with a preservative sits to collect specimens that travel down through the substrate.[3]

====''Materials Required'' [3]====
* 1-Gallon plastic jug (e.g., milk jug)
* Jar or container (e.g., 1-qt canning jar)
* Mesh screen (1/4" hardware cloth)
* Ethanol (70-95%) or Isopropanol (70%)
* Lamp with a moveable neck (and incandescent bulb, for heat)

====''Assembly'' [3]====
# Cut the bottom off the 1-gallon jug. Only the top will be needed.
# Into the jar or container, pour a few centimeters of the ethanol or isopropanol.
# Take the mesh screen and bend it so that it fits securely within inverted top of the 1-gallon jug. This will act as a stable platform for the sample.
# Place soil sample or leaf litter into funnel, resting it gently on top of mesh screen.
# Place lamp directly over soil sample. The bulb should be approximately 20 cm away from the surface of the soil sample. Do not let the bulb touch the top of the soil itself.

==Flotation==
[[File:Extraction_flotation.png|thumb|right|Extraction of Collembola using flotation method]]
Flotation methods are based on the principle that organic materials will have a density that is less than water allowing macroarthropod specimens to float to the top while minerals and soils will have a greater density, causing it to sink. Soil cores of 5-25mm in diameter and approximately 10-25 mm deep are taken as an indicator for macroarthropod population density.[1] Soil and solution are shaken together and allowed to settle. Organisms which float to the top of the water are then able to be collected and studied for population surveys.[4]

Some studies have shown the benefits of utilizing various hydrocarbon solvents such as gasoline as another layer of separation. Organisms were found to be caught in the gasoline layer, which floats on top of the water, while the soil, leaves and other bits of [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] from the sample were stuck in the water layer.[5]

==Pitfall Trapping==
[[File:Pitfall.png|thumb|left|Diagram of a pitfall trap to collect ground dwelling insect]]
While an inexpensive and rapid method for assessing community populations of macroarthropods, pitfall traps have limited capabilities when it comes to determining population size. Catches reflect both the density and mobility of [[arthropods]]. Ideal for species that spend most of their time on the ground, at its most basic form the pitfall trap consists of a container buried within the soil deep enough so that the top is flush with the ground’s surface. To prevent the organisms from escaping or eating other creatures that fall into the trap, a killing or preserving agent is placed at the bottom. This is usually solutions such as soapy water or ethyl alcohol.[6]

==References==
[1] Coleman, D. C. 2004. Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]. Elsevier Amstherdan.

[2] McWilliam, S. J. (n.d.). INVERTEBRATE CAPTURE TECHNIQUES. http://www.stevemcwilliam.co.uk/entomol/invcapt6.htm#:~:text=Tullgren%20funnels%20work%20extremely%20well,downwards%20to%20higher%20humidity%20levels.

[3] Constructing Berlese funnels to study invertebrate density and biodiversity. (n.d.). . https://www.carolina.com/teacher-resources/Interactive/constructing-berlese-funnels-study-invertebrate-density-biodiversity/tr19101.tr.

[4] Fowler, F., T. Wilcox, S. Orr, and W. Watson. 2020, November 1. Sampling efficacy and survival rates of labarrus pseudolividus ([[Coleoptera]]: [[Scarabaeidae]]) and onthophagus taurus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) using flotation and Sieve-Separation Methodology. U.S. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7751142/.

[5] Hale, W. G. 1964. A flotation method for extracting [[collembola]] from organic soils. The Journal of Animal Ecology 33:363.

[6] Virginia Tech. (n.d.). Using Pitfall Traps to Monitor Insect Activity. https://www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/content/dam/pubs_ext_vt_edu/444/444-041/444-041(ENTO-295P).pdf.

Mesostigmata

2025-05-02T19:17:38Z

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Mesostigmata are a suborder of [[mites]] which are primarily characterized by their large stigmas, which preform numerous functions for the mites as both a function of the respiratory system and to capture and kill their prey. Mesostigmatic mites are the most prominent of all [[Acari]], comprising up to 25% of the total mite population. Due to the large size of thier stigma and other mouthparts, they can often be mistaken for their relative the tick.

[[File:Mesostigmatic mite.jpg|thumb|A fully grown male Mesostigmatic mite [1].]]

== Taxonomy ==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Mesostigmata Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Domain
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Eukaroyta
| Animalia
| [[Arthropoda]]
| Arachnida
| Mesostigmata
|}

== Characteristics ==
Mesostigmatic mites begin their life cycle as larvae that appear similar to prostigmatic or astigmatic mites, with a rounded body covered in small setae. Setae are small hairs that line the body of mesostigmata that serve numerous purposes. Setae are very sensitive, helping the mites detect changes in their surroundings, differentiating between water and land environments, and possibly chemosensory actions such as distinguishing food types.[3] The setae also play a role in mating, releasing pheromones that can lure female mites. [3] During their life cycle, the mites molt several times while growing in size, shedding their prior exoskeleton when it becomes too small.

[[File:Setae.jpg|thumb|Setae on the leg of a mesostigmatic mite [4].]]

== Impact on Soils ==
Mesostigmata are a very diverse subspecies, and have a great variety of feeding styles; including parasites, fungal feeders, and detritovores, which primarily feed on organic material. Over 11,632 species of mesostigmatic mites have been discovered, and it is estimated that at least 100,000 more species remain unclassified. [5] There are all types of these mites play a critical role in [[soil]] processes, but the soil dwelling mites tend to be parasitic. Mites that reside in soils are often smaller in size, and regular feed on [[nematodes]] and other [[mesofauna]]. Detritovoric mites impact soils by breaking down leaf litter, animal remains, and other [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] that lies on the surface of soil beds in forests. Thus, the presence of mesostigmatic mites in a soil sample can indicate to scientists that the sample is healthy and contains a thriving ecosystem.[5] Despite these benefits, mesostigmatic mites are not as frequently soil dwelling as oribatid mites and prostigmatic mites.

[[File:Life cycle of a mesostigmatic mite.png|thumb|Life cycle of a mesostigmatic mite [2].]]

== References ==
[1] “Mesostigmata (Monogynaspida) Introduction.” Mesostigmata (Monogynaspida) - Introduction, https://idtools.org/id/mites/invasive_mite/Invasive_Mite_Identification/key/Mesostigmata/Media/Html/100Introduction.htm.

[2] Life Cycle of D. Gallinae and Checkpoints for the Evaluation of Vaccine ... Research Gate, https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Life-cycle-of-D-gallinae-and-checkpoints-for-the-evaluation-of-vaccine-efficacy-The-SEM_fig1_335920316.

[3] and [4] “Seta.” Seta - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/seta.

[5]“Mesostigmata.” Mesostigmata - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/mesostigmata.

Invertebrates

2025-05-02T19:17:26Z

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== Definition ==
Invertebrates are any [[animal]] that does not have a spinal column. They comprise the vast majority (almost 97%) of all animal species and include a diverse range of organisms, such as [[insects]], [[crustaceans]], [[worms]], and coral.<ref>Center for Biological [[Diversity]]. Invertebrates. https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/invertebrates/</ref> On a phylogenetic tree, invertebrates include all [[animals]] that do not fall in the subphylum Vertebrata. Although the term "invertebrates" does not officially define a specific phylum or subphylum like Vertebrata (vertebrates) does, the term has persisted out of convenience.<ref>Louis Aggassiz. (2013). Essay on Classification. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-15135-9.</ref>[[File:AnimalTree-1.png|300px|thumb|right|Overarching phylogenetic tree of animals.]]

== Soil Invertebrates ==
The main groups of invertebrates within [[soil]] are [[flatworms]] ([[Platyhelminthes]]), [[snails]] and [[slugs]] (Mollusca), worms (Annelida), [[nematodes]] (Nematoda), and [[arthropods]] ([[Arthropoda]]).<ref>Georgia Tech. (2019). Animals: Invertebrates. https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/biodiversity/animals-invertebrates-2019/</ref>

Flatworms are most diverse in tropical regions and are usually found under rocks or in leaf litter where conditions are humid and moist. They do not have the ability to retain water on their own and will desiccate without an external water source.<ref>Álvarez‐Presas, M., Mateos, E., & Riutort, M. (2018). Hidden diversity in forest soils: Characterization and comparison of terrestrial flatworm’s communities in two national parks in Spain. Ecology and evolution, 8(15), 7386-7400. DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4178</ref> They are predators and typically eat other invertebrates, including arthropods, earthworms, snails, and slugs. Invasive flatworms can have a damaging effect on an ecosystem when they consume native species. This is especially concerning when native [[earthworm]] populations are affected, as earthworms are important soil fauna. <ref>Bertone, M., Crawley, S., & Waldvogel, M. (2020). Terrestrial Flatworms, Land Planarians & Hammerhead Worms. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/terrestrial-flatwormshammerhead-worms</ref>

[[File:snailvsslug.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A slug (left) and a snail (right).]]Snails and slugs are typically found in leaf litter in forests, but can also be found in gardens, fields, river banks, and urban areas. Most are considered [[decomposers]] and feed on plants, [[fungi]], and [[algae]], but can also consume empty shells, scat, and decaying animals. Some species are carnivorous and will eat nematodes and other snails and slugs. They are also important sources of food for many predators such as [[beetles]], millipedes, small mammals, reptiles, and birds. Snails are important for calcium cycling as they uptake calcium from their food and use it to create their shells, and then are eaten by predators. Calcium availability, soil moisture, and land use strongly affect snail populations.<ref>Hotopp, K. (2005). Land Snail [[Ecology]]. https://www.carnegiemnh.org/science/mollusks/landsnailecology.html</ref>

[[File:amynthas.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Amynthas agrestis, an invasive earthworm in North America.]]Although [[annelids]] include leeches and ragworms, the most ecologically important type that occurs in soil are earthworms. Earthworms decompose dead [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and are major drivers of nutrient and water cycling, plant growth, and changes to soil structure. Some species live at the very surface of soil and within leaf litter, while others live in the upper layer of the soil. Some types are deep burrowers and create permanent burrows several meters long that they use to pull [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] from the surface down into the soil. Earthworms also consume fungi and bacteria, and are commonly preyed upon by mammals and birds. Since earthworms majorly affect [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and microbial populations in soil, they indirectly influence the amount and distribution of other soil fauna.<ref>Edwards, C. The Living Soil: Earthworms. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053863</ref> Invasive species of earthworms can also be extremely damaging to ecosystems. Invasive earthworms negatively affect abundance and diversity of both macro- and [[microorganisms]] in the soil and cause changes to the physical and chemical [[properties]] of the soil. These effects can in turn negatively affect overall ecosystem functioning and services.<ref>Ferlian, O., Eisenhauer, N., Aguirrebengoa, M., Camara, M., Ramirez‐Rojas, I., Santos, F., ... & Thakur, M. P. (2018). Invasive earthworms erode soil biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Animal Ecology, 87(1), 162-172. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12746</ref>

Nematodes are small, non-segmented worms that are found in forest, grassland, and agricultural soils. Food sources differ between species, with some nematodes feeding on fungi, others on bacteria, and some on [[protozoa]] or other nematodes. They are typically found where their food sources are concentrated. Nematodes are preyed upon by insects and predatory nematodes, and are parasitized by bacteria and fungi. A few species cause diseases in plants, but beneficial nematodes are important for [[nutrient cycling]] and dispersing microbes within the soil. <ref>Ingham, E. The Living Soil: Nematodes. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053866</ref>

[[File:arthropods.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Different types of arthropods and their respective classes.]]Arthropods are an extremely diverse and prolific group of soil fauna, comprising up to 85% of the species present in soil.<ref>Bagyaraj, D., Nethravathi, C., & Nitin, K. (2016). Soil Biodiversity and Arthropods: Role in Soil Fertility. In: Chakravarthy, A., Sridhara, S. (eds) Economic and Ecological Significance of Arthropods in Diversified Ecosystems. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1524-3_2</ref> They include crustaceans, arachnids, insects, myriapods (centipedes and millipedes), and [[scorpions]]. Due to their multitude and diversity, arthropods carry out a wide range of functions and processes within soil. Shredders break down plant litter and residue, contributing to [[decomposition]] and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. Some arthropods feed on fungi, which also contributes to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. Arthropods can also be herbivores or predators, and many act as a biocontrol to crop pests or as crop pests themselves. Although some are pests, most arthropods are beneficial to soil ecosystems. The majority inhabit the top few inches of soil, with abundance and species diversity diminishing with depth. <ref>Moldenke, A. Living Soil: Arthropods. Natural Resource Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053861</ref>

== Role in the Ecosystem ==
Because of their diversity and abundance, soil invertebrates play many roles in the ecosystem. As part of the food web, invertebrates both consume and are a source of food for other [[organisms]], altering the composition and abundance of species of both plants and animals in a community.<ref>McCary, M. & Schmitz, O. (2021). Invertebrate functional traits and terrestrial [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]: Insights from a global meta-analysis. Journal of Animal Ecology 90, 1714-1726. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13489</ref> Many invertebrates are also drivers of nutrient and water cycling. By breaking down decaying plant matter and contributing to decomposition, nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon become available for plants to uptake, which in turn stimulates plant growth.<ref>Griffiths, H. M., Ashton, L. A., Parr, C. L., & Eggleton, P. (2021). The impact of invertebrate decomposers on plants and soil. New Phytologist, 231(6), 2142-2149. DOI: 10.1111/nph.17553</ref>

They can also be used as bioindicators of soil quality and health. Invertebrate populations are affected by soil contamination, ecosystem clearing, and land management practices. The presence of indicator species and diversity are indicative of higher soil quality.<ref>Nuria, R., Jérôme, M., Léonide, C., Christine, R., Gérard, H., Etienne, I., & Patrick, L. (2011). IBQS: A synthetic index of soil quality based on soil macro-invertebrate communities. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 43(10), 2032-2045. DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.05.019</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Hexapod

2025-05-02T19:17:20Z

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File:Hexapoda.jpeg

=='''Classification'''==

[[File:Hexapoda.jpeg|thumb|Hexapod Branch]]

'''[[Kingdom]]:''' Animalia

'''[[Phylum]]:''' [[Arthropoda]]

'''[[Subphylum]]:''' Hexapod

Hexapods are a subphylum of arthropoda phylum. Hexapods can be broken down into two groups: insecta and entognatha. Those in the insect group have 3 pairs of legs, a set of wings, and compound eyes. There are more than 1 million species of insects. Those in the entognatha group do not have wings but posess the other features of the insecta group. The entognatha group has mouthparts that can be retracted into their head.

Hexapods are a very diverse subphylum of animalia and consist of many orders that have undiscovered [[organisms]] (more specifically the insecta class).

The Insecta subphylum within the hexapoda Subphylum, is the biggest and most diverse class there is in animalia taxonomy. As of right now, insects represent 80% of the worlds species.

The hexapod subphylum consists of the collembola (springtails), [[protura]] (coneheads), [[diplura]], archaeognatha (bristletails), thysanura ([[silverfish]]),
paleodictopteroidea (extinct beaked insects), ephemoptera (mayflies), odonata (dragonflies and damselflies), and neoptera (winged insects).

=='''Features of Hexapods'''==
[[File:4304690528 b54c7990df b.jpeg|thumb|Compound Eyes]]

Hexapods are composed of three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. Along with this, hexapods are [[invertebrates]], meaning that they lack a spine <ref>{{Cite web|url=www.thoughtco.com/hexapods-myriapods-129501.|title=Hexapods Are a Diverse Group of Six-Legged [[Arthropods]]}}</ref>.

On a hexapods head, they have a pair of antennae and compound eyes <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/video/216533/Artificial-bug-eyes-could-lead-to-new-vision-systems|title=Hexapods - Hexapoda - Overview - Encyclopedia of Life|website=Encyclopedia of Life|language=en}}</ref>. Compound eyes allow hexapods to use their peripheral vision without having to move their head or body. This helps them escape predators and seek out prey.

On each segment of a hexapod, they have one pair of legs. Some hexapods, such as the dragonfly and the fly, have wings. However, many do not and instead travel using different methods. For example, the [[collembola]] doesn't have wings and travels by its furcula which allows it to jump far distances <ref>{{Cite web|url=www.thoughtco.com/hexapods-myriapods-129501.|title=Hexapods Are a Diverse Group of Six-Legged [[Arthropods]]}}</ref>.

Hexapods, like all insects, have a hard exoskeleton that protects the insect's internal organs.

== '''Habitat''' ==

Hexapods are mostly terrestrial species, but a small portion of the species can live in lakes, wetlands, rivers, and marine waters. Hexapods do avoid sub-tidal marine environments because they are unable to survive in shallow seas and the ocean <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nhpbs.org/wild/Hexapoda.asp.|title=Hexapoda - the [[Insects]]: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior}}</ref>. Since hexapods can live almost anywhere, that helps these animalia to live in abundance all over the world. For every square yard of [[soil]], you can find up to 2,000 different hexapoda species <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://u.osu.edu/eeob3320/2015/04/20/hexapod-part-2/#:~:text=Being%20one%20of%20the%20first,and%20highly%20developed%20sensory%20systems.|title=Hexapod Part 2}}</ref>.

=='''Hexapod Diet'''==

Hexapods are such a vast subphylum that they do not all share a similar diet. Some hexapods are pollinators, parasitoids, predators, or herbivores <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biosurvey.ou.edu/Invert_manual/Hexapoda.html|title=Phylum Arthropda: Subphylum Hexapoda}}</ref>. Larger hexapods like praying mantises are made to hunt smaller prey, such as beetles and ants, While smaller Hexapods such as leafhoppers are herbivores and eat leaf litter and leaves off of living plants <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biosurvey.ou.edu/Invert_manual/Hexapoda.html|title=Phylum Arthropda: Subphylum Hexapoda}}</ref>.

== '''Environmental Effects''' ==

[[File:Bee.jpg|thumb|Bee Pollinating a Flower]]

Hexapods do both positive and negative things for the environment. Hexapods are vital for the pollination of flowering plants. Some hexapods, like bees, carry pollen to neighboring flowers. Without them, flowering plants would not be able to germinate. However, Hexapods can also do vast damage to crops as well as spread diseases to other [[animals]] and humans <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nhpbs.org/wild/Hexapoda.asp.|title=Hexapoda - the [[Insects]]: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior}}</ref>.

== '''References''' ==
[1] “Hexapoda - the [[Insects]]: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/Hexapoda.asp.

[2] “Discover How Scientists Have Recreated the Benefits of Insects' Compound Eyes as Compound Lenses.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/video/216533/Artificial-bug-eyes-could-lead-to-new-vision-systems.

[3] “Phylum Arthropda: Subphylum Hexapoda.” Hexapoda, https://biosurvey.ou.edu/Invert_manual/Hexapoda.html.

[4] Schneider, Courtney. “Hexapod Part 2.” Organismal [[Diversity]], https://u.osu.edu/eeob3320/2015/04/20/hexapod-part-2/#:~:text=Being%20one%20of%20the%20first,and%20highly%20developed%20sensory%20systems.

[5] Strauss, Bob. “Hexapods Are a Diverse Group of Six-Legged [[Arthropods]].” ThoughtCo, ThoughtCo, 10 Jan. 2020, https://www.thoughtco.com/hexapods-myriapods-129501.

Ground Beetle

2025-05-02T19:17:18Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

Ground beetle is a term used to describe the family of beetles Carabidae, in the order [[Coleoptera]]. Ground beetles are also known as carabids. This family comprises around 40,000 species worldwide, with 2,339 species residing in the United states [1]. Their distribution is cosmopolitan, meaning that they are found worldwide.

{| class="wikitable" style="width: 30%" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: 0px;" style="float:right; margin-left: 10px;"
|+ Taxonomy
|-
| Kingdom || Animalia
|-
| Phylum || [[Arthropoda]]
|-
|Subphylum || Hexapoda ([[Hexapod]]s)
|-
|Class || Insecta
|-
|Order || [[Coleoptera]] (Beetles)
|-
|Suborder || Adephaga (Ground and Water Beetles)
|-
|Family || Carabidae (Ground Beetles)
|}

[[File: Pic_1_replacement_ground_beetle_anatomy.jpg|thumb|Ground beetle anatomy compared to Darkling beetle. [6] ]]

==Description==
Ground beetles have a large size range within the family group, with a range of size between 0.7-66 mm. This family is known for their long legs and powerful mandibles, which make them distinct from other groupings of beetles. [1] Most species in the adult stage are dark brown or black, shiny, and a bit flattened in shape. Although some can be iridescent blue or green. [2] To identify them from other beetle groups, you can distinguish them by the first abdominal segment not being continuous; instead it is divided by fixed hind coxae (the first leg segment on the beetle.) The front tibia has a prominent notch, on the inside near distal end. Also, the Hind trochanter is elongated, at least a ¼ of the femur. [3]

[[File:Groundbeetlepic3.png|thumb| ''P. melanarius'', the most common ground beetle species in North America. [1] ]]

==Life Stages==

The ground beetle family has four life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and then adult. The first three life stages are spent underground most of the time. While the adult life stage is spent above ground. [1] Depending on the species of the particular ground beetle, they can lay a few to hundreds of eggs. [2]

==Feeding Habits==

These beetles are predatory, and therefore important for the biological control of insect pests on farms. The adults hunt from the [[soil]] surface, but will also climb down and look for their prey within the soil foliage. Their larvae will be burrowed into the soil, and in this life stage, they seek out and feed on prey directly within the soil. The beetles' prey consists of a wide variety of critters within the soil, consisting of a large amount of other [[insects]] and also the seeds of plants. They tend to have a seasonal diet, depending on what's available in the season, they will switch between eating seeds or insects.[1] Some of their food sources include Caterpillars, grubs and adults of other smaller beetles, fly maggots and earthworms. Most of the family class has large, sharp mouthparts to catch and devour prey.[2]

==Behavior==

Adult carabid beetles have wings, but most rarely fly and some are completely incapable of flight. Some prefer Living mulches like types of clover as a preferred microhabitat for adults. The use of [[compost]] on agricultural fields also shows an increased number of ground beetles arriving. This is thought to do so because it adds a cool, moist climate for the beetles.[1] Some species can emit a potent smelling irritant when they are handled and feel threatened. Many species are nocturnal and can be attracted to lights when it's dark. [2]

[[File:Groundbeetlepic2.jpg|thumb| '''A showcase of the variety of ground beetle sizes and colors.''' A) ''Carabus nemoralis'' B) ''Carabus auratus'' C) ''Carabus meander'' D) ''Chlaenius tomesntous'' E) ''Chlaenius sericeus'' F) ''Cicindela sp''. [5] ]]

==Ecology and Importance==

These beetles play an important role in keeping down pest populations in the soil for agricultural purposes, and also for reducing weed populations from eating the seeds of certain weed species. They are considered one of the most natural and consistent pest management species, since they are long lived and able to stay on agricultural grounds even when crops are not in season. They are also generalist feeders and able to switch their diet depending on what's available that time of year. This makes them an ideal beetle family for management. [1] Ground beetles are not harmful to humans, and will not destroy buildings, eat your food, or clothing. If handled improperly, they do have the potential to pinch skin, [4] but besides this and some having the ability to emit an odor, [2] ground beetles are harmless. They cannot thrive indoors and also cannot reproduce indoors, so populations inside buildings will not accumulate. [4]

==References==
[1] Lövei, G. L., and K. D. Sunderland. 1996. [[Ecology]] and Behavior of Ground Beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae). Annual Review of Entomology 41:231–256.https://eorganic.org/node/33936

Snyder, W. E. 2019. Give predators a complement: Conserving natural enemy biodiversity to improve biocontrol. Biological Control 135:73–82.https://eorganic.org/node/33936

El-Danasoury, H., C. Cerecedo, M. Córdoba, and J. Iglesias-Piñeiro. 2017. Predation by the carabid beetle Harpalus rufipes on the pest slug Deroceras reticulatum in the laboratory: Harpalus rufipes predation on Deroceras reticulatum. Annals of Applied Biology 170:251–262.https://eorganic.org/node/33936

[2] susan.mahr. (n.d.). Ground Beetles (Carabidae). https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/ground-beetles/.

[3] Family Carabidae - Ground Beetles. (n.d.). . https://bugguide.net/node/view/186.

[4] Ground beetles. (n.d.). . https://extension.umn.edu/nuisance-insects/ground-beetles.

[5] 196-Beneficial Insect Series 2: Carabidae (Ground Beetles) on Maine Farms - Cooperative Extension: Maine Wild Blueberries - University of Maine Cooperative Extension. (n.d.). .https://eorganic.org/node/33936

[6] UC ANR Statewide IPM Program (UCIPM). (n.d.). . https://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/A/I-CO-AMSP-KC.002.html.

Ghost Ant

2025-05-02T19:17:15Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Order
! scope="col" | Family
! scope="col" | Genus
! scope="col" | Species
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| [[Arthropoda]]
| Insecta
| [[Hymenoptera]]
| [[Formicidae]]
| Tapinoma
| Melanocephalum
|}

==Species Description==
[[File: Ghost_Ant_Side_Profile.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The image shows a clear side profile of a mature ghost ant worker.<ref name= "AntWeb">“Specimen: CASENT0008659 Tapinoma melanocephalum.” AntWeb, https://www.antweb.org/bigPicture.do?name=casent0008659&shot=p&number=1</ref>]]

The ghost ant (''Tapinoma melanocephalum'') is a small species of ant belonging to the phylum [["Arthropoda"|"Arthropoda"]] that is found in tropical regions throughout the world. Much like other members of the family [[Formicidae|"Formicidae"]], ''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' are eusocial and have a caste system within their colonies. The workers of ghost ant colonies are small, typically growing to roughly 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) in length. The ants are bicolored, with their head and thorax being black in color, while the abdomen and legs of the worker appear to be a pale color that looks almost translucent.<ref name= "A&M">“Ghost Ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum.” Urban and Structural Entomology Program at Texas A&M University, https://urbanentomology.tamu.edu/urban-pests/ants/ghost/</ref> The species also gets their name from their unique color pattern. Due to their small size and almost transparent body they can be difficult to see, and can be described as "fading" or even "ghostly" when they are being observed. The fading affect is enhanced when the ants are seen on lighter colored surfaces, which makes them more difficult to see.<ref name= "Imperial">“What Are Ghost Ants and How Do I Kill Them.” Imperial Pest Prevention, https://www.imperialpestprevent.com/post/ghost-ants-and-how-to-kill-them#:~:text=What%20Do%20Ghost%20Ants%20Look,abdomen%20and%20legs%20is%20key.</ref>

==Distribution==

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Distribution.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The map shows the distribution of known populations of ''Tapinoma melanocephalum''.<ref name= "UWI"/>]]

The ghost ant is an invasive species in many parts of the world. The origin of the ants was thought to be in the tropics of Africa or Asia.<ref name= "UWI">“Tapinoma melanocephalum (Ghost Ant).”UWI-The Online Guide to the [[Animals]] of Trinidad and Tobago, https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Tapinoma_melanocephalum%20-%20Ghost%20Ant.pdf</ref> Due to the rapid spread of the [[insects]], the exact location for their origin is unknown. They are found commonly in the Southern United States, in tropical environments like Florida, but have been seen in temperate climates, and have been identified as far north as Winnipeg, Canada.<ref name= "A&M"/> They are more common in tropical habitats, but due to the species being highly invasive and having a high survivability, they are able to inhabit temperate areas by nesting indoors. They are more likely to do this while they are in search of food, seeking protection from the harsh weather, or evading predators. Regardless, this behavior results in the species being labeled as a pest in residential areas. Typically though, they will nest in [[soil]] under places like rock, logs, or in leaf litter and rotting wood.<ref name= "Imperial"/> Their incredible survivability is, largely due to their means of communication with other worker ants within the colony. By using pheromones to signal to other workers within their colony of 6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one and actinidine, the ants can send out alarm signals to warn them of any violent encounters. Other pheromones are equally important, including signals sent to notify the colony of food sources.<ref name= "UWI"/>

==Diet==

Ghost ants are generalists and omnivores. In an outdoor setting, the worker ants of the colonies will go out and forage for food such as small insect larvae, living and dead insects, as well as food that is higher in carbohydrate concentrations such as honeydew. The honeydew that is harvested is secreted by aphids or other insects that primarily feed on plant material. The worker ants will bring these foods back to their colonies to share with the other workers and the queens.<ref name= "UWI"/><ref name= "Terro">“Common Ant Species: Ghost Ants” Terro, https://www.terro.com/ghost-ants#:~:text=Diet,ghost%20ants%20usually%20prefer%20sweets.</ref> Because the species is a common pest species that tends to nest indoors in search of food, they will typically change their diet in an indoor setting. While they are indoors, they will forage for sweeter food sources and also gather near areas with greasy food residues, such as stovetops or trash cans.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Life Cycle==

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Queen.jpg|225px|thumb|left|The image shows a queen ghost and along with workers, migrating to a new nest.<ref name= "NJ">“Ghost ant queens in Phuket, Thailand.” Ants New Jersey, https://antsnj.com/ghost-ant-queens-in-phuket-thailand</ref>]]

''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' form colonies that have multiple queens, meaning they are polygynous. This is a standout feature for ghost ants, but the behavior is also seen in other ant species such as the [[Acorn ant|acorn ant (''Temnothorax curvispinosus'')]]. The colony is unicolonial, which means that the ants live in separate nests with different queens, but they all work together and take care of each other. Each colony can consist of anywhere from 100 workers up to 1000 workers within the larger nests. Although ghost ant queens only survive for a few weeks, they are able mate and reproduce with fertile males within the colony and produce up to 5 eggs per day. Five eggs per day may seem miniscule in comparison to the large colony size, however due to the colonies having multiple fertile queens, their numbers are able to grow rapidly. Development of the new larvae takes anywhere between 16-52 days, and they go through 4 instars between the time they hatch until they reach adulthood.<ref name= "UWI"/> Ghost ant colonies also reproduce via budding. The colonies will carry out this behavior if they either need to expand their territory, or if there is a disturbance that threatens the survival of the colony. When this happens, the ants from the nest will relocate, and bring a queen, several workers, as well as eggs, larvae, and pupae. This behavior increases their survivability, and helps ghost ants expand to new territory, which is part of the reason why they are a highly adaptive and resistant invasive species.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Ecological Significance==

[[File: Kissing_Bug.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The image shows an adult kissing bug (''R. prolixus''), one of the main vectors of Chagas' Disease.<ref name= "NBC">“This deadly 'kissing bug' has been mostly ignored. It shouldn't be, this author says.” NBC News, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/deadly-kissing-bug-mostly-ignored-shouldnt-author-says-rcna1678</ref>]]

As previously mentioned, ''T. melanocephalum'' is a widespread invasive species, and due to its survivability is commonly seen as a pest among households. Because they consume honeydew as a food source, they have been observed protecting honeydew producing insects like aphids, which are another pest insect that can pose a threat in places like greenhouses. However, the ants also prey on the two-spotted spider mite (''Tetranychus urticae''), which is another harmful plant pest. Because of their acts predation and aggression towards the [[mites]], there is a slight benefit of having the ants around these areas.<ref name= "Spotlight">“Ant Spotlight: Ghost Ants” Hulett Environmental Services, https://www.bugs.com/blog/ant-spotlight-ghost-ants/</ref> ''T. melanocephalum'' has been observed making their nests near jumping spiders, and appear to have a symbiotic relationship with them. The spiders will protect the ants from predation and parasitism, while the ant nests provide a solid structure to form the basis of the jumping spider's webs. Even though the ants are not directly dangerous if contact with them is made, ghost ants have been noted to be carriers of pathogens such as ''Staphylococcus'', making the ants more dangerous if they are in buildings such as hospitals.<ref name= "UWI"/> Although the ants have the likelihood to spread diseases to humans, they have also been known to prevent them. The ants have been seen feeding on the eggs of ''Rhodnius prolixus'', otherwise known as the kissing bug. The insect is one of the known vectors of Chagas' disease, which is known to cause afflicted people cardiac or neurological disorders if left untreated. In these areas, the rates of the disease appear to be lower.<ref name= "Gate">“Ghost Ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius) (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidae)” ResearchGate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224497252_Ghost_Ant_Tapinoma_melanocephalum_Fabricius_Insecta_Hymenoptera_Formicidae</ref><ref name= "WHO">“Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis)” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chagas-disease-(american-trypanosomiasis)</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

Formicidae

2025-05-02T19:17:13Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

== Overview ==

[[File:Formicidae.jpg|300px|thumb|right]] Formicidae is a family, containing ants, that belongs to the order [[Hymenoptera]], which contains the ant's close relatives, bees and wasps. It's estimated that there are 22,000 species of ants, with roughly 15,000 of these species being classified. [1] They are incredibly numerous, being found everywhere in the world except for Antarctica as well as Greenland, Iceland, Hawai'i, and some Pacific Islands that don't have native species. [2] The mass of all the ants in the world is said to be greater than the mass of all birds and mammals combined, with an estimated human-to-ant ratio of 1:2,500,000. [3]

== Taxonomy ==
*Kingdom- Animalia ([[Animals]])
**Phylum- [[Arthropoda]] ([[Arthropods]])
***Class- Insecta ([[Insects]])
****Order- Hymenoptera (Ants, Bees, and Wasps)
*****Infraorder- Aculeata (Ants, Bees, and Wasps)
******Superfamily- Formicoidea (Ants)
*******Family- Formicidae (Ants)

== Description ==
[[File:HTA.png|250px|thumb|left|Figure 1]]
[[File:HMPG.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Figure 2]]
Most ant species found will be either red, brown, or black in color. [2] They can range anywhere from 1/16 of an inch long ([[Crazy Ant]]) [4], up to 1.6 inches long ([[Dinoponera]], thought to be the biggest ant species in the world, found in South America). [5] Most common ants, however, are 1/16 to 1/2 an inch long. [6] Their bodies are broken down into three main segments (Figure 1), with the thorax and the abdomen being further broken down into three more subsegments (Figure 2).
===Head===
The head of an ant contains the mouth, five eyes, two antennae, and two strong jaws. Of the five eyes, two (located on the front of the head) are compound eyes that are good for acute movement but do not allow for high-resolution images, while the other three (located on the top of the head) are simple eyes that detect changes in light. The two antennae are sensory organs that allow ants to detect chemicals, air currents, and vibrations, as well as receive signals through touch. The strong jaws are used for defense, carrying food, and constructing nests. [1]
===Thorax===
The thorax is the middle part of an ant's body. It is powerful and muscular, with each of an ant's six legs attached to it. If an ant develops temporary wings, they will be attached to the thorax as well. [7]
===Abdomen===
The abdomen contains all the vital and reproductive organs of the ant. If a worker ant has a stinger, it can be found on the back of the abdomen. [7]
===Mesosoma===
The mesosoma is the first of the three subsegments of the ant's body. It is attached to the head, and it contains the thorax plus the first abdominal segment. [1]
===Petiole===
The petiole is the second of the three subsegments, located between the mesosoma and the garter. It acts similar to a waist in a human, allowing the ant flexibility when twisting and aids the ant when burrowing underground. [7]
===Gaster===
The gaster is the last of the three subsegments of the ant's body. It contains all of the abdominal segments included in the abdomen except for the ones included in the petiole. [1]

==Common Species in the Northeastern USA==
*Linepithema humile ([[Argentine Ant]])
*Ochetellus glaber ([[Black House Ant]])
*Camponotus pennsylvanicus ([[Carpenter Ant]])
*Solenopsis invicta ([[Fire Ant]])
*Tapinoma melanocephalum ([[Ghost Ant]])
*Tapinoma sessile ([[Odorous House Ant]])
*Tetramorium caespitum ([[Pavement Ant]])
*Monomorium pharaonis ([[Pharaoh Ant]])

== Life Cycle ==
[[File:LifeCycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right]]
Formicidae go through four basic life cycle stages in which there are three end results. Ants begin as eggs that are laid by the female queen. They then begin to go through complete metamorphosis, going through four or five larval stages. They are largely immobile during the larval stages and rely on worker ants to eat. In the earlier larval stages, they are provided with liquid food regurgitated by the workers. In the later larval stages, they will begin to be provided with more solid foods, such as pieces of prey, seeds, and trophic eggs. At the end of the larval stages, the ants will emerge as pupae, and the differentiation of the ants into the different castes will begin. If the original egg was not fertilized, the pupa will emerge as a winged male haploid drone. If the original egg was fertilized, the pupa will emerge as either a winged or wingless female diploid queen or a wingless female diploid worker. Whether the female becomes a queen or a worker largely depends on how much nutrients the ant receives during the larval stages. [1]

Female queens can live up to 30 years. Female workers can live one to three years. Male drones typically only live for a few weeks. [1]

== Ecological Importance ==
Within the ecosystem, ants are known predators of other insects, keeping their populations under control. They also keep the ecosystem clean by taking care of dead insect carcasses and helping with the [[decomposition]] of other plant and animal remains. [8]

Within the [[soil]], ants move about the same amount of soil as earthworms [8], turning it and aerating it to allow water, oxygen, and other nutrients to reach [[plant roots]]. [9] They also aid in seed dispersal, carrying seeds down into the soil with them that often grow into new plants. [9] They also keep the soil fertilized and full of nutrients during the transport of plant and animal remains used to create their nests. [8]

== References ==
[1] Ant. 2023. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant

[2] Ants. 2023. National Wildlife Federation. https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Ants#:~:text=There%20are%20more%20than%2012%2C000,leaf%20litter%2C%20or%20decaying%20plants.

[3] Ayana Archie. The Number of Ants on Earth has a Mass Greater Than All Birds and Mammals Combined. 21 September 2022. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2022/09/21/1124216118/ants-number-study-quadrillion#:~:text=Press-,The%20number%20of%20ants%20on%20Earth%20is%20about%201%20trillion,million%20ants%20for%20every%20human.

[4] C. Claiborne Ray. Next to Fairyflies, Ants Are Giants. 25 May 2015. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/26/science/next-to-fairyflies-ants-are-giants.html#:~:text=The%20smallest%20known%20ant%20is,by%20Bert%20Holldobler%20and%20E.O.

[5] Dinoponera. 2023. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinoponera

[6] Ant Facts, Information, and Photos. 2023. Terminix. https://www.terminix.com/ants/#:~:text=Their%20legs%20and%20antennae%20are,if%20they%20invade%20your%20home.

[7] Christina Stephens. What Are Ants’ Body Parts? 2023. Wild Sky Media. https://animals.mom.com/ants-body-parts-5992.html

[8] Iowa State University. Ants Are Ecologically Beneficial: In Defense of Ants. 2023. Iowa State University. https://hortnews.extension.iastate.edu/ants-are-ecologically-beneficial

[9] Harvard Forest. Ecological Importance. 2021. The President and Fellows of Harvard College. https://harvardforest.fas.harvard.edu/ants/ecological-importance#:~:text=Ants%20play%20an%20important%20role,new%20plants%20(seed%20dispersal).

Earthworm

2025-05-02T19:16:53Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

The Earthworm is the common name for [[invertebrates]] in the order of Opisthopora or Haplotaxida, which includes hundreds of species, with many different families. As a result, there is great [[diversity]] within the term "earthworms". They have other folk names such as nightcrawler, angleworm, dewworm, rainworm, etc. [1]
[[File:earthworms.jpg|thumb|right|Earthworm]]
==Overview==
[[File:Earthwormdigestive.jpg|thumb|right|Earthworm digestive system - tube within a tube]]
They have a tube within a tube digestive system, with segmentation all along their body, each segment called an annuli. Each external segment has corresponding internal segmentation and setae/bristles to help with movement. They move by contracting and extending circumferential and longitudinal muscles that are in each segment, as well as using the setae on every segment to get a grip. [4]

Earthworms breathe through their skin, and their whole body is covered with a mucous layer that protects from desiccation (i.e. drying out). They have no eyes, instead using cells on the outside of their body that are light sensitive. [4]

They are hermaphrodites, each earthworm exhibiting both male and female sexual organs.

Earthworms live in temperate and tropical soils all over the world, anywhere there is appropriate water content and temperature for at least part of the year. Though, they are most abundant in forests and grasslands of temperate and tropical regions. Earthworm diet includes any [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] they encounter, like plant matter, fungi, bacteria, or any other organism small enough to be eaten. Their digestive tract is one way, they eat with their mouth on one end and excrete waste at the other end of their body. The same muscles that allow for their movement through [[soil]] also push their food through their digestive system. [1][4]

==Scientific Classification==
[[File:earthworm-morphology.png|right|thumb|Basic Components of Earthworms]]
'''Kingdom''' - Animalia

'''Phylum''' - Annelida

'''Class''' - Clitellata

'''Order''' - Opisthopora/Haplotaxida

==Reproduction==
[[File:caccoon.jpg|right|thumb|Earthworm Cocoon]]
Earthworms can only produce sexually, not asexually. The popular myth that if one cuts an earthworm in half, it will regenerate into two earthworms is '''false'''. While earthworms can regenerate small parts of their bodies, they cannot be split into two. Earthworms have both male and female sexual organs, but still need a partner to reproduce. The clitellum is the slightly discolored segment about one-third of the body length away from the head that produces mucous that aids with mating. The worms line up in opposite directions and exchange sperm, using the excreted mucous as a protectant/pathway. The sperm is then stored in sperm sacs and later released along with the eggs into cocoons secreted from the mucous of the clitellum. This forms the lemon-shaped cocoons to the right, which can have one or more embryos inside, depending on the species. New earthworms emerge from these cocoons in a few weeks, depending on the species. [2][5][6]

==Earthworm Classification into Subcategories==
Earthworms are often classified into a few basic categories, based on morphology, feeding habits, and their microhabitats within the soil. These are called, epigeic, endogeic, and anecic.
[[File:types-of-earthworm.png|right|thumb|Categories of Earthworm]]
===Epigeic Earthworms===
[[Epigeic Earthworms]] tend to be the smallest of the three, less than 10 cm, and the most pigmented. They live mainly on leaf litter or surface soil and eat litter and small microbes. These worms might make temporary small tunnels through the litter and topsoil. [7]

===Endogeic Earthworms===
Endogeic Earthworms are moderately sized and unpigmented. They inhabit the mineral level of the soil, ranging from 0-80 cm below ground. Subcategories of endogeic earthworms are: Polyhumic, Mesohumic, Endo-anecic, and Oligohumic. These all inhabit slightly different zones with different [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] content. [7]

'''Polyhumic worms''' live on surface soil or in the root zone and prefer soil with high organic content. They are small-sized, less than 15 cm. They tend to make temporary horizontal burrows. [7]

'''Mesohumic worms''' live in soil depths of 0-20 cm and feed on soil from depths of 0-10 cm. These worms make extensive horizontal burrows and are of medium size, 10-20cm. [7]

'''Endo-Acecic worms''' live in depths of 0-50 cm, and some make more permanent burrows. They feed on soil from depths of 0-10 cm. They are greater than 20cm in length. [7]

'''Oligohumic worms''' live in depths of 15-80 cm and feed on soil from depths of 20-40 cm. They are greater than 20 cm in length and tend to be the largest out of all of these categories. [7]

===Anecic Earthworms===
These worms live in permanent burrows in the soil. They feed on surface leaf litter that they drag deep into their burrows, as well as soil from any depth they encounter. They are dorsally pigmented (i.e. their back is pigmented) and are greater than 15 cm. [7]

==Ecology==
Earthworms are ecosystem engineers and play very important roles in soil formation and processes. Some of their largest effects are as a result of their burrows, as well as their digestion of soil and castings. Earthworms of the endogeic and anecic variety make systems of burrows underground, both horizontal and vertical. These burrows, whether temporary or permanent, are a source of aeration for the soil and improve water intake by the soil. [3]

These burrows are also lined with earthworm castings. Casts are made as earthworms ingest mineral soil and/or [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], then mix them in the gut. This is mixed with gut secretions from the earthworm that enrich it. As earthworms digest soil, the soil is colonized in the earthworm's gut, by the microbes that live there. When the cast is excreted, the microbes continue to live on in it. This makes earthworm burrows a "hot-spot" for microbial activity, and are thus named the [[Drilosphere]]. The earthworms excrete this mixture as either a slurry or separate pellets. These could be within or on top of the soil, depending on the worm category. Earthworm excretions have a high [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] content, and thus enrich the soil around them and increase fertility. [7] Experiments found that on long-term, no-till soil from the [[drilosphere]], that the soil was enriched in NO3−, NH4+ and soluble organic C. These soils hosted far greater populations of nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria when compared to nondrilosphere soil. [9]

==Invasive Earthworms in North America==
Much of the land of North America has lacked earthworms since after the last ice age because they could not survive under glaciers. After the last great ice age, the forests and land of North America had adapted to decompose [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] without the use of earthworms, relying mainly on fungi, bacteria, and time. This led to a thick layer of hummus being present over most forest soils. When the Americas were found by colonizers from Europe and Asia, they brought with them their earthworms. They were likely brought accidentally or on purpose, by bringing plants, dumping their ship ballast, and/or through use as fish bait. Since then, these alien worms have been slowly colonizing more and more of North America and changing soil structure and processes as they do. [7][8]

These introduced worms decompose organic matter at a much faster rate than previously done by fungi and bacteria, which leads to a significantly thinner layer of hummus present. It is not clear yet what the specific effects of this will be, as well as the effects of interactions between alien earthworms and native earthworms(of previously non-glaciated areas). [7]

==References==

[1] "Earthworm" Wikipedia, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthworm

[2] "Earthworm" National Geographic, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/common-earthworm

[3] Edwards, Clive A. "Earthworms" Natural Resources Conservation Service Soils, USDA, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053863

[4] "Earthworm Biology – The Science of the Natural [[Decomposers]]" BiologyWise, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://biologywise.com/earthworm-biology

[5] Painter, Tammie. "How Do Earthworms Reproduce?" Sciencing.com, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://sciencing.com/bring-the-outdoors-inside-with-these-nature-kits-for-kids-13763822.html

[6] Clark, Josh. "How Earthworms Work", HowStuffWorks, Retrieved April 27, 2021, from https://animals.howstuffworks.com/animal-facts/earthworm3.htm

[7] Coleman, David C., Callaham, Mac A., Crossley, D. A. "Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]", Third Edition, Retrieved from pages 155-168.

[8] "Invasive earthworms in North America" Wikipedia, Retrieved April 28, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_earthworms_of_North_America

[9] Parkin, Timothy B., Berry, Edwin C. "Microbial nitrogen transformations in earthworm burrows" ScienceDirect.com, Retrieved April 29, 2021, from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(99)00085-1

Dung Beetle

2025-05-02T19:16:53Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

Dung Beetles are beetles that feed on feces. They can also be known as sarabs. These are the same beetles that are found in many paintings and jewelry of the sacred scarab of Ancient Egypt. The beetle rolling its ball of dung, with the ball representing the Earth, and the beetle is the sun. They are round with short wing covers (elytra) that expose the end of the abdomen. Usually dark in color, the male's head will have a curved horn at the top in some species.[1] In some species, the ball of manure can be as large as an apple.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-right: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Dung-Beetle.jpg|400px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Coleoptera]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Scarabaeidae]]
|-
|}

==Habitat and Range==
They are found on every continent except Antarctica. They can inhabit a wide variety of habitats such as deserts, grasslands, savannas, farmlands, and forests. They can thrive in many environments, from hot, dry deserts to lush forests. [2]

==Behavior==
These small [[insects]] are recyclers. They can help by speeding up the [[decomposition]] of dung and cycling nutrients into the [[soil]]. As mentioned, the beetles can form manure into a ball using their scooper-like head and paddle-shaped antennae. This can help control the fly population by eating dung, which reduces fly breeding grounds. During the early part of summer, the dung buries itself in the ball and feeds on it. As time passes by, the female will eventually lay her eggs in the ball of dung, on which the larvae will feed later.

Many other ways can include improving soil hydrological [[properties]], reducing greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing soil [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]], and suppressing human and livestock pathogens. [4]

[[File:Dung_Beetle_LifeCycle.jpg|thumb|Stages of dung beetle Source: ABC Education [6]]]

==Diet==
All they eat is undigested matter in the waste of [[animals]] like cows, sheep, and camels. This is known as coprophagy (eating feces). The more fresh it is the more they like it because they can suck out the liquids from it [3]. They have sharp mouthparts that allow them to chomp through coarse droppings. [5]

Different behaviors of feeding include:
<li>Rollers </li>
 Form the pat into balls that are rolled to a suitable site and buried.
<li> Tunnelers </li>
 Consume the dung pat and burrow into the soil beneath the pat.
<li>Manure Dwellers </li>
 The manure pat and deposit their eggs either in the same place or in the soil adjacent to the pat.

== References ==
[1]The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Dung beetle | Adaptations, Behavior & Diet. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/animal/dung-beetle

[2] Dung Beetle | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants. (n.d.). https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/dung-beetle

[3] The Sacred Dung Beetles of Ancient Egypt | Kids Discover Online. (n.d.). Kids Discover Online. https://online.kidsdiscover.com/quickread/the-sacred-dung-beetles-of-ancient-egypt

[4]Dung Beetles: How to Identify and Benefit from Nature’s Pooper Scoopers | eOrganic. (n.d.). https://eorganic.org/node/23262#:~:text=of%20pest%20flies.-,Feeding%20Behavior,Debra%20Murphy%2C%20realagriculture.com

[5]UK beetles: 17 of the most spectacular and beautiful | Natural History Museum. (2020, June 10). https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/uk-beetles-british-most-spectacular-and-beautiful.html

[6] Education, A. (2022, June 1). Life cycle of dung beetles. ABC Education. https://www.abc.net.au/education/life-cycle-of-dung-beetles/13909580

Diplopoda

2025-05-02T19:16:49Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(240,150,110)|'''Scientific Classification'''<ref name="ITIS">Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). n.d. Diplopoda. https://itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=154409#null</ref><ref name="Kraft">Kraft, S. & Pinto, L. (2024). Meet the Millipede. Pest Control Technology. https://www.pctonline.com/article/meet-the-millipede/</ref>
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Millipede curled.jpg|426px|right|Caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subkingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bilateria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Infrakingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Protostomia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Superphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Ecdysozoa
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Myriapoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Diplopoda
|}

Diplopods, more commonly known as millipedes, are long, segmented [[invertebrates]] belonging to the subphylum [[Myriapoda]]. The Latin meaning of the name Diplopoda, 'having double feet', refers to the distinctive features of millipedes, in which they possess two pairs of legs per body segment <ref name="Merriam">Merriam-Webster. n.d. Diplopoda. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Diplopoda</ref><ref name="Ohio">Hennen, D. & Brown, J. n.d. Millipedes of Ohio Field Guide. Ohio Division of Wildlife. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://dam.assets.ohio.gov/image/upload/ohiodnr.gov/documents/wildlife/backyard-wildlife/Millipedes%20of%20Ohio%20Pub%205527.pdf</ref>. While their common name means 'thousand feet', most millipede species possess 47 to 197 pairs of legs<ref name="Tohono">Tohono Chul. n.d. Millipede Facts. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://tohonochul.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Millipede_Facts_Worksheet.pdf</ref>. However, in 2020, the first millipede species with over one thousand legs was discovered in Western Australia — ''Eumillipes persephone'', with 1,306 legs<ref name="Marek">Marek, P., ''et al.'' (2021). The first true millipede—1306 legs long. ''Scientific Reports''. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02447-0</ref>. There are currently around 12,000 described species and 16 orders within the class Diplopoda<ref name="Sierwald">Sierwald, P. & J.E. Bond. (2007). Current Status of the Myriapod Class Diplopoda (Millipedes):Taxonomic [[Diversity]] and Phylogeny. ''Annual Review of Entomology''. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17163800/</ref>.

== Characteristics and Morphology ==
Most millipedes are long and either cylindrical or flat in shape. However, pill millipedes, belonging to the family Glomeridae, are stout and resemble [[isopods]] and, in similar fashion, can roll into a ball when disturbed.<ref name="Pill">Australian Museum. (2020). Pill Millipedes. https://australian.museum/learn/animals/centipedes/pill-millipedes/</ref>. Most millipede species have hard, calcareous exoskeletons that protect them from predators and large forces faced when burrowing in [[soil]]<ref name="Borrell">Borrel, B. (2004). Mechanical [[properties]] of calcified exoskeleton from the neotropical millipede, ''Nyssodesmus python''. ''Journal of Insect Physiology''. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022191004001593</ref>. Millipedes may roll into a spiral as a defense mechanism, where their harder exoskeleton on the top of each of their body segments, or tergites, protect their legs and more vulnerable underside. Millipedes lack a waxy layer on their epicuticle, making them vulnerable to desiccation<ref name="Coleman">Coleman, D.C., M.A. Callaham Jr., & D.A. Crossley Jr. (2017). ''Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]] - 3rd Edition''. Academic Press.</ref>. The size of millipedes vary greatly across different species, with the smaller species measuring at around 2 mm long and the largest species, ''Archispirostreptus gigas'', growing up to 13 inches long<ref name="Tohono"></ref>.
 
Millipedes bear a head with one pair of antennae, a pair of simple eyes known as ocelli, and a mouth. Their mouths consist of an upper lip (labrum), a pair of mandibles, and a grinding plate (gnathochilarium). The rest of their bodies are made up of many segments, with the number of segments varying with species and age. The first segment connected to the head, called the collum, has no legs and is also present in their closest relative clade [[Pauropoda]]. The following three segments bear only one pair of legs. Succeeding segments bear two pairs of legs, while the final few segments bear no legs. The last segment, called the telson, has a pair of anal valves which can open to release feces from the millipedes' digestive tract<ref name="Sierwald"></ref><ref name="Ohio></ref>. Millipedes move fairly slowly compared to their centipede relatives belonging to the subphylum [[Chilopoda]]. They move their legs in a wave-like motion, referred to as metachronal locomotion. Their many legs can produce a surprising amount of force, necessary to direct themselves when burrowing<ref name="Walk">Garcia, A. ''et al.'' (2021). Fundamental understanding of millipede morphology and locomotion dynamics. ''Bioinspiration & Biomimetics''. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33007767/</ref>. The species ''Diopsiulus regressus'' exhibits a unique behavior of jumping; however, this behavior is an escape reaction rather than a locomotive strategy<ref name="Chinese">National Science and Technology Library. (1973). A jumping millipede. ''Nature''. http://archive.nstl.gov.cn/Archives/browse.do?action=viewDetail&articleID=55ab74dff07239e2&navig=9565bcbb40dbfbe9&navigator=category&flag=byWord&subjectCode=null&searchfrom=null#:~:text=regressus%20Silvestri%20at%2064%20and%202%2C000%20frames%20s%20~l.%20The%20sudden%20body&text=1%20Side%20view%20of%20a%20jump%2C%20from,to%20left%2C%20of%20the%20millipede%20Diopsiulus%20regressus.</ref>.
 
Many millipede species possess glands called ozopores that run along the length of their bodies and can release chemical compounds that may be toxic or repel certain parasitic or predatory [[organisms]]. The chemicals secreted vary across species and include, but are not limited to, hydrogen cyanide, ''p''-benzoquinones, phenols, alkaloids, and terpenoids. Millipedes that bear ozopores often have bright aposematic coloring. Other species that do not secrete defensive chemicals may bear similar coloring patterns as a result of Mullerian mimicry<ref name="Sierwald"></ref><ref name="Shear">Shear, W.A. (2015). The chemical defenses of millipedes (diplopoda): Biochemistry, physiology and ecology. ''Biochemical Systematics and Ecology''. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305197815001167</ref>. While these secretions may be irritating or toxic to certain organisms, other organisms may use millipede secretions to their advantage. Black lemurs (''Eulemur macaco'') have been observed biting millipedes and rubbing their defensive secretions on their bodies. Research has shown that the lemurs may do this to repel [[insects]] such as mosquitoes, but the they also seem to enter an intoxicated state<ref name="Lemurs">Banerji, U. (2016). Lemurs Get High on Their Millipede Supply. ''Atlas Obscura''. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/lemurs-get-high-on-their-millipede-supply</ref>. Other research shows that these defensive secretions may also attract predators such as [[Dung Beetle|dung beetles]]<ref name="Beetle"> Rodríguez‑López, M.E. ''et al.'' (2021). Attraction of Canthon vazquezae ([[Coleoptera]]: Scarabaeinae) to Volatiles Released by ''Messicobolus magnificus'' (Diplopoda: Spirobolida). ''Journal or Insect Behavior''. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10905-021-09785-x</ref>.

[[File:Gonopods.png|426px|left|thumb|Gonopods of the millipede species ''Sigmocheir furcata''<ref name="Gonopods">Marek, P. ''et al.'' (2014). A species catalog the millipede family Xystodesmidae (Diplopoda: Polydesmida). Virginia Museum of Natural History. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267810849_A_species_catalog_the_millipede_family_Xystodesmidae_Diplopoda_Polydesmida</ref>]]

== Reproduction and Life Cycle ==

Male millipedes have sex organs, called gonopods, on their seventh body segment. The eighth leg pair is modified to transfer a sperm packet called a spermatophore to the vulva of a female millipede, which is located behind the second pair of legs. During mating, males will crawl onto the backs of females and stimulate them with their legs while producing a calming sound. If the female is uninterested, she will coil up to prevent the male from depositing his spermatophore. Gravid females burrow into warm soil, where they lay eggs and encapsulate them in their feces. The number of eggs per brood varies across species, ranging from tens to hundreds of eggs. Nymphs hatch from the eggs and usually have six body segments and three pairs of legs. As they outgrow their exoskeletons, they will retreat to a sheltered area to molt. Some species will burrow underground or build molting chambers out of dirt, while other species can produce silk and spin a web around themselves<ref name="Ohio"></ref>. Millipedes exhibit amorphic development, meaning that they grow more body segments each with a pair of legs after every molt. They will often eat their exoskeletons after they molt to recycle nutrients like calcium or protein. Millipedes typically live 2–10 years depending on the species<ref name="Tohono"></ref>.

== Diet and Feeding Behaviors ==

Millipedes are primarily [[detritivores]], consuming dead organic plant matter. They are selective feeders, choosing to feed on leaf litter with higher calcium contents and avoiding freshly fallen leaves or leaves with high polyphenol contents. Some species feed on live plants, and species with modified sucking mouth parts may consume plant sap, accumulating alkaloids in their tissues which may be used to produce their defensive secretions. Various species also eat fungi, [[algae]], and [[lichen]]. Some diplopods are obligate [[coprophagia|coprophages]], meaning they must eat their own feces. This may be due to the close relationship millipedes have with the microbiota within their guts that are necessary for the breakdown of cellulose and [[lignin]]<ref name="Coleman"></ref><ref name="Sierwald"></ref>.

[[File:Mites.jpg|351px|right|thumb|Symbiotic ''Julolaelaps gigas'' mites on ''Archispirostreptus gigas''<ref name="Reddit">sofkeya. (2023). what are these little bugs on my millipedes and how can i get rid of them?[Online forum post]. Reddit. https://www.reddit.com/r/millipedes/comments/14dnxn2/what_are_these_little_bugs_on_my_millipedes_and/</ref>]]

== Distribution ==

Millipedes are found in every continent except for Antarctica in a wide variety of habitats. They are particularly abundant in calcium-rich areas with high rainfall, particularly tropical and temperate forests. On average, tropical species are larger than temperate species. Some species spend their whole lives in the soil, while others reside in the leaf litter or other cryptozoic habitats like under rocks or [[decomposing]] tree bark. Some species are arboreal, meaning that they live on trees and branches, and these species are typically found in humid environments. Despite being vulnerable to desiccation, millipedes can also be found in arid climates, where they become active after rains and seek refuge by burrowing under vegetation or debris<ref name="Coleman"></ref><ref name="Sierwald"></ref>.

== Ecological Functions ==

Diplopods play an important role in [[decomposition]], as they are capable of fragmenting large dead plant materials, making them bioavailable for microbiota and therefore stimulating [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. They are very important in boreal coniferous forests, as they have been found to consume up to 36% of the annual conifer litter in these regions<ref name="Sierwald"></ref>. Millipedes are also big contributors to the nutrient cycling of calcium, as research shows they process 15–20% of the calcium input into hardwood forest floors<ref name="Coleman"></ref>. Their burrowing also helps loosen and aerate the soil, promoting a healthier soil ecosystem<ref name="Ohio"></ref>.

Millipedes serve as hosts to many parasites and [[mites]]; however, most mite interactions are examples of commensalism. Some mites and millipedes even have symbiotic relationships, where mites keep the bodies of millipedes clean and receive protection from predators in return<ref name="Symbiotic">Giant Millipedes. (2020). Millipede Health Problems. https://www.giantmillipedes.com/millipede-health-problems#:~:text=One%20thing%20you%20may%20notice,of%20things%20you%20could%20try.</ref>.

Millipedes are not crop pests, but they may carry mites or diseases that could be harmful to crops if introduced into non-native habitats. They are not harmful to humans and do not transmit diseases to humans; however, their chemical secretions may cause blisters and are potentially toxic to pests. They do not cause harm to buildings and are considered more of a nuisance pest<ref name="Pest">Rottler. n.d. Millipede. https://www.rottler.com/pests/occasional-invaders/millipede/</ref>.

== References ==

Decomposition

2025-05-02T19:16:45Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

==Introduction==
Decomposition is the process in which large or complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones. This process is essential to a healthy ecosystem because it aids in the [[Nutrient Cycling]] of molecules such as phosphorus, nitrogen, water, carbon, and sulfur. In fact, soil [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], which includes plant or animal matter, holds three times as much carbon as either the atmosphere or living vegetation [1]. This is important because it is carbon and nitrogen that often limits the productivity of an ecosystem. Factors that affect decomposition rate are temperature, water content, climate, [[soil]] type, and substrate quality [2]. [[File:SOM.jpg|thumb|This diagram demonstrates the relationship between moisture, rate of litter breakdown, fauna, and soil organic matter accumulation. As fauna, litter breakdown rates, and moisture decrease, the accumulation of soil organic matter increases. This is a way of demonstrating how the rate of decomposition decreases based on environmental factors.]]
While macroorganisms such as earthworms, flies, [[insects]], and snails are involved in the early process of decomposition, it is often the work of enzymes, bacteria, and fungi that aid in the cycling of nutrients back into the soil [3].
__TOC__

== Quantification ==
The quantification of litter breakdown has only been established in recent years, and describes the relationship between existing litter, annual production, and time. The decomposition of [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] can be described by the following equations:

[[File:Equation.png|none|]]
k=rate of breakdown

X=litter on ground

[[File:Equation2.png|none|]]

L=annual production

Xss=base level of litter

Different climates and regions will have different rates of decomposition based on the ratio between the annual production and the base level of litter. For example, rates within evergreen forests vary widely. In tropical forests the rate is 4, in eastern pine it is .25, and in alpine taiga it is .02. This is because the temperature and moisture of the region heavily impacts the value of ''k''. Decomposition, in general, is very difficult to measure on a wide scale due to the heterogeneity of soil and litter. One way to measure decomposition is burying mesh leaf litter bags, which help to isolate an area of interest and test on a small scale. Large scale and long term experiments are much more difficult. Decomposition will never result in zero litter remaining. This is because the remaining matter is highly recalcitrant, meaning it has a high resistance to breakdown. This is because the remaining compounds are lignins, fats, and cellulose. This may also include some resistant polymers, by-products of microbial decomposition [3].

== Molecular Breakdown ==

===Breakdown of Detritus===

[[File:Decomposition Diagram.jpg|thumb|This diagram demonstrates that when starting with the same leaf litter type, an increase in [[detritivores]] or an increase in leaf litter types, will both result in an increase in the rate of litter breakdown. This diagram is based on a study, which suggested that an increase in leaf litter types (species) will result in higher rates of decomposition, comparable to an increase in detritivores.[5]]In the early stages of decomposition, [[detritivores]] and other [[organisms]] will begin to consume the dead [[Organic Matter|organic matter]]. Detritivores eat detritus, the name given to disintegrated organic materials. These macroorganisms break apart large material such as plant and animal residue, tissue of [[soil organisms]], and any substances produced by soil organisms. By breaking down these large particles, they increase the surface area available for bacteria and fungi.
While detritivores aid in the initial stages of decomposition, it is the work of fungi and bacteria that metabolize [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and break it down into inorganic compounds. The fungi and bacteria that thrive on dead matter are called saprophytes [3]. Saprophytes can secrete chemicals that digest the molecules and result in the mineralization of the compounds.

===Mineralization===

Mineralization is the process by which organic compounds are broken down into water-soluble inorganic compounds as the result of microbial activity [4]. These compounds are broken down by [[microorganisms]] like fungi and bacteria, which secrete chemicals that aid in decomposition. These chemicals include enzymes, which can decompose plant litter that contain high amounts of cellulose and [[lignin]] [2]. There are various forms of enzymes, which aid in the breakdown of different types of compounds. For example, oxidative enzymes are best at [[decomposing]] complex substrates like lignin, while hydrolytic enzymes breakdown simpler compounds such as starches and sugars. The process of mineralization is essential to nutrient cycling because it allows insoluble organic compounds to become water-soluble and available to plants. Mineralization is one of the main processes, which occur in carbon and nitrogen cycling. These cycles are essential to the livelihood of an ecosystem.

[[File:soil-profile.jpg|thumb|left|A simple diagram depicting the layers of soil. Humus is the top most layer in soils.[6]]]Different molecules within soil [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] breakdown at different speeds depending on their molecular structure. From fastest to slowest, the breakdown is as follows:

1. Sugars, starches, and simple proteins

2. Proteins

3. Hemicelluloses

4. Cellulose

5. Lignins and fats

When the mineralization of a compound is complete, it becomes bioavailable for plants to use, thus recycling the nutrient from the dead plant or animal back into the system. This partially digested, nutrient-rich, and bioavailable soil is called [[humus]].

===Humification===

Humification is the process by which organic matter, which has already been mineralized, is further broken down through the processes of weathering, freeze-thaw cycle, and erosion. This physical decomposition allows it to be more available to plants for use. Humus is mostly found in the topsoil layer, and as the soil is undergoing physical weathering, the water-soluble minerals leech into the surrounding soil water by the force of gravity. As the minerals travel down into the soil, [[plant roots]] can uptake this mineral rich water. Humus also helps to retain soil moisture and keeps soil aerated [3].

== References ==

[1] Schmidt M.W.I., Torn M.S., Abiven S., Dittmar T., Guggenberger G., Janssens I.A., Kleber M., Kögel-Knabner I., Lehmann J., Manning D.A.C., Nannipieri P., Rasse D.P., Weiner S., and Trumbore S.E. 2011. Persistence of soil organic matter as an ecosystem property. Nature 478 (7367): 49.

[2] “Decomposition.” Soil Biology, biology.soilweb.ca/decomposition/.

[3] Terry, Watkins. “Decomposition.” Organic, Process, Soil, and Humus - JRank Articles, science.jrank.org/pages/1967/Decomposition.html.

[4] Olson, J. S. 1963. Energy storage and the balance of producers and [[decomposers]] in ecological systems. [[Ecology]] 44:322-331.

[5] Ecology: [[Diversity]] in the afterlife, N&V, Nature 509, 173–174 (08 May 2014) doi:10.1038/509173a

[6] “What Is Soil?” All About Soil | Soils 4 Kids, Soil Science Society of America, www.soils4kids.org/about.

Crustacean

2025-05-02T19:16:41Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Taxonomic Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Crustacea 1 - Range of crustacean appearance.jpeg|400px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subkingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bilateria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Infrakingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Protostomia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Superphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Ecdysozoa
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crustacea
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Integrated Taxonomic Information System
|}

Crustaceans belong to the phylum Arthropoda, but are more commonly referred to using their subphylum, Crustacea. Crustaceans are the sole members of Crustacea but represent an immensely diverse group that encompasses an approximate 50,000 known species which span an equally broad range of environments. Crustacea has a metropolitan distribution (worldwide) with members most commonly found in all aquatic environments like that of marine, brackish, and freshwater systems. Though members of Crustacea can be found roaming terrestrially, only two crustaceans are known to be fully terrestrial, living their entire lives on land. Land Crustacea are [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] [[detritivores]] while the rest, and vast majority of crustaceans, are scavengers, benthic bottom feeders, and general or obligate parasites.

== Taxonomy ==
The Crustacea subphyla is a paraphyletic group which consists of all taxa that originally comprised all “traditional crustaceans”, and now classifies [[organisms]] within three superclasses. These three superclasses are the Multicrustacea, Oligostraca, and Allotriocarida, which together form the Pancrustacea monophyletic group with the addition of the [[insects]] of Hexapoda. Mulitcrustacea represents the largest proportion of crustaceans containing approximately 80% of all recorded crustaceans, like that of crabs, barnacles, and woodlice. Crustacea itself can is commonly subdivided into 10 subclasses, commonly referred to as “direct children” classes.

=== Children Classes ===
*Class Cephalocarida:
:-Horseshoe shrimps which are among the oldest, most primitive members of Crustacea; all known species are bottom-dwelling, benthic organisms.
*Class Branchiopoda:
:-Includes tadpole, fairy, and brine shrimps, all of whom are small, freshwater organisms which feed upon plankton and detritus. Make up an important base of the food chain.
*Class Ostracoda:
:-Ostracods are microscopic, aquatic organisms which are among the most basal forms of Crustacea. They are commonly used for dating within the fossil record due to their abundancy and widespread distribution.
*Class Copepoda:
:-Very small aquatic organisms which live in both fresh and saltwater. Copepods are commonly parasitic or have parasitic phases across their life cycle.
*Class Mystacocarida:
:-Microscopic organisms which live in between the grains of [[sand]] of intertidal beaches. Form part of the meiobenthos, the trophic link between bacteria and larger fauna.
*Class Remipedia:
:-Blind organisms commonly found in coastal aquifers; also the only known venomous crustaceans in the world.
*Class Tantulocarida:
:-Ectoparasites which are highly specialized obligate feeders commonly found on [[isopods]].
*Class Branchiura:
:-Parasitic residing on or in most fish, back and forth debate placing the group within Crustacea and Annelida.
*Class Cirripedia:
:-Barnacles which reside exclusively in shallow tidal waters. Are sessile (nonmobile) suspension feeders or highly specialized obligate parasites.
*Class Malacostraca:
:-Approximately 70% of all crustaceans, including lobsters, crayfish, crabs, shrimps, isopods, and most other well-known aquatic crustaceans.

== Crustacean Characteristics ==

=== Generalizations ===
The wide distribution and wider evolutionary track of crustaceans have created an extensively complex group of organisms which create numerous exceptions to any general rules and basic features used to generalize organisms. However, with that said, some generalizations surrounding the physical development and appearance of crustaceans can still be made and used to assist in taxonomic placement.

Firstly, Crustacea differ from their parent phylum Arthropoda due to the development of an additional pair of appendages known as antennules. Antennules develop on the first segment of the head, just ahead of the antennae which form on the second segment of the head. Crustacea themselves can then be delineated according to morphological composition based upon the number and makeup of body segments.

=== Body development ===
Each body segment will develop from a set of precursor cells called somite(s). Each somite can develop individually to allow for greater mobility or be fused together with any number of other somites to produce more complex body segments like that of the anterior (head) of the crustacean, which is created by the fusion of four somites and an unsegmented region called the acron. The posterior, or backend of the crustacean, develops via a similar mechanism by which somites fuse with another unsegmented region called the telson, to form a furca, which then itself undergoes further development into either a shorter, compact tail or the rare elongation event to create a tail equal to, or greater in length than the segmented body.

This variable somite fusion leads to the immense morphological disparity in body form and appendage development seen across the subphylum. While diverse, there is commonly consistency seen across any one class: for instance, Malacostraca, which contains about 70% of crustaceans, follows a body plan of head, trunk, thorax, and abdomen. Though different in appearance and or use, the carapace, a hard protective structure behind the head, is also a widespread morphological feature. Appendage appearance and use tends to allow for specialization, often creating or heightening functions associated with feeding, movement, reproduction, or just about any other task. Appendage and body form disparity is highlighted when comparing the 12 ft leg span of the Japanese Spider Crab to that of an approximately 0.009-inch parasitic copepod, which ironically can be found in most Japanese Spider Crabs.

=== Life Histories ===
The development of crustaceans follows the now common theme in which [[diversity]] creates an increasingly variable means of development and subsequent natural history.

==== Reproduction ====
In terms of reproductions, Crustacea can display both sexual and asexual reproduction, a few species are hermaphroditic, others can change sex across their lifespan, and when unable to find a mate, parthenogenesis is commonly used.

==== Juvenile Development ====
[[File: Crust 3 Life cycle.jpg|left|450px|thumb|Visual representation of the crustacean life cycle]]
In all known forms, the crustacean life cycle begins with the egg, in which the immature crustacean will either emerge as a scaled-down version of an adult or as a larva which will develop further. Crustaceans' developmental path is thus classified as being either anamorphic (larvae-based) or epimorphic (smaller adult hatchling); the dichotomous nature of hatchling development is highly conserved across taxa and is often used for classification. Additionally, like other organisms classified under Arthropoda, crustaceans must molt and shed their exoskeletons to further grow in body size, and in the case of larval organisms, to add appendages.

===== Anamorphic Development =====
Anamorphic development involves a series of larval stages which utilize the process of molting to further morphological development of segments and appendages which aren’t initially present. Anamorphic development is typically comprised of three larval stages referred to as the nauplius, zoea, and megalopa / mysis stages.

*‘’’Nauplius:’’’
::The nauplius (plural nauplii) stage details a larva which has recently emerged from its egg and is categorized as a “floating” head with a single eye and typically three pairs of appendages which it uses for mobility. Some anamorphic crustaceans will “skip” this larval stage and instead emerge from the egg at further into development.
*’’’Zoea:’’’
::During the zoea stage, the larva is acknowledged by the presence of both a cephalon (head) and thorax (a body segment). By the end of this stage, it will add abdominal segments and may also have a pair of compound eyes. Zoea swim using biramous (branched), thoracic appendages.
*’’’Megalopa or Mysis:’’’
::By the megalopa (typically for crabs / lobsters) or mysis (usually more “basic” crustaceans) stage, the crustacean will have added the segments and appropriate appendages of all three body regions (cephalon [head], thorax, and abdomen), as well as, for aquatic species, the development of at least one pair of swimmerets (appendages used for forward motion). At this point, the individual will look like a proportionally accurate, but smaller version of an adult that is sexually immature.

===== Epimorphic Development =====
Epimorphic crustaceans instead develop within their eggs and emerge at the same respective stage of development as anamorphic organisms do following the completion of their larval stages. Therefore, epimorphic development is defined by the absence of any larval stages, instead opting to follow a similar series of development stages within the safety of their egg to then emerge as a fully segmented, appendage-baring, downsized version of its adult counterpart.

== Soil Crustaceans ==
Crustacea utilize a wide range of habitats in conjunction with their wide range of morphological forms. Environmental conditions range anywhere from the pressure of the deep ocean, freshwater systems, high salt concentration brine lakes, and even the high arctic where a dormant overwintering stage follows reproduction during the short summers. Many crustaceans have adapted to terrestrial life in order to hunt, reproduce, or even avoid predation. Notably, the only known fully terrestrial members of crustacea are the sow bug and pill bug of the order Isopoda and class Malacostraca.
[[File: Crust 2 Iso v Sow.jpeg|right|thumb|500px|A: A diagram depicting the different physical characteristics of terrestrial isopods]]

Sow bugs and pill bugs are commonly grouped together and referred to as woodlice (singular woodlouse). These fully terrestrial isopods reside in moist [[soil]] and are commonly found under log, stones, and any other ground debris. Woodlice are primarily detritivores which feed upon dead or decaying plant matter and are critical to nutrient recycling and the subsequent soil health of a habitat. Though very similar at first glance, the two isopods can be distinguished due the sow bug’s lighter colorway and more articulated (jointed) appendages. Additionally, the pillbug, also referred to as a roly poly, has the ability roll into a tight protective ball, an ability the sow bug lacks.

== References ==
#Arndt, C. E., and K. M. Swadling. 2006. Crustacea in Arctic and Antarctic Sea Ice: Distribution, Diet and Life History Strategies. Pages 197–315 Advances in Marine Biology. Academic Press.
#Copilaş-Ciocianu, D., and B. V. Boroş. 2016. Contrasting life history strategies in a phylogenetically diverse community of freshwater [[amphipods]] (Crustacea: Malacostraca). Zoology 119:21–29.
#Crustacean | Definition, Characteristics, Evolution, & Facts | Britannica. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/animal/crustacean.
#El-Bawab, F. 2020. Chapter 10 - Phylum Crustacea, Pennant (1777). Pages 475–711 in F. El-Bawab, editor. Invertebrate Embryology and Reproduction.Academic Press.
#ITIS - Report: Crustacea. (n.d.). . https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=83677#null.
#Jiravanichpaisal, P., N. Puanglarp, S. Petkon, S. Donnuea, I. Söderhäll, and K. Söderhäll. 2007. Expression of immune-related genes in larval stages of the giant tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon. Fish & Shellfish Immunology 23:815–824.
#Paoletti, M. G., and M. Hassall. 1999. Woodlice (Isopoda: Oniscidea): their potential for assessing sustainability and use as bioindicators.Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 74:157–165.
#Subramoniam, T. 2017. Chapter 3 - Sexual Systems. Pages 57–103 in T. Subramoniam, editor. Sexual Biology and Reproduction in Crustaceans. AcademicPress.
#The Fascinating Differences Between Isopods And Pillbugs | Adopt And Shop. 2023, January 23. .
#What Do Crustaceans Have to Do With Bugs? (n.d.). . https://www.thoughtco.com/subphylum-crustacea-crustaceans-1968439.
#Wood, C. T., R. Kostanjšek, P. B. Araujo, and J. Štrus. 2017. Morphology, microhabitat selection and life-history traits of two sympatric woodlice (Crustacea: Isopoda: Oniscidea): A comparative analysis. Zoologischer Anzeiger 268:1–10.
#WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species - Crustacea. (n.d.). . https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1066.

Colorado Potato Beetle

2025-05-02T19:16:37Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

[[File:potato_beetles01.jpg|thumb|Colorado Potato Beetles - ''Retrieved from'' https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/potato_beetles.htm]]
== Description ==
This species is under the classifications of the phylum ''[[Arthropoda]]'', the order ''Insecta'', and the class of [[Coleoptera]], more commonly known as beetles. The Colorado Potato Beetle (''Leptinotarsa decemlineata''), part of the genus ''Leptinotarsa'' or leaf beetles, can be distinguished by their yellow-orange and black striped shell, and spotted head. The name Colorado Potato Beetle, sometimes referred to as the "potato bug", is due to them being severe pests of the potato plant, but the insect can also damage others crops such as tomato, and pepper. Their red bodied larvae, typically with two rows of black spots on their side, also feed on crops in large groups, which can often be more damaging than the adult beetles [1]. Despite the name, they were originally discovered in central Mexico, but soon appeared in most areas of the United States (excluding Alaska, California, Hawaii, and Nevada), and also in southern Canada, parts of Asia, and Europe.

[[File:potato_beetle_larvae.jpg|thumb|Larvae of the Colorado Potato Beetle - ''Retrieved from'' https://fineartamerica.com/featured/1-colorado-potato-beetle-larva-pascal-goetgheluckscience-photo-library.html]]

== Habitat and Life Cycle ==
Generally, the Colorado Potato Beetle prefers warmer climates, and reveal themselves between the months of April to September in the United States [2]. Adult potato bugs will hibernate over the winter, digging themselves about a foot into the ground. In the spring, they will emerge to feed and begin to mate and lay eggs on their host plants [2]. The number of eggs each female produces can be in the upward range of 500, and can be found in large clusters [3]. While the beetle can live in a variety of climates, eggs will take between four to ten days to hatch depending on the temperature. A lower temperature will cause a longer egg stage, while a hotter temperature will make the process move along quicker. The climate will also affect the amount of potato bugs present throughout the year, as warmer climates can support about one to three generations per year, while cooler areas may result in less than two generations per season [3]. This stage of their life lasts only about three weeks, and then the pupa stage beings, which occurs in the [[soil]] and lasts anywhere from five to ten days [3]. The cycle continues once the beetles form into adults. Adult females can begin laying eggs in only a few days after leaving the pupa stage [1].

[[File:potato_beetles_damage.jpg|thumb|left|Damage Caused to a Potato Plant by the Colorado Potato Beetle - ''Retrieved from'' https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/colorado-potato-beetles]]

== Impact on the Environment ==
As mentioned, the Colorado Potato Beetles feed on crops, mainly the potato plant, from the beginning of their larvae stage up to their adult hood. The first discovery of this detriment was in 1859, when many crops were destroyed near Nebraska, and quickly spread to other areas in the United States [3]. The larvae feed on these plants for most of their cycle before entering the pupa stage, generally in groups, leading to a significant amount of damage on these plants, which can cause reduced yield and plant death [1]. The main reason why the Colorado Potato Beetle remains an issue is their extreme resistance to insecticides, making them harder to get rid of. To aid in their removal, it is recommended to use differing insecticides with each treatment rather than the exact same treatment to limit resistant beetles [1]. These [[insects]] can also be managed by their [[diversity]] of predators, including lady bug (or lady beetles), stink bugs, and parasitic wasps.

== References ==
[1] Bessin, R. 2019, November. Colorado potato beetle management. https://entomology.ca.uky.edu/ef312.

[2] Colorado potato beetle. 2019, July 22. . https://cropwatch.unl.edu/potato/colo_potato_beetle.

[3] Jacques, R. L. 2020, May. Colorado Potato Beetle. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/potato_beetles.htm.

Carpenter bee

2025-05-02T19:16:32Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

If you ever wonder if there were bees near wood structures around your home, chances are those are carpenter bees. They are large, solitary bees belonging to the genus Xylocopa. They get their name from the female bee because they bore into wood to create tunnels when they lay their eggs [1]. Most of the members of this group place their nest in dead solid plant material, various kinds of wood, but some use the hollow culms of bamboo or even the pithy stems of Aloe [2].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-right: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Screenshot_2025-04-28_234322.png|400px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Hymenoptera]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Apidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Xylocopa
|-
|}

== Identification ==
They can range from 0.7 to 1 inches long. The thorax is covered with fuzzy yellow, orange, or white hairs. The abdomen is shiny black, The female has an entirely black head while the male has yellow or white markings.
They closely resemble bumble bees; unlike carpenter bees, bumble bees' entire body is covered with hairs, and they are also social, living together in an underground nest [3]. Male carpenter bees do not have a stinger, but female carpenter bees can sting when they feel threatened [1].

== Life Cycle ==
In April or May, the female carpenter bee searches for a good nesting site. She will reuse and expand on existing tunnels or bore her own [3]. At times, some carpenter bees will occupy the same piece of wood with nest galleries so close to each other. However, all carpenter bees behave independently of the other bees [3]. They can live up to 3 years, and there can be one or two generations per year [4]. The females do the majority of the work. They use their strong jaws (mandibles) to excavate a clean cut, which should approximately fix the diameter of her body [5]. She will eventually lay eggs once she has chewed out these tunnels. When this is done, she places a "bee bread" (a mixture of pollen and regurgitated nectar), which serves as food for the larvae [6]. Eggs will then hatch into larvae, feeding on the pollen and then eventually becoming a pupa. Later on, new adults will emerge in the late summer, chew through, and exit the tunnel.
[[File:Carpenter Bee Tunnel.png|400px|thumb|left|Carpenter bee's tunnel [4]]]

== Ecological Significance ==
Females are attracted to raw, unfinished, or stained wood when they are searching for a nesting site. Carpenter bees cause sawdust piles below a perfectly circular hole drilled into the wood around your home. While it may sound like they aren't causing much damage, multiple tunnels, which are caused by the females, can weaken the wood over time [3].

1. Moisture entering the woods is accelerating the rate of decay

2. Mold growth on the excrement

3. Woodpeckers cause damage due to feeding on immature bees

== Natural Predators ==
Woodpeckers can locate their favorite treat by simply keeping a sharp ear to the wind. This is due to carpenter bee larvae because they are noisy and tend to attract woodpeckers [7].

== References ==

[1] By Native Pest Management. (2024, March 8). Do carpenter bees sting? Native Pest Management. https://www.nativepestmanagement.com/blog/2024/february/do-carpenter-bees-sting-/

[2] Minckley, R. L. (1998). A cladistic analysis and classification of the subgenera and genera of the large carpenter bees, tribe Xylocopini (Hymenoptera: Apidae) / by Robert L. Minckley. In Scientific papers - University of Kansas. Natural History Museum. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.16168

[3] Carpenter bees. (n.d.-a). University of Maryland Extension. https://extension.umd.edu/resource/carpenter-bees/

[4] Carpenter bees. (n.d.-d). https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/pollinators/pollinator-of-the-month/carpenter_bees.shtml

[5] Carpenter bees. (n.d.-c). Ohioline. https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/hyg-2074

[6] Carpenter bees. (n.d.-b). https://extension.psu.edu/carpenter-bees

[7] Herwig, C. (2021, August 26). Natural enemies of carpenter bees. Best Bee Brothers, LLC. https://bestbeebrothers.com/blogs/blog/carpenter-bee-predators?srsltid=AfmBOoq1aJiJo8idYQEjcReuBIsaROrnWRj7bo8diqiUuvknLtHosMzB

Bythotrephes longimanus

2025-05-02T19:16:30Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

Bythotrephes longimanus, commonly referred to as the spiny water flea, are predatory planktonic crustaceans[1]. These microscopic [[organisms]] are native to Eurasia, and are considered invasive to the Great Lakes region of North America. Spiny water fleas are observed in abundance between the late-summer and fall months[2].

== Taxonomic Classification ==
: '''Kingdom:''' Animalia
:: '''Subkingdom:''' Bilateria
::: '''Infrakingdom:''' Protostomia
:::: '''Superphylum:''' Ecdysozoa
::::: '''Phylum:''' [[Arthropoda]]
:::::: '''Subphylum:''' Crustacea
::::::: '''Class:''' Branchiopoda
:::::::: '''Order:''' Diplostraca
::::::::: '''Suborder:''' Cladocera
:::::::::: '''Infraorder:''' Onychopoda
::::::::::: '''Family:''' Cercopagididae
:::::::::::: '''Genus:''' Bythotrephes
::::::::::::: '''Species:''' Bythotrephes longimanus

== Appearance-Defining Characteristics ==
[[File:EVS463--SoilEcologyWikispinywaterflea_magnified.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Bythotrephes longimanus under magnification.]]

[[File:EVS463--SoilEcologyWikiSpinyWaterFlea.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Bythotrephes longimanus zoomed in under microscope.]]

Bythotrephes longimanus (spiny waterfleas) are extremely small, growing between 0.25 - 0.6 inches long at maturity. The females typically grow larger than the males, however. These organisms are classified as zooplankton, appearing opaque in color. In regard to their size, spiny water fleas have large and powerful mandibles used to consume their prey[4]. They are primarily identified, though, by their long and spiny tail which accounts for about 70% of its total length[4]. Adult spiny water fleas will averagely have 4 pairs of barbs along their tails, while juveniles only have one pair. These barbs, or spikes, are utilized as defense against predators. The spiny water flea has one large eyespot, either black or red in coloration.

== Habitats and Range ==
Bythotrephes longimanus (spiny waterfleas) originated across regions of Northern Europe and Asia[3]. Native to Lake Ladoga, near the Baltic Sea in Russia, these microscopic organisms can be found among the zooplankton within bodies of freshwater [4].

This microscopic organism was accidently introduced into the United States through the discharging of contaminated cargo ballast water, leading to some of the first discoveries of spiny water fleas within Lake Ontario during the year 1982[3]. By 1987, they were found to have spread out beyond Lake Ontario into Lake Superior, eventually becoming widespread throughout the entire Great Lakes basin[3]. They are frequently found on fishing line in clusters that looks like gelatin with a wet cotton-type of texture[3].

== Environmental/Biological Conditions ==
This organism is found primarily close to where other zooplankton reside, in upper water columns within both small and large temperate lake water bodies, and they have the ability to withstand brackish water type environments[2]. The frequency of Bythotrephes and their population density is primarily based upon the water temperatures and the salt concentration found in these small or large temperate lakes, due to Bythotrephes organisms only having the ability to live in environmental conditions where both temperate lake water temperatures are between 4°C and 30°C and the salinity level is between 0.04 to 8.0 parts per thousand (ppt)[2]. However, the ideal environmental conditions in which they tend to thrive are when lake temperatures are between 10°C and 24°C, and salinity levels of 0.04 to 0.4 ppt[2].

== Diet ==
This organism is a predatory type of zooplankton[3]. During the daytime hours, they move into water bodies that have a greater depth in order to be able to hide effectively from other predators[3]. They eat other types of zooplankton, and during the night they go to shallow water to hunt down their food[3]. One of the specific types of organisms they eat are Daphnia, a genus of smaller zooplankton[4]. In addition to eating other types of zooplankton, it also competes with other larger organisms, such as fish, for food[4].

== Reproduction ==
Throughout the spring and summer months, spiny waterfleas go through a reproductive process in which they reproduce via cloning[4]. When the lake temperatures become colder or there is less food (such as in the autumn months), they will reproduce through the process of sexual reproduction to produce embryos, in which they are able to generate tough eggs that are unsusceptible and impervious to both drying out and freezing[4]. After these eggs are generated by the females, the females will carry both their eggs and newly-born offspring on their backs[4].

== Ecological Effects and Consequences ==
The most important types of zooplankton are known by the genus name Daphnia[4]. The Daphnia genus makes up approximately 100 freshwater species, and these very small organisms are very essential and important when it comes to overall lake health[4]. Some of the critical ecological contributions that Daphnia provide include serving as a big food source for fish, and consuming floating [[algae]][4]. They graze and consume on the surface algae through their constant leg movement, which creates very tiny currents which cause the algae to be moved across the surface of the water, pulling itself into the Daphnia's tiny maws[4]. Through their grazing and consumption of surface algae, they are capable of maintaining healthy, non-excessive levels of algae in the lake water body, which in turn means Daphnia is helping to keep the water body ecosystem healthy and balanced[4].

However, due to the spiny waterflea, (their strong and invasive predator), the population densities of these essential Daphnia zooplankton have been greatly declined and destroyed[4]. This destruction caused by the invasive spiny water flea species is making the overall Daphnia population decrease in Lake Superior, in addition to almost every other water body within the region and vicinity of the Great Lakes[4]. Additionally, recent studies have discovered that in various lake water bodies located in Minnesota, the overall populations of native plankton have decreased by up to 60% due to the spiny waterflea[4]. This significant amount of decline of plankton has also led to impacts of other aquatic species, such as yellow perch, walleye, and other native game fish species[4]. Fish species that reside in lakes heavily invaded and impacted by the spiny waterflea have a tendency to grow and develop at a slower rate throughout the first year of their lives especially because young fish eat plankton, and this also makes them more susceptible to being consumed by predators[4]. Fish cannot simply just eat spiny water flea plankton because the presence of its long, barbed and spiny tail easily gets stuck the fishs' throats[4].

== References ==
[1] ITIS - Report: Bythotrephes longimanus. (n.d.). . https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=684624#null.

[2] USGS Spiny Waterflea (Bythotrephes longimanus) Species Profile. (n.d.). . https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=162#:~:text=Ecology%3A%20Bythotrephes%20longimanus%20is%20found,in%20late%20summer%20and%20autumn.

[3] Spiny waterflea (Bythotrephes longimanus). (n.d.). . https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/aquaticanimals/spinywaterflea/index.html.

[4] This ferocious water flea is mauling the Great Lakes. 2020, December 2. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/invasive-water-fleas-decimating-plankton-in-great-lakes.

Bombardier Beetle

2025-05-02T19:16:28Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ [[Bombardier Beetle|Bombardier Beetle]] Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
! scope="row" | Family
! scope="row" | Subfamily
! scope="row" | Genus
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| [[Arthropoda]]
| Insecta
| [[Coleoptera]]
| Carabidae
| Brachininae
| Brachinus
|}

The Genus Brachinus is home to over 500 different species of Bombardier Beetles. [1]

[[File: Beetle_small.jpg|500px|thumb|left| [2]]]

== Body Structure ==

[[File:Beetle_Bomb_Diagram_small.jpg|500px|thumb|right| This shows the "Bomb" that is inside the Bombardier Beetles [3]]]

Bombardier Beetles are small beetles that don't grow over an inch in size. They have orange arms, thorax, and limbs with blue wing coverings. Their body shape and looks are common, and not much different from many other beetles, having six legs and two antennas [2]. Bombardier Beetles get their name from their special ability or "bomb," which is inside their abdomen. Inside their body, they have two chambers, one containing hydrogen peroxide and one with hydroquinone. When the beetle feels it is being threatened, it excretes some of both, creating a chemical reaction in their reaction chamber [3]. This reaction can be shot out of the beetle's anus like a machine gun shooting rapid bursts of oxygen, quinone, and water. These bursts can be up to 20 MPH and 212 degrees Fahrenheit; it shoots in bursts, allowing for the beetle to cool down. This allows the beetle to fend off prey from consuming it such as a frog or a bigger insect. Even when consumed, it is often regurgitated and escapes due to its "bomb" making them unenjoyable prey [4]. These beetle's defense system is so successful that other beetles that aren't Bombardier have started to look like these beetles using Batesian mimicry so that predators will choose a different prey [6].

== Habitat and Diet ==

[[File:bomb.jpeg|500px|thumb|right| This shows the "Bomb" in action. [6]]]

Bombardier Beetles prefer temperate woodlands and grasslands due to their reliance on hiding under logs and leaf litter. Bombardier beetles are found in North America, South America, Europe, Africa, and Australia [2]. These beetles eat both young [[insects]] and detritus, which plays an important role in the [[decomposition]] and recycling of nutrients. These beetles rely heavily on their antennae for vibrations as well as eye eyesight and feel to help maneuver and find their food, they usually hunt at night. These beetles prefer moist environments where the [[soil]] would have a lot of nutrients on its top layers where these beetles roam [2].

== Reproduction & Effect on Environment and Humans ==

[[File: Life_cycle_small.jpg|500px|thumb|left|This shows the life cycle of a Bombardier Beetle [7] ]]

Bombardier beetles produce sexually, producing eggs that the female beetle will often place in tunnels of soil or cracks in wood that have nutrients and water for the eggs when they hatch into larvae. The larvae will then rely on the nutrients in the area and sometimes through molting. The larvae will then shed its skin and develop into a pupa. It will then continue to grow and consume nutrients until it is ready to shed its skin one final time, becoming an adult bombardier beetle. The adult beetle's life span will be 2-3 weeks, in which the beetle will try to find a mate and reproduce. These beetles are not in any danger of extinction currently. The [[ecology]] of the Bombardier beetles is said to positively impact soil. Their "bomb" is ineffective on humans but their diet and ability to fend off some predators all make for improvements in their microenvironment. Their diet also consists of many pests that harm the soil and microenvironment they are in [6].

== References ==

:[1] National Geographic. “Bombardier Beetle.” National Geographic, [[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/bombardier-beetle#:~:text=In%20fact%2C%20there%20are%20over,in%20the%20United%20States%20alone.}]].
:[2] National Wildlife Federation. “Bombardier Beetles.” National Wildlife Federation, [[https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Bombardier-Beetles]].
:[3] “Featured Creature: Bombardier Beetle.” Shape of Life, 3 Oct. 2023,[[https://www.shapeoflife.org/news/featured-creature/2023/10/03/bombardier-beetle]].
:[4] Pappas, Stephanie. “The Machine-Gun Bug.” Smithsonian Magazine, 11 Mar. 2019, [[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/machine-gun-bug-180955150/]].
:[5] K. R. “Beetle Bomb.” The Scientist, May, 2015 [[https://www.the-scientist.com/beetle-bomb-35532]].
:[6] Poetker, E. 2003. "Brachinus fumans", Animal [[Diversity]] Web.[[https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Brachinus_fumans/#:~:text=When%20the%20egg%20hatches%2C%20it,which%20it%20will%20eventually%20become.]].
:[7]Gabrielle's Insect Biology. “Morphology & Life Cycle of the Bombardier Beetle.” Gabrielle's Insect Biology,[[https://gabriellesinsectbiology.weebly.com/morphology--life-cycle.html]].

Biomes

2025-05-02T19:16:24Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

'''Definition'''

Biomes (bai-owmz), also known as major life zones, are divisions of Earth’s terrestrial and aquatic environments. A biome is a large community of plants and [[animals]] living in specific abiotic conditions, like climate and [[soil]] conditions.[1] Biomes are made up of various communities of flora and fauna but are classified based on the dominant vegetation of the area.[2][3] The five main types of biomes are deserts, grasslands, forests, tundra, and aquatic, but these biome types can be further broken down to represent more specific characteristics and conditions.[1] All the biomes on Earth make up the biosphere.[5]
[[File:Map of biomes.png|thumb|upright=1.75|Map of biomes around the world.]]
=='''Determining Factors''' ==
[[File:Climate influence on terrestrial biome.PNG|thumb|Graph showing different temperature and precipitation conditions of various biomes.]]
While biomes are typically classified based on the predominant vegetation of the area, vegetation is not the only factor that determines a biome. There are a number of different abiotic factors that can have an influence on the biome type, but the main determining factor is the climate, specifically the temperature and precipitation of an area.[4] Temperature and precipitation play an important role in dictating the animals and plants that are in a specific area.[4] Variations in the precipitation and temperature conditions can lead to substantial differences in the vegetation which results in all the unique biomes we see today.

While climate has a major influence on the biomes, it is not the only abiotic factor that plays a role in determining the type of biome. Another important factor that determines biome type is the latitudinal location of the biome.[6] Latitudinal location and climate are interconnected drivers because the amount of sunlight varies with latitude which effects the temperature, precipitation, and by extension the type of life that can inhabit that location.[6] For example biomes found in lower latitudes are typically characterized by higher temperatures and higher precipitation.[6]

Biomes are complex systems that have many other factors that have an influence on them. Some of these other factors include, but not limited to, soil moisture, nutrients, water availability, disturbances, and length of growing season.[5][6] All of these abiotic conditions dictate what [[organisms]] will persist in those conditions, which defines the specific biome.

=='''Biomes of the World''' ==

The term “biome” has had many different definitions and classifications since its first use in 1916 by Fredrick Clements.[5][7] Over the years the term has changed, being both expanded and refined, leading to different classifications and specific biome types.[7] Below are the 6 major types of biomes which can be further divided into more specific biomes that represent more specific conditions, including temperature, precipitation, seasonality, and soil condition .

==='''Terrestrial Biomes'''===
====Desert====
desert biomes are characterized by low precipitation and extreme temperatures, both hot and cold temperatures, and cover about 20% of earth’s surface.[1] The rainfall in desert biomes are typically lower than 50 cm per year.[1][8] Both plants and animals in this biome are adapted to the low precipitation and extreme temperatures. The predominant vegetation in desert biomes are typically low, ground-hugging shrubs and grasses which are able to thrive in the low water environment.[8] There are four types of desert biomes which share these general characteristics but also have certain aspects that distinguish them.[8] the four types of desert are:
*Hot and dry deserts
*Semiarid deserts
*Coastal deserts
*Cold deserts
Soils in desert biomes can be sandy, stony, or consist of [[gravel]] depending on the specific type of desert.[12] The lack of available water plays an important part in the soils of desert biomes. Desert soils are not abundant in nutrients because the dry environment limits the amount of weathering which breaks down soil particles into essential nutrients and minerals.[13] Deserts also do not have a large amount of [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] in the soils because of the lack of productivity from the limited plant community.[8] These factors result in the poor and unproductive conditions of desert soils.[[File:Desert Grassland Landscape.jpg|thumb|320px|A desert biome (Left) and a grassland biome (Right).]]

====Grasslands====
Grassland biomes are widespread and found on almost every continent, excluding Antarctica.[7] This biome is described as open and flat land that is dominated by grasses with little to no trees.[7] The climate of grassland biomes are typically characterized by warmer temperatures and increased precipitation, compared to desert biomes.[9] another defining characteristic of grasslands is seasonal droughts and disturbances, such as fires, which promote the growth and success of grasses and benefits biodiversity.[9] Grasslands can be divided into two categories:
*Tropical grasslands (Savannahs)
*Temperate grasslands (includes parries and steppes)
The two distinct groups of grassland biomes, tropical grasslands and temperate grasslands, have widely different soil conditions. The soils of tropical grasslands are porous and experiences a lot of leaching due to the increased precipitation rates.[9] The porous soil contributes to the lack of nutrients and [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] found in the soil because the precipitation moves through the soil with ease and takes the nutrients along with it, resulting in low nutrients and a small organic layer in the soil.[9] Temperate grassland soils differ from tropical grasslands and are described as deep, dark-colored, nutrient rich soils with the upper soil layers being extremely fertile.[9] Temperate grasslands receive less precipitation than tropical ones which reduces the amount of nutrients that are leached through the soil. [[Decomposition]] also plays an important role in the differences between grassland soils. Tropical forests experience partial decomposition while temperate ones have higher decomposition which contributes to the higher nutrient content of temperate grassland soils.[9]

====Forests====
Forest biomes constitutes about 1/3 of the earth’s surface and hosts majority of the biodiversity found in terrestrial biomes.[1][10] All forest biomes share the same dominant vegetation which is made up of trees and other woody plants, although forests have a wide range of climate conditions in which they can be found in. Forests can be found in the warm, moist tropics, moderate climate conditions of temperate environments, and even in cold and snowy northern latitudes.[10] The difference in environmental conditions of the various forests allows for forests to be categorized in a number of different ways, such as latitude, temperature and precipitation, and seasonality.[10] Below are the three major types of forests, categorized by latitude, but each of these forest types can be diverged into more specific classes: [[File:Amazon soil.jpg|right|thumb|Soil profile of an eroded hill in a tropical forest biome. A majority of the soil is nutrient poor (Light color soil) with a small amount of fertile soil (dark color soil).]]
*Tropical forests
*Temperate forests
*Boreal forests (Taiga)
Forest biomes have a wide distribution and inhabit a range of unique environmental conditions, including soil conditions. Tropical forests have soils that are nutrient-poor and acidic, both which are results of intense precipitation.[10] The rain leaches through the soil and deprives the soil of nutrients and the loss of nutrients leads to the acidic nature of the soils. Tropical forests also have a fast decomposition rates which prevents [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and nutrients from building up in the soil, leaving it nutrient poor.[10] Conversely, temperate forests have nutrient rich soils which comes from the decomposition of organic material and plant litter.[10] The seasonality of temperate forests contributes to the rich soils because many of the trees loose their leaves for the winter, which provides [[decomposers]] with a food source that is broken down into soil nutrients. The soil of boreal forests have its own unique characteristics that separates it from tropical and temperate forests. Boreal forest soils are lacking in nutrients, acidic, and relatively thin.[10] The cold temperatures causes lower decomposition rates which limits the amount of nutrients in the soil. The leaves from the predominant vegetation of boreal forests, needle-leaf conifers, fall and the acidic compounds leaches into the soil and changes the pH to be more acidic. [14]

====Tundra====
The tundra biome is coldest and least diverse of all the major biomes.[11] The tundra biome is characterized by extremely low annual temperatures, lower than any other biome, and low precipitation, producing a cold, dry, and inhospitable environment.[1] These intense conditions limit the kinds of life that can occupy the tundra because only species that are adapted to the extreme cold, dry conditions, and short growing seasons.[7][[File:Permafrost layers.png|right|thumb|320px|Diagram of a tundra biome soil layer showing permafrost.]] Although the tundra is known for its lack of biodiversity there are still organisms that call this biome home. There is not many different types of vegetation in this biome, due to the harsh growing conditions, but the vegetation that does reside here are rather simple, including mosses, lichens, grasses, and some shrubs.[1] There are two types of tundra biomes that are found on Earth:
*Artic tundra
*Alpine tundra
Tundra biomes do not have great soil conditions which also contributes to the low biodiversity. Tundra soils are defined by the lack of soil nutrients and the frozen layer of soil known as [[permafrost]].[11] the lack of soil nutrients, notably nitrogen and phosphorus, leads to poor soil conditions which limits the vegetation that can grow there.[11] the frozen layer of permafrost also contributes to the poor soil conditions by locking up vital nutrients and [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] which prevents vegetation from reaching these essential components.[11]

===Aquatic biomes===
While terrestrial biomes are typically categorized by their dominant plant life, aquatic biomes are not defined by the dominant vegetation, which is much harder to find in aquatic ecosystems, and thus leads to aquatic biomes being classified by other components, such as salinity, depth, temperature, sunlight, and more.[7]

====Marine====
Marine biomes are very diverse and unique systems that make up about three fourths of Earth’s total surface.[15] One of the defining factors of marine biomes is the salt content. Marine biomes have a higher salt content than freshwater biomes.[7] The marine biome is extremely important because not only does it act as a sink for atmospheric carbon, but marine [[algae]] are responsible for producing a large amount of the world oxygen supply.[15] Marine biomes can be further broken down into:
*Oceans
*Coral reefs
*Estuaries
[[File:Freshwater.jpg|thumb|A lake at Acadia National Park, ME. Lakes are classified as freshwater biomes.]]

====Freshwater====
Freshwater biomes are aquatic systems that are surrounded by land and contain on average less than 1% salt content.[16] Freshwater biomes can be either standing water or running water. The close proximity of freshwater biomes to terrestrial biomes means that these systems are connected by similar biotic and abiotic factors and can influence one another.[4] Types of freshwater biomes include:
*Lakes and ponds
*Rivers and streams
*Wetlands

==Human Influence & Global Change==
Human activities can have a major influence on the distribution and environmental conditions of both terrestrial and aquatic biomes. Biomes have been disturbed, reduced, and altered over the course of human history. Humans have altered natural biomes so significantly that the term “anthromes” has been used to describe human created biomes, such as agricultural farmlands and urban environments.[17] In addition to directly disturbing biomes, human-driven climate change is going to alter temperature, precipitation, and other climatic conditions around the world impacting vegetation and entire biomes. Biomes are expected to shift in response to changing climatic conditions, such as temperature and precipitation.[19]

===Deserts===
Desert biomes are expected to expand in response to climate change and human activities. [[Desertification]] describes the encroachment of desert environments into other biomes and is driven by a number of different factors, including deforestation, overgrazing, harmful agricultural practices, and changing climates.[20] variations in precipitation and temperatures can lead to a reduction in plant life, drying and erosion of soils, and droughts which drives the expansion of deserts.[20]

===Grasslands===
Grassland biomes have been significantly affected by humans in a number of ways. Human expansion and the development of urban and agricultural areas has changed the landscape and altered the biotic communities resulting in reductions to the extent of grassland biomes.[18] Climate change is going to dramatically shift grassland biomes toward the poles as grasses follow hospitable climate conditions.[19]

===Forests===
[[File:Deforestation.jpg|thumb|A forest biome that has been cut down to make room for agriculture.]]
Forest biomes have experience extreme pressure from humans in the form of deforestation, which decimates large portions of forest for a number of reasons including resources and agricultural expansion.[ 21] Climate change will have significant effects on forest biomes. Trees that make up the various forest biomes will shift towards more favorable climates, shifting biomes toward the poles, and extreme weather events like droughts and flooding will impact forests.[22] Invasive species and pests are other issues that can weaken forests and reduce the extent of forest biomes.[22]

===Tundra===
Tundra biomes are extremely sensitive to both climate change and human activities. One of the greatest threats to tundra biomes is the increase in temperatures and melting of permafrost due to anthropogenic climate change.[23] thawing of permafrost releases methane and other greenhouse gases that creates a positive feedback loop, perpetuating the rise in temperatures.[23] The plant and animals that inhabit tundra biomes are specifically adapted to colder weather and thus an increase in temperatures can destabilize the tundra communities and force the organisms to adapt or die out. Tundra biomes take a long to repair themselves from disturbances which also highlights the sensitivity of this biome to perturbations and environmental changes.[23]

===Aquatic===
[[File:Garbage pactch.jpg|thumb|A patch of garbage and plastics floating in the ocean.]]
Aquatic biomes have their own set of disturbances that threaten the stability and functioning of the biomes. Both freshwater and marine biomes are at risk of severe impacts from humans and climate change alike, although the exact impacts will vary due to the unique conditions of each aquatic biome. The threats towards marine biomes include ocean acidification and rising sea temperatures which can impact the marine life due to changing environmental conditions.[24] This impact is especially seen in coral reef environments in which corals are bleaching and dying at an alarming rate because they cannot cope with the changing conditions. Freshwater biomes are also expected to be influenced by climate change. Increased temperatures and precipitation can lead to both droughts and floods which directly impact the entire biome.[25] The effect humans have on these aquatic biomes include pollution, overuse, and harmful invasive species.[24][25] Pollution and overfishing are two major impacts from humans that can significantly affect the dynamics of these biomes.[24][25] Runoff is a major source of pollution, specifically chemicals and excess nutrients, for both marine and freshwater systems.[26][27]
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==References==
[1] National Geographic Society. (2020) Biome. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/biome/

[2] UC Museum of Paleontology (2019) The world’s biomes. University of California, Berkley. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/index.php

[3] Augustyn, Adam. "Biome". Encyclopedia Britannica, 18 Feb. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/science/biome. Accessed 1 May 2021.

[4] Carter, S. Introductions to Biomes. Lumen Learning. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-wmopen-biology2/chapter/biomes/

[5] Mucina, L. 2019. Biome: evolution of a crucial ecological and biogeographical concept. New Phytologist 222:97–114.

[6] Hain, T. (2019). The link between biomes and climate. The Thought Co. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-are-biomes-1435312

[7] National Geographic Society. (2019). What makes a biome? https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/what-makes-biome/?utm_source=BibblioRCM_Row

[8] UC Museum of Paleontology (2019). The desert biome. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/deserts.php

[9] UC Museum of Paleontology (2019). The grassland biome. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/grasslands.php

[10] UC Museum of Paleontology (2019). The forest biome. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/forests.php

[11] UC Museum of Paleontology (2019) The tundra biome. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/tundra.php

[12] National Geographic Society. (2020). Desert biome. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/desert-biome/#:~:text=This%20biome%20has%20a%20layer,have%20adaptations%20to%20conserve%20water.

[13] Sindelar, M. (2015). soils protect the natual enviroment. Soil Science Society of America. https://www.soils.org/files/sssa/iys/september-soils-overview.pdf

[14] Regional Aquatics Monitoring Program. The physical environment. http://www.ramp-alberta.org/river/boreal/canada/physical+environment.aspx#:~:text=Soils%20in%20the%20boreal%20forest,acidic%2C%20and%20poor%20in%20nutrients.

[15] UC Museum of Paleontology (2019). The marine biome. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/marine.php

[16] UC Museum of Paleontology (2019). The freshwater biome. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/freshwater.php

[17] Ellis, E.C. & Ramankutty, N. (2008) Putting people in the map: anthropogenic biomes of the world. Frontiers in [[Ecology]] and the Environment, 6, 439–447

[18] Carr, K. (2018). What Are the Impacts of Humans on Grassland Biomes? Sciencing. https://sciencing.com/effects-of-land-clearing-13406919.html

[19] Buis, A. (2011). Climate change may bring big ecosystem changes. NASA. https://climate.nasa.gov/news/645/climate-change-may-bring-big-ecosystem-changes/

[20] McSweeny, R. (2019). Explainer: ‘Desertification’ and the role of climate change. https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-desertification-and-the-role-of-climate-change

[21] Understanding the different types of biomes. Kent State University. https://onlinedegrees.kent.edu/geography/geographic-information-science/community/biomes-types-and-human-impact#:~:text=The%20forest%20biome%20most%20at,already%20contributed%20to%20global%20warming.

[22] Climate impacts on forests. (2017). United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-forests_.html

[23] Nunez, C. (2020). Tundra threat explained. National Geographic Society. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/tundra-threats-explained/#:~:text=Air%20pollution%20affects%20tundra%20environments%20in%20different%20ways.&text=And%20toxic%20mercury%2C%20sent%20into,important%20food%20source%20of%20lichen.

[24] National Geographic Society. Ocean threats. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/ocean-threats#:~:text=Global%20warming%20is%20causing%20sea,kills%20marine%20plants%20and%20shellfish.

[25] National Geographic Society. Freshwater threats. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/freshwater-threats

[26] National Geographic Society. Marine pollution. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/marine-pollution/#:~:text=Marine%20pollution%20is%20a%20combination,and%20to%20economic%20structures%20worldwide.

[27] Pollution Issues. Water pollution: freshwater. http://www.pollutionissues.com/Ve-Z/Water-Pollution-Freshwater.html#:~:text=Freshwater%20pollution%20is%20the%20contamination,sediment%2C%20or%20even%20heated%20discharges.

Anostraca

2025-05-02T19:16:16Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

[[File:Bsandiegonensis+-+Andres+Aguilar.jpg|thumb| The California Fairy Shrimp, one of the main drivers in the nature protection plan for vernal ponds in California.]] '''Anostraca''' is one of the four orders of crustaceans that compose the class ''Branchiopoda'', the other three being Notostraca, Laevicaudata, and Diplostraca. The members of the Anostraca order are more commonly referred to as "fairy shrimp" or "brine shrimp". They swim upside-down and are typically found in [[Vernal Pools]] and hypersaline lakes (landlocked lakes that contain high levels of sodium chloride and other salts). Being the most diverse order of Branchiopoda, they have over 300 species across 8 families, and can be found in places such as deserts, colder regions, and mountains as well. Anostraca are a primary food source for many animals, including fish and birds. Additionally, they are cultivated by humans to be used as fish food.

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ Fairy Shrimp Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Subphylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Subclass
! scope="row" | Order
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| [[Arthropoda]]
| Crustacea
| Branchiopoda
| Sarsostraca
| Anostraca
|}

==Description==

A fairy shrimp's body is typically elongated and segmented into three distinct parts: head, abdomen, and thorax. The animal typically measures anywhere from .25 - 1 inch long (6-25 millimeters); however, some species may reach almost 7 inches (170 mm)[1]. Fairy shrimp possess a thin but flexible exoskeleton that unlike other [[arthropods]] does not have a carapace (an upper section of exoskeleton found in many groups of [[animals]]) [1].

[[File:Brine.jpeg|thumb|A model showing the separate sections of a fairy shrimp.]]

===Head===
The head of fairy shrimp possesses two compound eyes and two separate pairs of antennae. The shape of the second pair of antennae differ between males and females of the species; the males second pair of antennae are enlarged and specialized (instead of long and cylindrical) in order to be able to better hold females during mating [7].

===Thorax and Abdomen===
Most members of this order have a thorax with 13 segments with the exception of ''Polyartemiella'' and ''Polyartemia'' which possess 19 and 21 segments respectively. Each segment houses a pair of legs. All segments but the last two are similar in that they have a pair of flattened leaf-like appendages [1]. The last two segments of the body contain specialized appendages for sexual reproduction. Most fairy shrimp reproduce sexually, however a few reproduce by parthenogenesis. The abdomen has 6 segments which do not contain appendages, and a telson, which bears two flattened cercopods.

===Sexual Dimorphism===
In addition to the males' extra antennae, there are more differences between male and female anostraca. Certain species of males possess extra antennae appendages. Behind the legs exists the genitalia. Males have a pair of of ventral gonopods ([[arthropod]] reproductive organ, in males, used for transferring sperm) [9]. Females have a brood pouch within which are oviductal pouches, a median ovisac, and shell glands [11].

===Anatomy===
The head contains two digestive glands as well as the stomach. This feeds into an intestine which is followed by the rectum and ends with the anus which is on the telson. The haemocoel (arthropod substitute for circulatory system; the cavity in which their organs reside and are flooded with nutrients) is fueled by a long tube shaped heart, which takes up much of the body length [10]. The nervous system of the anostraca functions by way of two nerve cords with two ganglia and commissures to match [10].

==Ecology==

Anostracans swim by moving their phyllopodia (leg like appendages on the thorax segments). When swimming, fairy shrimp will have their ventral side facing upward, which is why it is said that they are "swimming upside-down" [3]. While swimming, they filter food indiscriminately from the water and scrape [[algae]] and other organic materials from solid surfaces, pressing said ventral side against the food source [5].

Fairy shrimp are characterized by their ability to enter diapause, which is a state of dormancy where all growth and metabolism pause, as an egg (or cyst) [4]. This is an especially important biological trait because it assists in both species' dispersal and overcoming difficult environmental conditions. The Fairy shrimp cyst can withstand conditions anywhere from UV radiation, to droughts, frosts, hyper salinity, and even the vacuum of space. Diapause is also how fairy shrimp to colonize new habitats. This movement is facilitated by a variety of conditions such as predators, wind, and currents within water as the adults are unable to leave the freshwater system [4].

==Distribution and Habitat==
Fairy shrimp inhabit inland waters including vernal ponds, salt lakes, and lakes at high altitudes or latitudes. Due to their relatively large size and slow means of locomotion, Anostracans are easy prey for predatory fish and waterfowl [2]. This susceptibility to predation causes their range to be restricted to areas with a lower quantity of predators. Anostracans can be found on every continent including Antarctica [9]. Anostraca have been found in deserts, in the Antarctic, or in the Chilean Andes at elevations of 19,000 feet [10].

==Feeding==

[[File:Brine shrimp .jpeg|thumb| A Fairy Shrimp displaying its "upside-down" swimming method.]]

Most anostraca are omnivorous. Different species eat different substances which varies from algae, plankton and organic particles from the water. Some feed on algae by scraping hard algae covered surfaces with their legs which then makes the algae more accessible to feed on. They also use their legs to indiscriminately filter feed organic particles from the water as they swim [10]. Some species are predatory towards copepods, [[rotifers]], cladocerans, and other anostraca [9].

==Environmental Impact==
[[File:Shrimpfood.jpg|200px|thumb|Fairy shrimp are often sold as a food product for marine life and aquaculture.]]

Members of this order, most notably brine shrimp, are used as fish food and food for other [[organisms]] in aquaculture. In natural environments they are also eaten by birds, water boatmen, fish, and other crustaceans. Their drought-resistant eggs are collected from lakeshores then transported while dry. Following transportation, they hatch when submerged in water. This is a large industry centered in the Great Salt Lake in Utah and San Francisco Bay [6].

==[[Diversity]]==
Of the four orders of Branchiopoda, Anostraca has the widest diversity range. There are approximately 313 species in it, arranged into 26 genera and eight families:
* Artemiidae – 1 genus, 8 species
* Branchinectidae – 1 genus, 45 species
* Branchipodidae – 5 genera, 35 species
* Chirocephalidae – 9 genera, 81 species
* Parartemiidae – 1 genus, 18 species
* Streptocephalidae – 1 genus, 56 species
* Tanymastigidae – 2 genera, 8 species
* Thamnocephalidae – 6 genera, 62 species

To differentiate anostracan species, the most common method is to examine the structure of the second male antennae [9].

==References==
[1] Peter H. H. Weekers; Gopal Murugan; Jacques R. Vanfleteren; Denton Belk; Henri J. Dumont (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of anostracans (Branchiopoda: Anostraca) inferred from nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA (18S rDNA) sequences" Pg. 535–544. doi:10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00289-0. PMID 12450757.

[2] Vernal Pool Fairy Shrimp. National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Vernal-Pool-Fairy-Shrimp

[3] “Fairy Shrimp.” 2022. Fairy Shrimp | Merced [[Vernal Pools]] & Grassland Reserve. Accessed May 10. https://vernalpools.ucmerced.edu/ecosystem/reserve-fairy-shrimp.

[4] Fryer, Geoffrey (1996-03-01). "Diapause, a potent force in the evolution of freshwater crustaceans". Hydrobiologia. 320 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1007/bf00016800

[5] Denton Belk (2007). "Branchiopoda". In Sol Felty Light; James T. Carlton (eds.). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal [[Invertebrates]] from Central California to Oregon (4th ed.). University of California Press. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-0-520-23939-5.

[6] J. M. Melack (2009). "Saline and soda lakes". In Sven Erik Jørgensen (ed.). Ecosystem [[Ecology]]. Academic Press. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-0-444-53466-8.

[7] William David Williams (1980). "Arachnids and Crustaceans". Australian Freshwater Life: the Invertebrates of Australian Inland Waters (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia. pp. 118–184. ISBN 978-0-333-29894-7

[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Brine Shrimp | [[Crustacean]].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/animal/brine-shrimp.

[9] Luc Brendonck; D. Christopher Rogers; Jorgen Olesen; Stephen Weeks; Walter R. Hoch (2008). "Global diversity of large branchiopods (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) in freshwater". In Estelle V. Balian; Christian Lévêque; Hendrik Segers; Koen Martens (eds.). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. Developments in Hydrobiology 198. pp. 167–176. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9119-9. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. S2CID 46608816. Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, Volume 595

[10] Anostraca. (2025). In Wikipedia., Accessed March 3 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anostraca&oldid=1278274678

[11] Thorp, J. H., & Rogers, M. B. A. (2014). Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Elsevier Science & Technology., Accessed March 3 2025, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1781029

Alfisols

2025-05-02T19:16:09Z

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Alfisols are mildly acidic soils with significant accumulation of clays, possessing a soil moisture regime that is moist for most of the year [6]. These are latitudinally the most widespread of the twelve [[soil]] orders defined by the United States Department of [[Agriculture]] (USDA) [3]. Alfisols are typically well-drained and commonly used for agriculture.

== Definition ==

Alfisols are found in a variety of climates around the world. Some areas where they are prominent include West Africa immediately south of the Sahara Desert, eastern India, much of Europe and western Russia, the Midwest and Great Lakes regions of the United States, parts of the Australia coastline, and various other areas of the world [5].

The distribution of alfisols often forms a buffer between other soil orders with differing soil moisture regimes [5]. In warm climates they can occur adjacent to [[aridisols]] (dry soils), separating them from various other soil orders associated with humid climates. An example where this occurs is in Texas, where alfisols in central and east Texas separate the dry West Texas soils from the humid southeastern United States. In mesic or cool climates Alfisols often occur adjacent to Mollisols (grassland soils).

== Description ==

Diagnostic features of alfisols include a thin ochric epipedon, which is a light-colored surface horizon (see: [[Soil Horizons]]), and a prominent argillic horizon [2]. The argillic horizon is a product of silicate [[clay]] accumulation in the B horizon via illuviation, and cation exchange capacity in this horizon is over 35% saturated with base-forming cations [2]. Soil water potential greater than 1500 kPa is considered a “moist” soil moisture regime, and alfisols typically exceed this for most of the year, although for at least 3 months of the year soil moisture in alfisols falls below this threshold [6].
[[File:Alfisol soil profile.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Alfisol soil profile [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/class/maps/?cid=nrcs142p2_053590]]]

Temperate forests and cropland commonly occur on alfisols, and net primary productivity is usually high. In some areas, particularly eastern Europe/western Russia and the Midwestern United States, there is substantial occurrence of loess [3]. Loess refers to the depositional products of [[soil erosion]] by wind. These soils are generally very fertile, as evidenced by the loess deposits in the intensively cultivated Midwestern United States.

== Distribution of Suborders in the United States ==
Five suborders of alfisols occur in the United States, comprising 13.9% of land area in the U.S. [10]:

Aqualfs- often cultivated for common crops including corn, rice, and soybeans.

Ustalfs- occur mainly in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains in semiarid climates.

Cryalfs- found at higher elevations, particularly in the Rocky Mountains. Often forested due to cool climate and short growing season.

Xeralfs- found on the west coast, often used as cropland or pastureland.

Udalfs- udic soil moisture regime, found in humid climates.

[[File:AlfisolsSuborders.jpeg | ]]

Suborder information and map from USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service [10]

== Ecology ==

Around the world, alfisols are used intensively for agriculture. In the United States, particularly the Midwest and Great Lakes regions, major crops include grains, corn, and hay [3]. Dairy farming is also common in these areas. Alfisols in Mediterranean climates (i.e. Europe and California) are cultivated for fruits, nuts, and various specialty crops such as olives [3]. An important process that occurs in alfisol agroecosystems is crop straw [[decomposition]], which increases soil [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and nutrient availability [6]. Alfisols that are low in [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] are susceptible to soil erosion, particularly in agricultural areas [1]. A variety of best management practices for agriculture are utilized in these areas, such as crop rotations, cover cropping, and fallowing [1].

[[File:Enchytraeids.JPG|200px|thumb|left|Enchytraeids in soil [https://www.wur.nl/en/Research-Results/Chair-groups/Environmental-Sciences/Soil-Biology-Group/Research/The-Soil-Biota/Enchytraeids-potworms.htm]]]
The geographic and climatic [[diversity]] of alfisols means that a greater variety of flora and fauna exists compared to other soil orders. Astigmatic [[mites]] are often found at their greatest densities in agroecosystems after events that increase soil [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], such as harvest, tillage, and the application of soil amendments [8]. Enchytraeids are often found at higher densities in alfisols compared to other soils – they are typically associated with high acidity and [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] found in temperate forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas [4,11]. In forested and cultivated alfisols, enchytraeid populations typically occur in the upper soil horizons where organic matter is highest, but may be found at greater depths in grasslands soils (usually mollisols) [4,5].Other prominent soil fauna in agroecosystems include Carabidae (ground beetles) and various species of mound-building and humivorous [[termites]] [9].

== References ==

[1]Adekiya, A.O., and others. Soil productivity improvement under different fallow types on Alfisol of a derived savanna [[ecology]] of Nigeria. 2021. Heliyon. 7:e06759.

[2]Brady, Nyle C., and Weil, Ray R. “Elements of the Nature and [[Properties]] of Soils.” 2000. Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ.

[3]Christopherson, Robert W. “Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography, Tenth Edition.” 2017. Pearson. Hoboken, NJ.

[4]Coleman, David C., Callaham Jr., Mac A., and Crossley Jr., D. A. “Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]], Third Edition.” 2018. Academic Press. Cambridge, MA.

[5]Davidson, D.A., Bruneau, P.M.C., Grieve, I.C., and Young, I.M. Impacts of fauna on an upland grassland soil as determined by micromorphological analysis. 2002. Applied Soil Ecology. 20:133-143.

[6]Soil Taxonomy, Second Edition. 1999. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. pg. 163.

[7]Li, Ji-Fu, and Zhong, Fang-Fang. Nitrogen release and re-adsorption dynamics on crop straw residue during straw decomposition in an Alfisol. 2021. Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 20(1):248–259.

[8]Perdue, J.C., and Crossley Jr., D.A. Seasonal abundance of soil mites ([[Acari]]) in experimental agroecosystems: effects of drought in no-tillage and conventional tillage. 1989. Soil Tillage Res. 15:117-124.

[9]Purvis, G., and Fadel, A. The influence of cropping rotations and soil cultivation practice on the population ecology of carabids ([[Coleoptera]], Carabidae) in arable land. 2002. Pedobiologia. 46:452-474.

[10]USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Alfisols Map. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/class/maps/?cid=nrcs142p2_053591

[11]van Vliet, P.C.J., West, L.T., Hendrix, P.F., and Coleman, D.C. The influence of [[Enchytraeidae]] (Oligochaeta) on the soil [[porosity]] of small microcosms. 1993. Geoderma. 56:287-299.

Arthropoda

2025-05-01T19:08:44Z

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Mourning Cloak Butterfly

2025-05-01T19:06:44Z

Njhenshu:

The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring.
[[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]

==Taxonomy==

'''Kingdom:''' Animalia

'''Phylum:''' [[Arthropoda]]

'''Class:''' [[Insecta]]

'''Order:''' Lepidoptera

'''Family:''' Nymphalidae

'''Genus:''' Nymphalis

'''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''

==Description==

Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band.

Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching.

Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch.

Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].

[[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak pupae.]]
[[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|left|Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]

==Life Cycle==

Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators.

Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].

==Range, Habitat, and Diet==

The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].

[[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]

==Migration==

Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].

==Mating==

Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days [3].

Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [4].

==References==

[1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023.

[2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023.

[3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.

[4] “Mourning Cloak (Nymphalis Antiopa).” Vermont Atlas of Life, https://val.vtecostudies.org/projects/vermont-butterfly-atlas/mourning-cloak/ Accessed 10 May 2023.

Protozoans

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Naked amoeba

2025-05-01T19:04:10Z

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Naked Amoeba

2025-05-01T19:03:44Z

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Ecosystem services

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Ecology

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Decomposing

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Arthropods

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"Arthropoda"

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Wood frog

2025-05-01T18:46:34Z

Njhenshu: The LinkTitles extension automatically added links to existing pages (https://github.com/bovender/LinkTitles).

The Wood Frog, otherwise known as ''Lithobates sylvaticus'', is a terrestrial frog found throughout North America [5]. In Greek '' Litho'' translates to "a stone", ''bates'' translates to "one that walks", and ''sylvaticus'' meaning "amidst the trees" [6]. They belong to the Order ''Anura'' and the Family ''Ranidae'' [2]. This species of frog is common and is not currently under any threat of extinction [5].

== Description ==

[[File:wood-frog.jpg|260px|thumb|left|This is a photo of an adult Wood frog.]]

The Wood frog is a comparatively small frog. Fully grown adults are 1.5 to 3.25 inches in length [5]. Females are typically larger and more brightly colored than their male counterparts [5]. They can differ in color, but bodies typically range from a light tan to a dark brown [4]. Their most distinct feature is the coloration around their eyes. The Wood frog has two black markings that extend back from their eyes, resembling a mask [6]. The underbelly is white and sometimes has small grey marks [4]. This frog has two distinct ridges that run down their back. These ridges are known as Dorsolateral folds [6].

[[File:WFTAnatomyBW.jpg|260px|thumb|left|Anatomical diagram of an adult Wood frog.]]

== Range and Habitat ==

[[File:woodfrogmap.gif|200px|thumb|left|This map shows the geographical range for ''Lithobates sylvaticus''.]]

Wood frogs have a very large range. They are found in Canada and North America [5]. Their range goes as far south as the Appalachian mountains and as far north as Alaska [6]. They can also be found in smaller populations in Alabama and Idaho [5]. The Wood frog is the only frog that lives in the Artic Circle, this is due to their ability to freeze [5].

Wood frogs typically like both deciduous and coniferous forests [6]. They gravitate towards forests with a closed canopy to keep out sunlight and keep in moisture [2]. This species likes lots of leaf litter and wood debris on the forest floor for shelter [4]. Especially in the winter, Wood frogs can go upland and seek refuge in the leaf litter while they hibernate [3]. When they are not breeding, they can be found in an moist forested areas, ravines, bogs or forested swamps. When spring comes they migrate into forested wetlands or other protected bodies of water to breed [2].

During mating season, these frogs find temporary pools of water of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] [6]. These can be any cut off water sources like streams or ponds, and can even be in ditches. These are preferably free of fish to increase survivability of the offspring [6]. Wood frogs are diurnal and are rarely seen at night but often heard in loud choruses during mating season [5].

== Cold Tolerance ==

Wood frogs are one of the only species of frog to live in the Artic Circle, this is due to their ability to freeze [4]. These frogs "freeze over" in the winter, this serves as hibernation [5]. The freezing process works by releasing large amounts of glucose into their bloodstream, this keeps their body cells from freezing, but not their other bodily fluids [4]. The distribution of liver glycogen enhances the survival of cells, tissues, and organs. This was seen by experimentally adding additional glucose to the Wood frog which increased its tolerance to freezing [1]. This glucose distribution raises the osmotic pressure of the body fluids, which in turn reduces the amount of ice that forms at any given temperature [1]. The Wood frog also creates and antifreeze using their urea [5]. These cryoprotectants keep the water within their cells from freezing because this would indeed kill them [5]. As winter ends the frogs will begin to thaw and begin the breeding process [5].

== Diet ==

As tadpoles, Wood frogs only eat [[algae]] and other frog larvae, but as they grown into their adult stages they become omnivores [4]. While inhabiting the forests, they feed on a variety of small [[invertebrates]] that they find on the forest floor. With their long tongue they can catch [[insects]] including, arachnids, worms, [[slugs]], and snails [5]. The Wood frog is not particular about its diet and will eat just about anything that's the size of its mouth [3]. These frogs are often seen as easy prey, and are eaten by snapping turtles, raccoons, skunks, coyotes, foxes, and birds [5].

== Reproduction ==

Wood frogs will leave their leaf litter refugee after "freezing off" to find a vernal pool for breeding [6]. This process typically begins as early as March and as late as April [4]. The male frogs will make a crocking noise to attract a mate when they are ready, this is typically at night [3]. While the male is on the back of the female they will both simultaneously release their gametes, sperm and egg, into the water [3]. The eggs are now fertilized, and can continue to grow in the water [3]. Each female can lay 1,000 to 3,000 eggs per season [5]. To prevent the eggs from drifting downstream the egg mass attaches itself to nearby vegetation [3]. It takes the eggs about one week until they hatch, once hatched they are in their tadpole stage [3]. This stage can last at least two months, and is likely to be longer if nutrient availability is low [3]. After the two months, the tadpoles have transformed into froglets [3]. These froglets are only about ten centimeters long and it takes two more years until they before adult Wood frogs [3]. After two years, the Wood frog is fully matured it may began to mate, and the process begins again [3]. Wood frogs have a life span of about 3 years [5].

----

== References ==

[1] Costanzo, Jon P., et al. “Cryoprotectants and Extreme Freeze Tolerance in a Subarctic Population of the Wood Frog.” PLOS ONE, vol. 10, no. 2, Feb. 2015, p. e0117234. PLoS Journals, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117234.

[2] Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Report. (n.d.). . https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=775197.

[3] Preston, B. (n.d.). The Biology of the Wood Frog. Nature North. http://www.naturenorth.com/spring/creature/woodfrog/wf2.html.

[4] Wild things in your woods. (n.d.). . Cornell University. https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.cornell.edu/dist/a/7804/files/2018/05/Wood-Frog-23xt0xr-11v8dab.pdf.

[5] Wood frog. (n.d.). . National Wildlife Federation. https://www.nwf.org/educational-resources/wildlife-guide/amphibians/wood-frog#:~:text=Wood%20frogs%20are%20found%20in,lay%20eggs%20in%20vernal%20pools.

[6] Wood Frog. (n.d.). . Virginia Herpetological Society. https://www.virginiaherpetologicalsociety.com/amphibians/frogsandtoads/wood-frog/wood_frog.php.