https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Nikolaih 2026-04-14T22:00:40Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.43.0 https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6964 2021-05-05T19:56:33Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record. [2]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Birds-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> '''Diversisporales'''-<br /> <br /> '''Glomerales'''-<br /> <br /> '''Archaeosporales'''-<br /> <br /> '''Paraglomerales'''-<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients. [1]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants in which they inavade and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive [1]. Glomeromycetes form arbuscular mycorrhizae with the roots of plants. These realtionships are vital for nutrient uptake of [[plant roots]] as more than 80% of plant species depend on glomeromycetes [5]. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1] Moore, D., Robson, G., Trinci, A. &quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, Cambridge University Press, 2020<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;<br /> <br /> [5] Coleman, D., Callaham, M., Crossley, D. Jr.. &quot;Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]&quot;, Academic Press, 20th October, 2017.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6930 2021-05-05T19:30:49Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record. [2]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Birds-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> '''Diversisporales'''<br /> <br /> '''Glomerales'''<br /> <br /> '''Archaeosporales'''<br /> <br />   <br /> '''Paraglomerales'''<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients. [1]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants in which they inavade and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive [1]. Glomeromycetes form arbuscular mycorrhizae with the roots of plants. These realtionships are vital for nutrient uptake of [[plant roots]] as more than 80% of plant species depend on glomeromycetes [5]. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1] Moore, D., Robson, G., Trinci, A. &quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, Cambridge University Press, 2020<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;<br /> <br /> [5] Coleman, D., Callaham, M., Crossley, D. Jr.. &quot;Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]&quot;, Academic Press, 20th October, 2017.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6917 2021-05-05T19:23:56Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record. [2]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Birds-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> '''Diversisporales'''<br /> <br /> '''Glomerales'''<br /> <br /> '''Archaeosporales'''<br /> <br />   <br /> '''Paraglomerales'''<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients. [1]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants in which they inavade and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive [1]. Glomeromycetes form arbuscular mycorrhizae with the roots of plants. These realtionships are vital for nutrient uptake of [[plant roots]] as more than 80% of plant species depend on glomeromycetes [5]. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1] Moore, D., Robson, G., Trinci, A. &quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, Cambridge University Press, 2020<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6896 2021-05-05T19:11:56Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record. [2]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Birds-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> '''Diversisporales'''<br /> <br /> '''Glomerales'''<br /> <br /> '''Archaeosporales'''<br /> <br />   <br /> '''Paraglomerales'''<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients. [1]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants in which they inavade and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. [1]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1] Moore, D., Robson, G., Trinci, A. &quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, Cambridge University Press, 2020<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6877 2021-05-05T18:58:05Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record. [2]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Birds-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> '''Diversisporales'''<br /> <br /> '''Glomerales'''<br /> <br /> '''Archaeosporales'''<br /> <br />   <br /> '''Paraglomerales'''<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients. [1]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants in which they inavade and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. [1]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6856 2021-05-05T18:49:41Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record. [2]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Birds-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> '''Diversisporales'''<br /> <br /> '''Glomerales'''<br /> <br /> '''Archaeosporales'''<br /> <br />   <br /> '''Paraglomerales'''<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients. [1]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. [1]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6851 2021-05-05T18:46:13Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record. [2]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> '''Diversisporales'''<br /> <br /> '''Glomerales'''<br /> <br /> '''Archaeosporales'''<br /> <br />   <br /> '''Paraglomerales'''<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients. [1]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. [1]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Blue-spotted_salamander&diff=6665 2021-05-05T15:18:09Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''General Description '''==<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-Spotted_Salamander.jpeg| 500 px | thumb | Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) in the late fall [3]]]<br /> The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterlae) is calssified in the Ambystomitidae familyblack with blue spots and specks all over the body, sides, arms, and tail. A total of 12-14 costal grooves run from the tip of the head to the end of the body. In addition, costal grooves are vertical creases that run along their bodies and have the effect of increasing the skins surface area to increase water absorption. Salamanders cannot live without having wet skin, so this attribute is of great importance [5]. Adults grow to be 3-5 inches ( 7.6-14 cm), females are slightly larger than males [1]. Additionally, they have five toes on both of their back feet and four on each of their front feet.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat''' == <br /> <br /> The geographic range of this species extends north from the New England area to as far west as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Tolerant of cold temperatures, these Blue-spotted Salamanders are found in both deciduous timbers and coniferous forests with moist woodlands. The existence of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] that maintain water all the way through summer is essential to the sustainability of their habitat. Most likely, they would be found in the leaf litter and logs located along the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] from early spring to mid-fall. During the warmer months, they may even venture out in the open during rain showers [1].<br /> <br /> Like many amphibian species, their habitat is threatened by human development. Commercial, residential, and industrial construction all have a negative impact on their populations and habitats. Blue-spotted Salamanders have been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List [2].<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-spotted_Salamander_Distribution_Map.jpg|400 px | thumb|left|Distrubtion map of Blue-spotted Salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Ecology''' ==<br /> <br /> Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates such as snails, earthworms, centipedes, and spiders. Moreover, salamanders may eat aquatic [[insects]] such as water fleas and copepods, especially if they are in breeding pools. When not breeding in the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], they prefer to stay hidden in darkness under logs and fallen leaves. During the night or in the process of a storm, they will go out a lot more because of the abundant moisture that they are provided. If danger exists, these salamanders are capable of producing toxic secretions as a form of defense. [1] The poisonous secretions are part of their defense mechanism for protecting themselves from predators. The unappealing taste deters predators from consuming them.<br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Reproduction''' == <br /> <br /> Breeding season occurs from late March to early April, when salamanders migrate to the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. Both male and female Blue-spotted salamanders reach sexual maturity at the age of two years old. In a display of courtship, the male uses its snout to nuzzle and nudge the female. He then mounts the female by using his front legs to hold her body, but then rubs his chin on her head. Breeding sessions can last several hours with the pair periodically coming to the surface for air and afterwards resuming their underwater activity.<br /> <br /> After the courting, the male releases the female and deposits a [[spermatophore]] in front of her. If everything goes as planned, the female will move over the spermatophore and take it into her cloaca. The males can produce 10-40 spermatophores in one breeding season, but most are not utilized by the females. Females lay 1-12 eggs per clutch, which are laid in a gelatinous mass usually on leaves, sticks or rocks below the surface of the water. Hatching usually takes about 3 to 5 weeks for these eggs. The larva undergoes metamorphosis in late summer and lives an independent life cycle on land [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:AmbystomaComplex.jpg |400 px | thumb | right | Unisex mole complex [6]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Relations with Jefferson's Salamander''' == <br /> <br /> Blue-spotted salamanders are known to cross breed with the Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). This species is commonly known as the Unisex mole complex (Ambystoma unisex complex) since all the members of this complex are female, as they have multiple sets of chromosomes. As a result of their similar physical appearances, these salamanders can often be difficult to correctly identify [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References == <br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 58-62<br /> <br /> [2] &quot;Ambystoma laterale&quot; IUCN Red List of Threatended Species. 2004.<br /> <br /> [3] Blue-spotted salamander photographed at Letchworth Woods, University at Buffalo on 25th October 2020 by Nikolai Harper<br /> <br /> [4] Photograph of distribution from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 60<br /> <br /> [5] &quot;Critter Connections&quot; Youth Magazine of the Texas Wildlife Association, September 2019<br /> <br /> [6] Unisex mole salamander photographed by Josh Vandermeulen on April 7th, 2010 in Ontario, CA, from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [7] &quot;Jefferson/Bluespotted complex&quot; Cortland Herptology Connection, Cramer, C. &amp; Ducey, P. State University of New York College at Cortland.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6660 2021-05-05T14:51:53Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record. [2]<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> '''Diversisporales'''<br /> <br /> '''Glomerales'''<br /> <br /> '''Archaeosporales'''<br /> <br />   <br /> '''Paraglomerales'''<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6658 2021-05-05T14:50:10Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> '''Diversisporales'''<br /> <br /> '''Glomerales'''<br /> <br /> '''Archaeosporales'''<br /> <br />   <br /> '''Paraglomerales'''<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6657 2021-05-05T14:49:08Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> Diversisporales<br /> <br /> Glomerales<br /> <br /> Archaeosporales<br />   <br /> Paraglomerales<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6655 2021-05-05T14:48:45Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> Diversisporales<br /> <br />  Glomerales<br /> <br />  Archaeosporales<br />   <br /> Paraglomerales<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6651 2021-05-05T14:00:38Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> Diversisporales<br /> <br />   <br /> Glomerales<br /> <br />   <br /> Archaeosporales<br /> <br />   <br /> Paraglomerales<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6648 2021-05-05T13:47:32Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> Glomermycota cosists of four orders-<br /> <br /> Diversisporales<br /> <br />  <br />   <br /> Glomerales<br /> <br />  <br />  <br />   <br /> Archaeosporales<br /> <br />  <br />  <br />   <br /> Paraglomerales<br /> <br />  <br />  <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6646 2021-05-05T13:45:10Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. [3]<br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6644 2021-05-05T13:19:40Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. <br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augustyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6643 2021-05-05T13:19:07Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. <br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]Augusstyn, A. Managing Editor, Britannica, &quot;Outline of Classification of Fungi&quot;</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6642 2021-05-05T13:11:52Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> Glomeromycota make up one of the seven different phyla of the true fungi kingdom. The six other phyla are named as [[Chytridiomycota]], Blastocladiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Microsporidia, [[Ascomycota]], and [[Basidiomycota]]. [4]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. <br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.<br /> <br /> [4]</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6641 2021-05-05T12:56:45Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive.<br /> <br /> ==''' Phylogeny '''==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. <br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6640 2021-05-05T12:55:16Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The right photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. <br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6637 2021-05-05T03:59:11Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |450 px | thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == '''General Description''' ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat''' ==<br /> The Eastern red-backed salamander can be found all the way south to North Carolina, westward to Ohio and northward into New England through Nova Scotia. There are a variety of forest types where they can be found, ranging from deciduous to coniferous. The species of this species prefers moist soils, and will usually avoid dry, sandy soils and floodplains. During the cooler months, namely October to March, they tend to move underground. [1] The Eastern red-backed salamander is more likely to be found in areas containing neutral or basic soils rather than areas containing high acidity. Like most salamanders, they are typically found hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks during the day as they are most active at night. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> == '''[[Ecology]]''' == <br /> <br /> Their importance in the [[soil]] ecosystem is particularly important in the context of the fungi community. Fungi contribute to the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, and without them the organic matter would not decompose as rapidly. Invertebrates including [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails take advantage of fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamander maintains a balance as a result of feeding on the [[insects]] and thus controlling their populations [2]. The Eastern red-backed salamander not only indirectly influences the total amount of fungus in the habitat, but also its [[diversity]].<br /> <br /> According to the study conducted by Jaeger et al. (2002), one square kilometer can be home to more than three million eastern red-backed salamanders. The populations of their species are estimated to outnumber all birds and mammals in the specific regions, making them the most populous vertebrates in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are most commonly preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. To escape said predators, they can detach their tail, which wiggles in a way that serves as a distraction, allowing them to flee. Once escaping the predator, the salamander will then regrow a new tail over time [1]. The eastern red-backed salamander responds well to habitat disturbance as long as the key components are maintained (e.g., leaf litter, fallen logs, and rocks) [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | 400 px | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == '''Reproduction &amp; Growth''' == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer, they prefer a nesting site underground or in moist log. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. After two months of careful monitoring by the mother, the hatchlings emerge in August or September. Once hatched, these young remain with their mother for a few weeks before going out on their own as their is no aquatic larval stage for this species [2] Maturity is reached in approximately two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6636 2021-05-05T03:58:14Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |450 px | thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> The Eastern red-backed salamander can be found all the way south to North Carolina, westward to Ohio and northward into New England through Nova Scotia. There are a variety of forest types where they can be found, ranging from deciduous to coniferous. The species of this species prefers moist soils, and will usually avoid dry, sandy soils and floodplains. During the cooler months, namely October to March, they tend to move underground. [1] The Eastern red-backed salamander is more likely to be found in areas containing neutral or basic soils rather than areas containing high acidity. Like most salamanders, they are typically found hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks during the day as they are most active at night. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their importance in the [[soil]] ecosystem is particularly important in the context of the fungi community. Fungi contribute to the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, and without them the organic matter would not decompose as rapidly. Invertebrates including [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails take advantage of fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamander maintains a balance as a result of feeding on the [[insects]] and thus controlling their populations [2]. The Eastern red-backed salamander not only indirectly influences the total amount of fungus in the habitat, but also its [[diversity]].<br /> <br /> According to the study conducted by Jaeger et al. (2002), one square kilometer can be home to more than three million eastern red-backed salamanders. The populations of their species are estimated to outnumber all birds and mammals in the specific regions, making them the most populous vertebrates in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are most commonly preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. To escape said predators, they can detach their tail, which wiggles in a way that serves as a distraction, allowing them to flee. Once escaping the predator, the salamander will then regrow a new tail over time [1]. The eastern red-backed salamander responds well to habitat disturbance as long as the key components are maintained (e.g., leaf litter, fallen logs, and rocks) [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | 400 px | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction &amp; Growth == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer, they prefer a nesting site underground or in moist log. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. After two months of careful monitoring by the mother, the hatchlings emerge in August or September. Once hatched, these young remain with their mother for a few weeks before going out on their own as their is no aquatic larval stage for this species [2] Maturity is reached in approximately two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6635 2021-05-05T03:57:52Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |350 px | thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> The Eastern red-backed salamander can be found all the way south to North Carolina, westward to Ohio and northward into New England through Nova Scotia. There are a variety of forest types where they can be found, ranging from deciduous to coniferous. The species of this species prefers moist soils, and will usually avoid dry, sandy soils and floodplains. During the cooler months, namely October to March, they tend to move underground. [1] The Eastern red-backed salamander is more likely to be found in areas containing neutral or basic soils rather than areas containing high acidity. Like most salamanders, they are typically found hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks during the day as they are most active at night. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their importance in the [[soil]] ecosystem is particularly important in the context of the fungi community. Fungi contribute to the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, and without them the organic matter would not decompose as rapidly. Invertebrates including [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails take advantage of fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamander maintains a balance as a result of feeding on the [[insects]] and thus controlling their populations [2]. The Eastern red-backed salamander not only indirectly influences the total amount of fungus in the habitat, but also its [[diversity]].<br /> <br /> According to the study conducted by Jaeger et al. (2002), one square kilometer can be home to more than three million eastern red-backed salamanders. The populations of their species are estimated to outnumber all birds and mammals in the specific regions, making them the most populous vertebrates in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are most commonly preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. To escape said predators, they can detach their tail, which wiggles in a way that serves as a distraction, allowing them to flee. Once escaping the predator, the salamander will then regrow a new tail over time [1]. The eastern red-backed salamander responds well to habitat disturbance as long as the key components are maintained (e.g., leaf litter, fallen logs, and rocks) [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction &amp; Growth == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer, they prefer a nesting site underground or in moist log. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. After two months of careful monitoring by the mother, the hatchlings emerge in August or September. Once hatched, these young remain with their mother for a few weeks before going out on their own as their is no aquatic larval stage for this species [2] Maturity is reached in approximately two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6634 2021-05-05T03:56:51Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> The Eastern red-backed salamander can be found all the way south to North Carolina, westward to Ohio and northward into New England through Nova Scotia. There are a variety of forest types where they can be found, ranging from deciduous to coniferous. The species of this species prefers moist soils, and will usually avoid dry, sandy soils and floodplains. During the cooler months, namely October to March, they tend to move underground. [1] The Eastern red-backed salamander is more likely to be found in areas containing neutral or basic soils rather than areas containing high acidity. Like most salamanders, they are typically found hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks during the day as they are most active at night. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their importance in the [[soil]] ecosystem is particularly important in the context of the fungi community. Fungi contribute to the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, and without them the organic matter would not decompose as rapidly. Invertebrates including [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails take advantage of fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamander maintains a balance as a result of feeding on the [[insects]] and thus controlling their populations [2]. The Eastern red-backed salamander not only indirectly influences the total amount of fungus in the habitat, but also its [[diversity]].<br /> <br /> According to the study conducted by Jaeger et al. (2002), one square kilometer can be home to more than three million eastern red-backed salamanders. The populations of their species are estimated to outnumber all birds and mammals in the specific regions, making them the most populous vertebrates in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are most commonly preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. To escape said predators, they can detach their tail, which wiggles in a way that serves as a distraction, allowing them to flee. Once escaping the predator, the salamander will then regrow a new tail over time [1]. The eastern red-backed salamander responds well to habitat disturbance as long as the key components are maintained (e.g., leaf litter, fallen logs, and rocks) [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction &amp; Growth == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer, they prefer a nesting site underground or in moist log. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. After two months of careful monitoring by the mother, the hatchlings emerge in August or September. Once hatched, these young remain with their mother for a few weeks before going out on their own as their is no aquatic larval stage for this species [2] Maturity is reached in approximately two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6633 2021-05-05T03:51:01Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> The Eastern red-backed salamander can be found all the way south to North Carolina, westward to Ohio and northward into New England through Nova Scotia. There are a variety of forest types where they can be found, ranging from deciduous to coniferous. The species of this species prefers moist soils, and will usually avoid dry, sandy soils and floodplains. During the cooler months, namely October to March, they tend to move underground. [1] The Eastern red-backed salamander is more likely to be found in areas containing neutral or basic soils rather than areas containing high acidity. Like most salamanders, they are typically found hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks during the day as they are most active at night. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their importance in the [[soil]] ecosystem is particularly important in the context of the fungi community. Fungi contribute to the nutrient cycling of forests, and without them the organic matter would not decompose as rapidly. Invertebrates including [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails take advantage of fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamander maintains a balance as a result of feeding on the [[insects]] and thus controlling their populations [2]. The Eastern red-backed salamander not only indirectly influences the total amount of fungus in the habitat, but also its [[diversity]].<br /> <br /> According to the study conducted by Jaeger et al. (2002), one square kilometer can be home to more than three million eastern red-backed salamanders. The populations of their species are estimated to outnumber all birds and mammals in the specific regions, making them the most populous vertebrates in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are most commonly preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. To escape said predators, they can detach their tail, which wiggles in a way that serves as a distraction, allowing them to flee. Once escaping the predator, the salamander will then regrow a new tail over time [1]. The eastern red-backed salamander responds well to habitat disturbance as long as the key components are maintained (e.g., leaf litter, fallen logs, and rocks) [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction &amp; Growth == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September, the hatchlings will remain with the mother for a few weeks after hatching. [2] Maturity is reached in about two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6628 2021-05-05T03:18:15Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> The Eastern red-backed salamander can be found all the way south to North Carolina, westward to Ohio and northward into New England through Nova Scotia. There are a variety of forest types where they can be found, ranging from deciduous to coniferous. The species of this species prefers moist soils, and will usually avoid dry, sandy soils and floodplains. During the cooler months, namely October to March, they tend to move underground. [1] The Eastern red-backed salamander is more likely to be found in areas containing neutral or basic soils rather than areas containing high acidity. Like most salamanders, they are typically found hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks during the day as they are most active at night. [3]<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. <br /> <br /> Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined, they may be the most populous vertebrate in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. To escape said predators, they have the ability to detach their tail, the tail will wiggle after detached allowing the salamander to run away. It will then regrow a new tail over time [1]. Eastern red-backed salamanders are fairy tolerant to habitat disturbance as long as they key components are maintained, that being leaf litter, fallen logs, rocks, ect. [1]<br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction &amp; Growth == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September, the hatchlings will remain with the mother for a few weeks after hatching. [2] Maturity is reached in about two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6627 2021-05-05T03:03:55Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> Eastern red-backed salamanders can be found as far south as North Carolina, west over to Ohio, and north into New England through Nova Scotia. They can be found in varying types of forests, from deciduous or coniferous. Dry or sandy soils will usually be avoided by this species, as well as areas that frequently flood. Like most salamanders one can find them hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks as they are most active during the night.<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. <br /> <br /> Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined, they may be the most populous vertebrate in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. To escape said predators, they have the ability to detach their tail, the tail will wiggle after detached allowing the salamander to run away. It will then regrow a new tail over time [1]. Eastern red-backed salamanders are fairy tolerant to habitat disturbance as long as they key components are maintained, that being leaf litter, fallen logs, rocks, ect. [1]<br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction &amp; Growth == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September, the hatchlings will remain with the mother for a few weeks after hatching. [2] Maturity is reached in about two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Alfisols&diff=6626 2021-05-05T03:00:57Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> Alfisols are latitudinally the most widespread of the twelve [[soil]] orders defined by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) [3]. These are mildly acidic soils with significant accumulation of clays, possessing a soil moisture regime that is moist for most of the year. Alfisols are typically well-drained and commonly used for agriculture.<br /> <br /> == Definition: ==<br /> <br /> Alfisols are found in a variety of climates around the world. Some areas where they are prominent include West Africa immediately south of the Sahara Desert, eastern India, much of Europe and western Russia, the Midwest and Great Lakes regions of the United States, parts of the Australia coastline, and various other areas of the world [5].<br /> <br /> The distribution of alfisols often forms a buffer between other soil orders with differing soil moisture regimes [5]. In warm climates they can occur adjacent to [[Aridisols]] (dry soils), separating them from various other soil orders associated with humid climates. An example where this occurs is in Texas, where alfisols in central and east Texas separate the dry West Texas soils from the humid southeastern United States. In mesic or cool climates Alfisols often occur adjacent to Mollisols (grassland soils). <br /> <br /> == Description: ==<br /> <br /> Diagnostic features of alfisols include a thin ochric epipedon, which is a light-colored surface horizon, and a prominent argillic horizon [2]. The argillic horizon is a product of silicate [[clay]] accumulation in the B horizon via illuviation, and cation exchange capacity in this horizon is over 35% saturated with base-forming cations [2]. Soil water potential greater than 1500 kPa is considered a “moist” soil moisture regime, and alfisols typically exceed this for most of the year [5]. However, for at least 3 months during periods of plant growth, soil moisture in alfisols is below this threshold [5].<br /> <br /> Temperate forests and cropland commonly occur on alfisols, and net primary productivity is usually high. In some areas, particularly eastern Europe/western Russia and the Midwestern United States, there is substantial occurrence of loess [3]. Loess refers to the depositional products of [[soil erosion]] by wind. These soils are generally very fertile, as evidenced by the loess deposits in the intensively cultivated Midwestern United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Soil Classification ==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Similar to lifeforms, soils are classified into their own &quot;taxnomic&quot; groups. Alfisols are one of twelve orders of classified soils, within alfisols there are five suborders. <br /> [[File:SoilTaxonomyPic.jpg]]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution of Suborders ==<br /> <br /> Aqualfs- found south of the Mississippi and throughout Indiana and Ohio. They are often used as soils for our most produced crops such as corn, rice, and soybeans.<br /> <br /> Ustalfs- The most prevalent suborder of the group, can be found across the eastern United States from Wisconsin to New Yrok, and down to Texas. Moisture levels are higher in this group when compared to others. <br /> <br /> Cryalfs- higher elevations are home to this group specifically the Rocky Mountain states.<br /> <br /> Xeralfs- can also be used as a cropland or grazing land for cattle. Found in the eastern half of United States from Texas to California, up to Washington. <br /> <br /> Udalfs- <br /> <br /> [[File:AlfisolsSuborders.jpeg | ]]<br /> <br /> == Ecology: ==<br /> <br /> Around the world, alfisols are used intensively for agriculture. In the United States, particularly the Midwest and Great Lakes regions, major crops include grains, corn, and hay [3]. Dairy farming is also common in these areas. Alfisols in Mediterranean climates (i.e. Europe and California) are cultivated for fruits, nuts, and various specialty crops such as olives [3]. An important process that occurs in alfisol agroecosystems is crop straw [[decomposition]], which increases soil organic matter and nutrient availability [6]. Alfisols that are low in organic matter are susceptible to soil erosion, particularly in agricultural areas [1]. A variety of best management practices for agriculture are utilized in these areas, such as crop rotations, cover cropping, and fallowing [1].<br /> <br /> The geographic and climatic [[diversity]] of alfisols means that a greater variety of flora and fauna exists compared to other soil orders. Astigmatic [[mites]] are often found at their greatest densities in agroecosystems after events that increase soil organic matter, such as harvest, tillage, and the application of soil amendments [4]. Enchytraeids are often found at higher densities in alfisols compared to other soils – they are typically associated with high acidity and organic matter found in temperate forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas [4]. Other prominent soil fauna in agroecosystems include Carabidae (ground beetles) and various species of mound-building and humivorous termites [4]. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1]Adekiya, A.O., and others. Soil productivity improvement under different fallow types on Alfisol of a derived savanna [[ecology]] of Nigeria. 2021. Heliyon. 7:e06759.<br /> <br /> [2]Brady, Nyle C., and Weil, Ray R. “Elements of the Nature and [[Properties]] of Soils.” 2000. Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ.<br /> <br /> [3]Christopherson, Robert W. “Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography, Tenth Edition.” 2017. Pearson. Hoboken, NJ.<br /> <br /> [4]Coleman, David C., Callaham Jr., Mac A., and Crossley Jr., D. A. “Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]], Third Edition.” 2018. Academic Press. Cambridge, MA. <br /> <br /> [5]Soil Taxonomy, Second Edition. 1999. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. pg. 163. <br /> <br /> [6]Li, Ji-Fu, and Zhong, Fang-Fang. Nitrogen release and re-adsorption dynamics on crop straw residue during straw decomposition in an Alfisol. 2021. Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 20(1):248–259.<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from USDA, Natural Resource Conservation Service Soils<br /> <br /> [8] Suborder information from USDA, Natural Resource Conservation Service Soils</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Blue-spotted_salamander&diff=6625 2021-05-05T02:57:50Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''General Description '''==<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-Spotted_Salamander.jpeg| 500 px | thumb | Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) in the late fall [3]]]<br /> The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterlae) is black with blue spots and specks all over the body, sides, arms, and tail. A total of 12-14 costal grooves run from the tip of the head to the end of the body. In addition, costal grooves are vertical creases that run along their bodies and have the effect of increasing the skins surface area to increase water absorption. Salamanders cannot live without having wet skin, so this attribute is of great importance [5]. Adults grow to be 3-5 inches ( 7.6-14 cm), females are slightly larger than males [1]. Additionally, they have five toes on both of their back feet and four on each of their front feet.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat''' == <br /> <br /> The geographic range of this species extends north from the New England area to as far west as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Tolerant of cold temperatures, these Blue-spotted Salamanders are found in both deciduous timbers and coniferous forests with moist woodlands. The existence of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] that maintain water all the way through summer is essential to the sustainability of their habitat. Most likely, they would be found in the leaf litter and logs located along the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] from early spring to mid-fall. During the warmer months, they may even venture out in the open during rain showers [1].<br /> <br /> Like many amphibian species, their habitat is threatened by human development. Commercial, residential, and industrial construction all have a negative impact on their populations and habitats. Blue-spotted Salamanders have been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List [2].<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-spotted_Salamander_Distribution_Map.jpg|400 px | thumb|left|Distrubtion map of Blue-spotted Salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Ecology''' ==<br /> <br /> Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates such as snails, earthworms, centipedes, and spiders. Moreover, salamanders may eat aquatic [[insects]] such as water fleas and copepods, especially if they are in breeding pools. When not breeding in the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], they prefer to stay hidden in darkness under logs and fallen leaves. During the night or in the process of a storm, they will go out a lot more because of the abundant moisture that they are provided. If danger exists, these salamanders are capable of producing toxic secretions as a form of defense. [1] The poisonous secretions are part of their defense mechanism for protecting themselves from predators. The unappealing taste deters predators from consuming them.<br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Reproduction''' == <br /> <br /> Breeding season occurs from late March to early April, when salamanders migrate to the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. Both male and female Blue-spotted salamanders reach sexual maturity at the age of two years old. In a display of courtship, the male uses its snout to nuzzle and nudge the female. He then mounts the female by using his front legs to hold her body, but then rubs his chin on her head. Breeding sessions can last several hours with the pair periodically coming to the surface for air and afterwards resuming their underwater activity.<br /> <br /> After the courting, the male releases the female and deposits a [[spermatophore]] in front of her. If everything goes as planned, the female will move over the spermatophore and take it into her cloaca. The males can produce 10-40 spermatophores in one breeding season, but most are not utilized by the females. Females lay 1-12 eggs per clutch, which are laid in a gelatinous mass usually on leaves, sticks or rocks below the surface of the water. Hatching usually takes about 3 to 5 weeks for these eggs. The larva undergoes metamorphosis in late summer and lives an independent life cycle on land [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:AmbystomaComplex.jpg |400 px | thumb | right | Unisex mole complex [6]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Relations with Jefferson's Salamander''' == <br /> <br /> Blue-spotted salamanders are known to cross breed with the Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). This species is commonly known as the Unisex mole complex (Ambystoma unisex complex) since all the members of this complex are female, as they have multiple sets of chromosomes. As a result of their similar physical appearances, these salamanders can often be difficult to correctly identify [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References == <br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 58-62<br /> <br /> [2] &quot;Ambystoma laterale&quot; IUCN Red List of Threatended Species. 2004.<br /> <br /> [3] Blue-spotted salamander photographed at Letchworth Woods, University at Buffalo on 25th October 2020 by Nikolai Harper<br /> <br /> [4] Photograph of distribution from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 60<br /> <br /> [5] &quot;Critter Connections&quot; Youth Magazine of the Texas Wildlife Association, September 2019<br /> <br /> [6] Unisex mole salamander photographed by Josh Vandermeulen on April 7th, 2010 in Ontario, CA, from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [7] &quot;Jefferson/Bluespotted complex&quot; Cortland Herptology Connection, Cramer, C. &amp; Ducey, P. State University of New York College at Cortland.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Blue-spotted_salamander&diff=6624 2021-05-05T02:57:17Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''General Description '''==<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-Spotted_Salamander.jpeg| 600px | thumb | Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) in the late fall [3]]]<br /> The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterlae) is black with blue spots and specks all over the body, sides, arms, and tail. A total of 12-14 costal grooves run from the tip of the head to the end of the body. In addition, costal grooves are vertical creases that run along their bodies and have the effect of increasing the skins surface area to increase water absorption. Salamanders cannot live without having wet skin, so this attribute is of great importance [5]. Adults grow to be 3-5 inches ( 7.6-14 cm), females are slightly larger than males [1]. Additionally, they have five toes on both of their back feet and four on each of their front feet.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat''' == <br /> <br /> The geographic range of this species extends north from the New England area to as far west as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Tolerant of cold temperatures, these Blue-spotted Salamanders are found in both deciduous timbers and coniferous forests with moist woodlands. The existence of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] that maintain water all the way through summer is essential to the sustainability of their habitat. Most likely, they would be found in the leaf litter and logs located along the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] from early spring to mid-fall. During the warmer months, they may even venture out in the open during rain showers [1].<br /> <br /> Like many amphibian species, their habitat is threatened by human development. Commercial, residential, and industrial construction all have a negative impact on their populations and habitats. Blue-spotted Salamanders have been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List [2].<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-spotted_Salamander_Distribution_Map.jpg|400 px | thumb|left|Distrubtion map of Blue-spotted Salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Ecology''' ==<br /> <br /> Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates such as snails, earthworms, centipedes, and spiders. Moreover, salamanders may eat aquatic [[insects]] such as water fleas and copepods, especially if they are in breeding pools. When not breeding in the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], they prefer to stay hidden in darkness under logs and fallen leaves. During the night or in the process of a storm, they will go out a lot more because of the abundant moisture that they are provided. If danger exists, these salamanders are capable of producing toxic secretions as a form of defense. [1] The poisonous secretions are part of their defense mechanism for protecting themselves from predators. The unappealing taste deters predators from consuming them.<br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Reproduction''' == <br /> <br /> Breeding season occurs from late March to early April, when salamanders migrate to the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. Both male and female Blue-spotted salamanders reach sexual maturity at the age of two years old. In a display of courtship, the male uses its snout to nuzzle and nudge the female. He then mounts the female by using his front legs to hold her body, but then rubs his chin on her head. Breeding sessions can last several hours with the pair periodically coming to the surface for air and afterwards resuming their underwater activity.<br /> <br /> After the courting, the male releases the female and deposits a [[spermatophore]] in front of her. If everything goes as planned, the female will move over the spermatophore and take it into her cloaca. The males can produce 10-40 spermatophores in one breeding season, but most are not utilized by the females. Females lay 1-12 eggs per clutch, which are laid in a gelatinous mass usually on leaves, sticks or rocks below the surface of the water. Hatching usually takes about 3 to 5 weeks for these eggs. The larva undergoes metamorphosis in late summer and lives an independent life cycle on land [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:AmbystomaComplex.jpg |400 px | thumb | right | Unisex mole complex [6]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Relations with Jefferson's Salamander''' == <br /> <br /> Blue-spotted salamanders are known to cross breed with the Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). This species is commonly known as the Unisex mole complex (Ambystoma unisex complex) since all the members of this complex are female, as they have multiple sets of chromosomes. As a result of their similar physical appearances, these salamanders can often be difficult to correctly identify [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References == <br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 58-62<br /> <br /> [2] &quot;Ambystoma laterale&quot; IUCN Red List of Threatended Species. 2004.<br /> <br /> [3] Blue-spotted salamander photographed at Letchworth Woods, University at Buffalo on 25th October 2020 by Nikolai Harper<br /> <br /> [4] Photograph of distribution from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 60<br /> <br /> [5] &quot;Critter Connections&quot; Youth Magazine of the Texas Wildlife Association, September 2019<br /> <br /> [6] Unisex mole salamander photographed by Josh Vandermeulen on April 7th, 2010 in Ontario, CA, from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [7] &quot;Jefferson/Bluespotted complex&quot; Cortland Herptology Connection, Cramer, C. &amp; Ducey, P. State University of New York College at Cortland.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Blue-spotted_salamander&diff=6623 2021-05-05T02:56:48Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''General Description '''==<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-Spotted_Salamander.jpeg| 400px | thumb | Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) in the late fall [3]]]<br /> The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterlae) is black with blue spots and specks all over the body, sides, arms, and tail. A total of 12-14 costal grooves run from the tip of the head to the end of the body. In addition, costal grooves are vertical creases that run along their bodies and have the effect of increasing the skins surface area to increase water absorption. Salamanders cannot live without having wet skin, so this attribute is of great importance [5]. Adults grow to be 3-5 inches ( 7.6-14 cm), females are slightly larger than males [1]. Additionally, they have five toes on both of their back feet and four on each of their front feet.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat''' == <br /> <br /> The geographic range of this species extends north from the New England area to as far west as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Tolerant of cold temperatures, these Blue-spotted Salamanders are found in both deciduous timbers and coniferous forests with moist woodlands. The existence of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] that maintain water all the way through summer is essential to the sustainability of their habitat. Most likely, they would be found in the leaf litter and logs located along the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] from early spring to mid-fall. During the warmer months, they may even venture out in the open during rain showers [1].<br /> <br /> Like many amphibian species, their habitat is threatened by human development. Commercial, residential, and industrial construction all have a negative impact on their populations and habitats. Blue-spotted Salamanders have been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List [2].<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-spotted_Salamander_Distribution_Map.jpg|thumb|left|Distrubtion map of Blue-spotted Salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Ecology''' ==<br /> <br /> Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates such as snails, earthworms, centipedes, and spiders. Moreover, salamanders may eat aquatic [[insects]] such as water fleas and copepods, especially if they are in breeding pools. When not breeding in the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], they prefer to stay hidden in darkness under logs and fallen leaves. During the night or in the process of a storm, they will go out a lot more because of the abundant moisture that they are provided. If danger exists, these salamanders are capable of producing toxic secretions as a form of defense. [1] The poisonous secretions are part of their defense mechanism for protecting themselves from predators. The unappealing taste deters predators from consuming them.<br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Reproduction''' == <br /> <br /> Breeding season occurs from late March to early April, when salamanders migrate to the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. Both male and female Blue-spotted salamanders reach sexual maturity at the age of two years old. In a display of courtship, the male uses its snout to nuzzle and nudge the female. He then mounts the female by using his front legs to hold her body, but then rubs his chin on her head. Breeding sessions can last several hours with the pair periodically coming to the surface for air and afterwards resuming their underwater activity.<br /> <br /> After the courting, the male releases the female and deposits a [[spermatophore]] in front of her. If everything goes as planned, the female will move over the spermatophore and take it into her cloaca. The males can produce 10-40 spermatophores in one breeding season, but most are not utilized by the females. Females lay 1-12 eggs per clutch, which are laid in a gelatinous mass usually on leaves, sticks or rocks below the surface of the water. Hatching usually takes about 3 to 5 weeks for these eggs. The larva undergoes metamorphosis in late summer and lives an independent life cycle on land [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:AmbystomaComplex.jpg |400 px | thumb | right | Unisex mole complex [6]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Relations with Jefferson's Salamander''' == <br /> <br /> Blue-spotted salamanders are known to cross breed with the Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). This species is commonly known as the Unisex mole complex (Ambystoma unisex complex) since all the members of this complex are female, as they have multiple sets of chromosomes. As a result of their similar physical appearances, these salamanders can often be difficult to correctly identify [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References == <br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 58-62<br /> <br /> [2] &quot;Ambystoma laterale&quot; IUCN Red List of Threatended Species. 2004.<br /> <br /> [3] Blue-spotted salamander photographed at Letchworth Woods, University at Buffalo on 25th October 2020 by Nikolai Harper<br /> <br /> [4] Photograph of distribution from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 60<br /> <br /> [5] &quot;Critter Connections&quot; Youth Magazine of the Texas Wildlife Association, September 2019<br /> <br /> [6] Unisex mole salamander photographed by Josh Vandermeulen on April 7th, 2010 in Ontario, CA, from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [7] &quot;Jefferson/Bluespotted complex&quot; Cortland Herptology Connection, Cramer, C. &amp; Ducey, P. State University of New York College at Cortland.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Blue-spotted_salamander&diff=6622 2021-05-05T02:56:06Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''General Description '''==<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-Spotted_Salamander.jpeg| 400px | thumb | Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) in the late fall [3]]]<br /> The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterlae) is black with blue spots and specks all over the body, sides, arms, and tail. A total of 12-14 costal grooves run from the tip of the head to the end of the body. In addition, costal grooves are vertical creases that run along their bodies and have the effect of increasing the skins surface area to increase water absorption. Salamanders cannot live without having wet skin, so this attribute is of great importance [5]. Adults grow to be 3-5 inches ( 7.6-14 cm), females are slightly larger than males [1]. Additionally, they have five toes on both of their back feet and four on each of their front feet.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat''' == <br /> <br /> The geographic range of this species extends north from the New England area to as far west as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Tolerant of cold temperatures, these Blue-spotted Salamanders are found in both deciduous timbers and coniferous forests with moist woodlands. The existence of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] that maintain water all the way through summer is essential to the sustainability of their habitat. Most likely, they would be found in the leaf litter and logs located along the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] from early spring to mid-fall. During the warmer months, they may even venture out in the open during rain showers [1].<br /> <br /> Like many amphibian species, their habitat is threatened by human development. Commercial, residential, and industrial construction all have a negative impact on their populations and habitats. Blue-spotted Salamanders have been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List [2].<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-spotted_Salamander_Distribution_Map.jpg|thumb|left|Distrubtion map of Blue-spotted Salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Ecology''' ==<br /> <br /> Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates such as snails, earthworms, centipedes, and spiders. Moreover, salamanders may eat aquatic [[insects]] such as water fleas and copepods, especially if they are in breeding pools. When not breeding in the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], they prefer to stay hidden in darkness under logs and fallen leaves. During the night or in the process of a storm, they will go out a lot more because of the abundant moisture that they are provided. If danger exists, these salamanders are capable of producing toxic secretions as a form of defense. [1] The poisonous secretions are part of their defense mechanism for protecting themselves from predators. The unappealing taste deters predators from consuming them.<br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Reproduction''' == <br /> <br /> Breeding season occurs from late March to early April, when salamanders migrate to the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. Both male and female Blue-spotted salamanders reach sexual maturity at the age of two years old. In a display of courtship, the male uses its snout to nuzzle and nudge the female. He then mounts the female by using his front legs to hold her body, but then rubs his chin on her head. Breeding sessions can last several hours with the pair periodically coming to the surface for air and afterwards resuming their underwater activity.<br /> <br /> After the courting, the male releases the female and deposits a [[spermatophore]] in front of her. If everything goes as planned, the female will move over the spermatophore and take it into her cloaca. The males can produce 10-40 spermatophores in one breeding season, but most are not utilized by the females. Females lay 1-12 eggs per clutch, which are laid in a gelatinous mass usually on leaves, sticks or rocks below the surface of the water. Hatching usually takes about 3 to 5 weeks for these eggs. The larva undergoes metamorphosis in late summer and lives an independent life cycle on land [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:AmbystomaComplex.jpg | thumb | right | Unisex mole complex [6]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Relations with Jefferson's Salamander''' == <br /> <br /> Blue-spotted salamanders are known to cross breed with the Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). This species is commonly known as the Unisex mole complex (Ambystoma unisex complex) since all the members of this complex are female, as they have multiple sets of chromosomes. As a result of their similar physical appearances, these salamanders can often be difficult to correctly identify [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References == <br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 58-62<br /> <br /> [2] &quot;Ambystoma laterale&quot; IUCN Red List of Threatended Species. 2004.<br /> <br /> [3] Blue-spotted salamander photographed at Letchworth Woods, University at Buffalo on 25th October 2020 by Nikolai Harper<br /> <br /> [4] Photograph of distribution from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 60<br /> <br /> [5] &quot;Critter Connections&quot; Youth Magazine of the Texas Wildlife Association, September 2019<br /> <br /> [6] Unisex mole salamander photographed by Josh Vandermeulen on April 7th, 2010 in Ontario, CA, from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [7] &quot;Jefferson/Bluespotted complex&quot; Cortland Herptology Connection, Cramer, C. &amp; Ducey, P. State University of New York College at Cortland.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Blue-spotted_salamander&diff=6621 2021-05-05T02:53:40Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''General Description '''==<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-Spotted_Salamander.jpeg| thumb | Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) in the late fall [3]]]<br /> The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterlae) is black with blue spots and specks all over the body, sides, arms, and tail. A total of 12-14 costal grooves run from the tip of the head to the end of the body. In addition, costal grooves are vertical creases that run along their bodies and have the effect of increasing the skins surface area to increase water absorption. Salamanders cannot live without having wet skin, so this attribute is of great importance [5]. Adults grow to be 3-5 inches ( 7.6-14 cm), females are slightly larger than males [1]. Additionally, they have five toes on both of their back feet and four on each of their front feet.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat''' == <br /> <br /> The geographic range of this species extends north from the New England area to as far west as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Tolerant of cold temperatures, these Blue-spotted Salamanders are found in both deciduous timbers and coniferous forests with moist woodlands. The existence of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] that maintain water all the way through summer is essential to the sustainability of their habitat. Most likely, they would be found in the leaf litter and logs located along the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] from early spring to mid-fall. During the warmer months, they may even venture out in the open during rain showers [1].<br /> <br /> Like many amphibian species, their habitat is threatened by human development. Commercial, residential, and industrial construction all have a negative impact on their populations and habitats. Blue-spotted Salamanders have been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List [2].<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-spotted_Salamander_Distribution_Map.jpg|thumb|left|Distrubtion map of Blue-spotted Salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Ecology''' ==<br /> <br /> Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates such as snails, earthworms, centipedes, and spiders. Moreover, salamanders may eat aquatic [[insects]] such as water fleas and copepods, especially if they are in breeding pools. When not breeding in the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], they prefer to stay hidden in darkness under logs and fallen leaves. During the night or in the process of a storm, they will go out a lot more because of the abundant moisture that they are provided. If danger exists, these salamanders are capable of producing toxic secretions as a form of defense. [1] The poisonous secretions are part of their defense mechanism for protecting themselves from predators. The unappealing taste deters predators from consuming them.<br /> <br /> <br /> == '''Reproduction''' == <br /> <br /> Breeding season occurs from late March to early April, when salamanders migrate to the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. Both male and female Blue-spotted salamanders reach sexual maturity at the age of two years old. In a display of courtship, the male uses its snout to nuzzle and nudge the female. He then mounts the female by using his front legs to hold her body, but then rubs his chin on her head. Breeding sessions can last several hours with the pair periodically coming to the surface for air and afterwards resuming their underwater activity.<br /> <br /> After the courting, the male releases the female and deposits a [[spermatophore]] in front of her. If everything goes as planned, the female will move over the spermatophore and take it into her cloaca. The males can produce 10-40 spermatophores in one breeding season, but most are not utilized by the females. Females lay 1-12 eggs per clutch, which are laid in a gelatinous mass usually on leaves, sticks or rocks below the surface of the water. Hatching usually takes about 3 to 5 weeks for these eggs. The larva undergoes metamorphosis in late summer and lives an independent life cycle on land [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:AmbystomaComplex.jpg | thumb | right | Unisex mole complex [6]]]<br /> <br /> == '''Relations with Jefferson's Salamander''' == <br /> <br /> Blue-spotted salamanders are known to cross breed with the Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). This species is commonly known as the Unisex mole complex (Ambystoma unisex complex) since all the members of this complex are female, as they have multiple sets of chromosomes. As a result of their similar physical appearances, these salamanders can often be difficult to correctly identify [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References == <br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 58-62<br /> <br /> [2] &quot;Ambystoma laterale&quot; IUCN Red List of Threatended Species. 2004.<br /> <br /> [3] Blue-spotted salamander photographed at Letchworth Woods, University at Buffalo on 25th October 2020 by Nikolai Harper<br /> <br /> [4] Photograph of distribution from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 60<br /> <br /> [5] &quot;Critter Connections&quot; Youth Magazine of the Texas Wildlife Association, September 2019<br /> <br /> [6] Unisex mole salamander photographed by Josh Vandermeulen on April 7th, 2010 in Ontario, CA, from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [7] &quot;Jefferson/Bluespotted complex&quot; Cortland Herptology Connection, Cramer, C. &amp; Ducey, P. State University of New York College at Cortland.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Blue-spotted_salamander&diff=6620 2021-05-05T02:52:56Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''General Description '''==<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-Spotted_Salamander.jpeg| thumb | Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) in the late fall [3]]]<br /> The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterlae) is black with blue spots and specks all over the body, sides, arms, and tail. A total of 12-14 costal grooves run from the tip of the head to the end of the body. In addition, costal grooves are vertical creases that run along their bodies and have the effect of increasing the skins surface area to increase water absorption. Salamanders cannot live without having wet skin, so this attribute is of great importance [5]. Adults grow to be 3-5 inches ( 7.6-14 cm), females are slightly larger than males [1]. Additionally, they have five toes on both of their back feet and four on each of their front feet.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat == <br /> <br /> The geographic range of this species extends north from the New England area to as far west as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Tolerant of cold temperatures, these Blue-spotted Salamanders are found in both deciduous timbers and coniferous forests with moist woodlands. The existence of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] that maintain water all the way through summer is essential to the sustainability of their habitat. Most likely, they would be found in the leaf litter and logs located along the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] from early spring to mid-fall. During the warmer months, they may even venture out in the open during rain showers [1].<br /> <br /> Like many amphibian species, their habitat is threatened by human development. Commercial, residential, and industrial construction all have a negative impact on their populations and habitats. Blue-spotted Salamanders have been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List [2].<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-spotted_Salamander_Distribution_Map.jpg|thumb|left|Distrubtion map of Blue-spotted Salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Ecology ==<br /> <br /> Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates such as snails, earthworms, centipedes, and spiders. Moreover, salamanders may eat aquatic [[insects]] such as water fleas and copepods, especially if they are in breeding pools. When not breeding in the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], they prefer to stay hidden in darkness under logs and fallen leaves. During the night or in the process of a storm, they will go out a lot more because of the abundant moisture that they are provided. If danger exists, these salamanders are capable of producing toxic secretions as a form of defense. [1] The poisonous secretions are part of their defense mechanism for protecting themselves from predators. The unappealing taste deters predators from consuming them.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reproduction == <br /> <br /> Breeding season occurs from late March to early April, when salamanders migrate to the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. Both male and female Blue-spotted salamanders reach sexual maturity at the age of two years old. In a display of courtship, the male uses its snout to nuzzle and nudge the female. He then mounts the female by using his front legs to hold her body, but then rubs his chin on her head. Breeding sessions can last several hours with the pair periodically coming to the surface for air and afterwards resuming their underwater activity.<br /> <br /> After the courting, the male releases the female and deposits a [[spermatophore]] in front of her. If everything goes as planned, the female will move over the spermatophore and take it into her cloaca. The males can produce 10-40 spermatophores in one breeding season, but most are not utilized by the females. Females lay 1-12 eggs per clutch, which are laid in a gelatinous mass usually on leaves, sticks or rocks below the surface of the water. Hatching usually takes about 3 to 5 weeks for these eggs. The larva undergoes metamorphosis in late summer and lives an independent life cycle on land [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:AmbystomaComplex.jpg | thumb | right | Unisex mole complex [6]]]<br /> <br /> == Relations with Jefferson's Salamander == <br /> <br /> Blue-spotted salamanders are known to cross breed with the Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). This species is commonly known as the Unisex mole complex (Ambystoma unisex complex) since all the members of this complex are female, as they have multiple sets of chromosomes. As a result of their similar physical appearances, these salamanders can often be difficult to correctly identify [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References == <br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 58-62<br /> <br /> [2] &quot;Ambystoma laterale&quot; IUCN Red List of Threatended Species. 2004.<br /> <br /> [3] Blue-spotted salamander photographed at Letchworth Woods, University at Buffalo on 25th October 2020 by Nikolai Harper<br /> <br /> [4] Photograph of distribution from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 60<br /> <br /> [5] &quot;Critter Connections&quot; Youth Magazine of the Texas Wildlife Association, September 2019<br /> <br /> [6] Unisex mole salamander photographed by Josh Vandermeulen on April 7th, 2010 in Ontario, CA, from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [7] &quot;Jefferson/Bluespotted complex&quot; Cortland Herptology Connection, Cramer, C. &amp; Ducey, P. State University of New York College at Cortland.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Blue-spotted_salamander&diff=6619 2021-05-05T02:52:32Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div>== ''General Description ''==<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-Spotted_Salamander.jpeg| thumb | Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) in the late fall [3]]]<br /> The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterlae) is black with blue spots and specks all over the body, sides, arms, and tail. A total of 12-14 costal grooves run from the tip of the head to the end of the body. In addition, costal grooves are vertical creases that run along their bodies and have the effect of increasing the skins surface area to increase water absorption. Salamanders cannot live without having wet skin, so this attribute is of great importance [5]. Adults grow to be 3-5 inches ( 7.6-14 cm), females are slightly larger than males [1]. Additionally, they have five toes on both of their back feet and four on each of their front feet.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat == <br /> <br /> The geographic range of this species extends north from the New England area to as far west as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Tolerant of cold temperatures, these Blue-spotted Salamanders are found in both deciduous timbers and coniferous forests with moist woodlands. The existence of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] that maintain water all the way through summer is essential to the sustainability of their habitat. Most likely, they would be found in the leaf litter and logs located along the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] from early spring to mid-fall. During the warmer months, they may even venture out in the open during rain showers [1].<br /> <br /> Like many amphibian species, their habitat is threatened by human development. Commercial, residential, and industrial construction all have a negative impact on their populations and habitats. Blue-spotted Salamanders have been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List [2].<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-spotted_Salamander_Distribution_Map.jpg|thumb|left|Distrubtion map of Blue-spotted Salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Ecology ==<br /> <br /> Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates such as snails, earthworms, centipedes, and spiders. Moreover, salamanders may eat aquatic [[insects]] such as water fleas and copepods, especially if they are in breeding pools. When not breeding in the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], they prefer to stay hidden in darkness under logs and fallen leaves. During the night or in the process of a storm, they will go out a lot more because of the abundant moisture that they are provided. If danger exists, these salamanders are capable of producing toxic secretions as a form of defense. [1] The poisonous secretions are part of their defense mechanism for protecting themselves from predators. The unappealing taste deters predators from consuming them.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reproduction == <br /> <br /> Breeding season occurs from late March to early April, when salamanders migrate to the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. Both male and female Blue-spotted salamanders reach sexual maturity at the age of two years old. In a display of courtship, the male uses its snout to nuzzle and nudge the female. He then mounts the female by using his front legs to hold her body, but then rubs his chin on her head. Breeding sessions can last several hours with the pair periodically coming to the surface for air and afterwards resuming their underwater activity.<br /> <br /> After the courting, the male releases the female and deposits a [[spermatophore]] in front of her. If everything goes as planned, the female will move over the spermatophore and take it into her cloaca. The males can produce 10-40 spermatophores in one breeding season, but most are not utilized by the females. Females lay 1-12 eggs per clutch, which are laid in a gelatinous mass usually on leaves, sticks or rocks below the surface of the water. Hatching usually takes about 3 to 5 weeks for these eggs. The larva undergoes metamorphosis in late summer and lives an independent life cycle on land [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:AmbystomaComplex.jpg | thumb | right | Unisex mole complex [6]]]<br /> <br /> == Relations with Jefferson's Salamander == <br /> <br /> Blue-spotted salamanders are known to cross breed with the Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). This species is commonly known as the Unisex mole complex (Ambystoma unisex complex) since all the members of this complex are female, as they have multiple sets of chromosomes. As a result of their similar physical appearances, these salamanders can often be difficult to correctly identify [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References == <br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 58-62<br /> <br /> [2] &quot;Ambystoma laterale&quot; IUCN Red List of Threatended Species. 2004.<br /> <br /> [3] Blue-spotted salamander photographed at Letchworth Woods, University at Buffalo on 25th October 2020 by Nikolai Harper<br /> <br /> [4] Photograph of distribution from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 60<br /> <br /> [5] &quot;Critter Connections&quot; Youth Magazine of the Texas Wildlife Association, September 2019<br /> <br /> [6] Unisex mole salamander photographed by Josh Vandermeulen on April 7th, 2010 in Ontario, CA, from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [7] &quot;Jefferson/Bluespotted complex&quot; Cortland Herptology Connection, Cramer, C. &amp; Ducey, P. State University of New York College at Cortland.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Blue-spotted_salamander&diff=6618 2021-05-05T02:52:13Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div>== &quot;&quot;General Description &quot;&quot; ==<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-Spotted_Salamander.jpeg| thumb | Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) in the late fall [3]]]<br /> The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterlae) is black with blue spots and specks all over the body, sides, arms, and tail. A total of 12-14 costal grooves run from the tip of the head to the end of the body. In addition, costal grooves are vertical creases that run along their bodies and have the effect of increasing the skins surface area to increase water absorption. Salamanders cannot live without having wet skin, so this attribute is of great importance [5]. Adults grow to be 3-5 inches ( 7.6-14 cm), females are slightly larger than males [1]. Additionally, they have five toes on both of their back feet and four on each of their front feet.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat == <br /> <br /> The geographic range of this species extends north from the New England area to as far west as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Tolerant of cold temperatures, these Blue-spotted Salamanders are found in both deciduous timbers and coniferous forests with moist woodlands. The existence of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] that maintain water all the way through summer is essential to the sustainability of their habitat. Most likely, they would be found in the leaf litter and logs located along the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] from early spring to mid-fall. During the warmer months, they may even venture out in the open during rain showers [1].<br /> <br /> Like many amphibian species, their habitat is threatened by human development. Commercial, residential, and industrial construction all have a negative impact on their populations and habitats. Blue-spotted Salamanders have been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List [2].<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-spotted_Salamander_Distribution_Map.jpg|thumb|left|Distrubtion map of Blue-spotted Salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Ecology ==<br /> <br /> Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates such as snails, earthworms, centipedes, and spiders. Moreover, salamanders may eat aquatic [[insects]] such as water fleas and copepods, especially if they are in breeding pools. When not breeding in the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], they prefer to stay hidden in darkness under logs and fallen leaves. During the night or in the process of a storm, they will go out a lot more because of the abundant moisture that they are provided. If danger exists, these salamanders are capable of producing toxic secretions as a form of defense. [1] The poisonous secretions are part of their defense mechanism for protecting themselves from predators. The unappealing taste deters predators from consuming them.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reproduction == <br /> <br /> Breeding season occurs from late March to early April, when salamanders migrate to the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. Both male and female Blue-spotted salamanders reach sexual maturity at the age of two years old. In a display of courtship, the male uses its snout to nuzzle and nudge the female. He then mounts the female by using his front legs to hold her body, but then rubs his chin on her head. Breeding sessions can last several hours with the pair periodically coming to the surface for air and afterwards resuming their underwater activity.<br /> <br /> After the courting, the male releases the female and deposits a [[spermatophore]] in front of her. If everything goes as planned, the female will move over the spermatophore and take it into her cloaca. The males can produce 10-40 spermatophores in one breeding season, but most are not utilized by the females. Females lay 1-12 eggs per clutch, which are laid in a gelatinous mass usually on leaves, sticks or rocks below the surface of the water. Hatching usually takes about 3 to 5 weeks for these eggs. The larva undergoes metamorphosis in late summer and lives an independent life cycle on land [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:AmbystomaComplex.jpg | thumb | right | Unisex mole complex [6]]]<br /> <br /> == Relations with Jefferson's Salamander == <br /> <br /> Blue-spotted salamanders are known to cross breed with the Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). This species is commonly known as the Unisex mole complex (Ambystoma unisex complex) since all the members of this complex are female, as they have multiple sets of chromosomes. As a result of their similar physical appearances, these salamanders can often be difficult to correctly identify [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References == <br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 58-62<br /> <br /> [2] &quot;Ambystoma laterale&quot; IUCN Red List of Threatended Species. 2004.<br /> <br /> [3] Blue-spotted salamander photographed at Letchworth Woods, University at Buffalo on 25th October 2020 by Nikolai Harper<br /> <br /> [4] Photograph of distribution from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 60<br /> <br /> [5] &quot;Critter Connections&quot; Youth Magazine of the Texas Wildlife Association, September 2019<br /> <br /> [6] Unisex mole salamander photographed by Josh Vandermeulen on April 7th, 2010 in Ontario, CA, from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [7] &quot;Jefferson/Bluespotted complex&quot; Cortland Herptology Connection, Cramer, C. &amp; Ducey, P. State University of New York College at Cortland.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6617 2021-05-05T02:51:47Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. <br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Glomeromycota&diff=6616 2021-05-05T02:51:25Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> The Glomeromycota are limited in number compared to other phyla of fungi. However, they make up for this lack of [[diversity]] by being among the most proliferant and widespread of all fungi. As far as we know all species of Glomeromycota form mutualistic relationships with plants, in the role of [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]].<br /> <br /> [[File:GlomusSpores.jpg|400px|thumb||]]<br /> <br /> These fungi were considered to be members of the [[Zygomycota]] for many years, mainly because their hyphae lack septa and because their spores may superficially resemble zygospores. More recent genetic evidence shows that they are quite distinct from other fungi and definitely belong in a separate phylum. Paleontologists have suspected this for a long time. The fossil roots of plants known to be as old as 450 million years clearly contain the hyphae and spores of Glomeromycota, showing this group to be among the oldest of fungi. The left photograph shows hyphae and spores of a species of Glomus, collected from the [[soil]] surrounding the roots of a balsam poplar tree. Such structures are indistinguishable from those in the fossil record.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Glomeromycota-spores.jpg|thumb|Gigaspora margarita in association with Lotus corniculatus]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Reproduction'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota reproduction via sporeulation. There is no evidence that the Glomeromycota are able reproduce sexually. Studies using molecular marker in their genes have detected little to no evidence of genetic recombination, so it is assumed that the spores are formed asexually.<br /> <br /> No member of the Glomeromycota has ever been grown in the laboratory independently of its plant associate.It is still not known exactly what these fungi need as nutrients.<br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Symbiotic Relationship'''==<br /> <br /> The Glomeromycota have symbiotic relationships with plants and evidence suggests that glomeromycota depend on the carbon and energy provided by their partner plants to survive.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''Colonization'''==<br /> New colonization of arbuscular microrhysal fungi largely depends on the amount of inoculum present in the soil.<br /> Although pre-existing hyphae and infected root fragments have been shown to successfully colonize the roots of a host, germinating spores are considered to be the key players in new host establishment. Spores are commonly dispersed by fungal and plant burrowing herbivore partners, but some exhibiting air dispersal capabilities are also known to exist. <br /> Studies have shown that spore germination is specific to particular environmental conditions such as right amount of nutrients, temperature or host availability. It has also been observed that the rate of root system colonization is directly proportional to spore density in the soil.In addition, new data also suggests that arbuscular microrhysal fungi host plants also secrete chemical which factor in the attraction of the fungi and enhance the growth of developing spore hyphae towards the root system.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> =='''References'''==<br /> [1]&quot;21st Century Guidebook to Fungi&quot;, David Moore, Geoffrey D. Robson and Anthony P. J. Trinci.<br /> <br /> [2]&quot;A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution&quot;. Mycol. Res.<br /> <br /> [3]Zangaro, Waldemar, Leila Rostirola, Vergal Souza, Priscila Almeida Alves, Bochi Lescano, Ricardo Rondina, Luiz Nogueira, and Eduardo Carrenho. &quot;Root Colonization and Spore Abundance of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Distinct Successional Stages from an Atlantic Rainforest Biome in Southern Brazil.&quot; Mycorrhiza 2013.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6615 2021-05-05T02:46:05Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> Eastern red-backed salamanders can be found as far south as North Carolina, west over to Ohio, and north into New England through Nova Scotia. They can be found in varying types of forests, from deciduous or coniferous. Dry or sandy soils will usually be avoided by this species, as well as areas that frequently flood. Like most salamanders one can find them hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks as they are most active during the night.<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. <br /> <br /> Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined, they may be the most populous vertebrate in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. To escape said predators, they have the ability to detach their tail, the tail will wiggle after detached allowing the salamander to run away. It will then regrow a new tail over time [1]. Eastern red-backed salamanders are fairy tolerant to habitat disturbance as long as they key components are maintained, that being leaf litter, fallen logs, rocks, ect. [1]<br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction &amp; Growth == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September, the hatchlings will remain with the mother for a weeks after hatching. [2] Maturity is reached in about two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6614 2021-05-05T02:42:48Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> Eastern red-backed salamanders can be found as far south as North Carolina, west over to Ohio, and north into New England through Nova Scotia. They can be found in varying types of forests, from deciduous or coniferous. Dry or sandy soils will usually be avoided by this species, as well as areas that frequently flood. Like most salamanders one can find them hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks as they are most active during the night.<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. <br /> <br /> Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined, they may be the most populous vertebrate in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. Eastern red-backed salamanders are fairy tolerant to habitat disturbance as long as they key components are maintained, that being leaf litter, fallen logs, rocks, ect. [1]<br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction &amp; Growth == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September, the hatchlings will remain with the mother for a weeks after hatching. [2] Maturity is reached in about two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6613 2021-05-05T02:42:10Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> Eastern red-backed salamanders can be found as far south as North Carolina, west over to Ohio, and north into New England through Nova Scotia. They can be found in varying types of forests, from deciduous or coniferous. Dry or sandy soils will usually be avoided by this species, as well as areas that frequently flood. Like most salamanders one can find them hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks as they are most active during the night.<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. <br /> Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined, they may be the most populous vertebrate in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. Eastern red-backed salamanders are fairy tolerant to habitat disturbance as long as they key components are maintained, that being leaf litter, fallen logs, rocks, ect. [1]<br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction &amp; Growth == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September, the hatchlings will remain with the mother for a weeks after hatching. [2] Maturity is reached in about two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Blue-spotted_salamander&diff=6612 2021-05-05T02:25:23Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div>== General Description ==<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-Spotted_Salamander.jpeg| thumb | Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) in the late fall [3]]]<br /> The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterlae) is black with blue spots and specks all over the body, sides, arms, and tail. A total of 12-14 costal grooves run from the tip of the head to the end of the body. In addition, costal grooves are vertical creases that run along their bodies and have the effect of increasing the skins surface area to increase water absorption. Salamanders cannot live without having wet skin, so this attribute is of great importance [5]. Adults grow to be 3-5 inches ( 7.6-14 cm), females are slightly larger than males [1]. Additionally, they have five toes on both of their back feet and four on each of their front feet.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat == <br /> <br /> The geographic range of this species extends north from the New England area to as far west as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Tolerant of cold temperatures, these Blue-spotted Salamanders are found in both deciduous timbers and coniferous forests with moist woodlands. The existence of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] that maintain water all the way through summer is essential to the sustainability of their habitat. Most likely, they would be found in the leaf litter and logs located along the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] from early spring to mid-fall. During the warmer months, they may even venture out in the open during rain showers [1].<br /> <br /> Like many amphibian species, their habitat is threatened by human development. Commercial, residential, and industrial construction all have a negative impact on their populations and habitats. Blue-spotted Salamanders have been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List [2].<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-spotted_Salamander_Distribution_Map.jpg|thumb|left|Distrubtion map of Blue-spotted Salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Ecology ==<br /> <br /> Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates such as snails, earthworms, centipedes, and spiders. Moreover, salamanders may eat aquatic [[insects]] such as water fleas and copepods, especially if they are in breeding pools. When not breeding in the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], they prefer to stay hidden in darkness under logs and fallen leaves. During the night or in the process of a storm, they will go out a lot more because of the abundant moisture that they are provided. If danger exists, these salamanders are capable of producing toxic secretions as a form of defense. [1] The poisonous secretions are part of their defense mechanism for protecting themselves from predators. The unappealing taste deters predators from consuming them.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reproduction == <br /> <br /> Breeding season occurs from late March to early April, when salamanders migrate to the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. Both male and female Blue-spotted salamanders reach sexual maturity at the age of two years old. In a display of courtship, the male uses its snout to nuzzle and nudge the female. He then mounts the female by using his front legs to hold her body, but then rubs his chin on her head. Breeding sessions can last several hours with the pair periodically coming to the surface for air and afterwards resuming their underwater activity.<br /> <br /> After the courting, the male releases the female and deposits a [[spermatophore]] in front of her. If everything goes as planned, the female will move over the spermatophore and take it into her cloaca. The males can produce 10-40 spermatophores in one breeding season, but most are not utilized by the females. Females lay 1-12 eggs per clutch, which are laid in a gelatinous mass usually on leaves, sticks or rocks below the surface of the water. Hatching usually takes about 3 to 5 weeks for these eggs. The larva undergoes metamorphosis in late summer and lives an independent life cycle on land [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:AmbystomaComplex.jpg | thumb | right | Unisex mole complex [6]]]<br /> <br /> == Relations with Jefferson's Salamander == <br /> <br /> Blue-spotted salamanders are known to cross breed with the Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). This species is commonly known as the Unisex mole complex (Ambystoma unisex complex) since all the members of this complex are female, as they have multiple sets of chromosomes. As a result of their similar physical appearances, these salamanders can often be difficult to correctly identify [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References == <br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 58-62<br /> <br /> [2] &quot;Ambystoma laterale&quot; IUCN Red List of Threatended Species. 2004.<br /> <br /> [3] Blue-spotted salamander photographed at Letchworth Woods, University at Buffalo on 25th October 2020 by Nikolai Harper<br /> <br /> [4] Photograph of distribution from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 60<br /> <br /> [5] &quot;Critter Connections&quot; Youth Magazine of the Texas Wildlife Association, September 2019<br /> <br /> [6] Unisex mole salamander photographed by Josh Vandermeulen on April 7th, 2010 in Ontario, CA, from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [7] &quot;Jefferson/Bluespotted complex&quot; Cortland Herptology Connection, Cramer, C. &amp; Ducey, P. State University of New York College at Cortland.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Blue-spotted_salamander&diff=6611 2021-05-05T02:24:41Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div>== General Description ==<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-Spotted_Salamander.jpeg| Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) in the late fall [3]]]<br /> The Blue-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterlae) is black with blue spots and specks all over the body, sides, arms, and tail. A total of 12-14 costal grooves run from the tip of the head to the end of the body. In addition, costal grooves are vertical creases that run along their bodies and have the effect of increasing the skins surface area to increase water absorption. Salamanders cannot live without having wet skin, so this attribute is of great importance [5]. Adults grow to be 3-5 inches ( 7.6-14 cm), females are slightly larger than males [1]. Additionally, they have five toes on both of their back feet and four on each of their front feet.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat == <br /> <br /> The geographic range of this species extends north from the New England area to as far west as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Tolerant of cold temperatures, these Blue-spotted Salamanders are found in both deciduous timbers and coniferous forests with moist woodlands. The existence of [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] that maintain water all the way through summer is essential to the sustainability of their habitat. Most likely, they would be found in the leaf litter and logs located along the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]] from early spring to mid-fall. During the warmer months, they may even venture out in the open during rain showers [1].<br /> <br /> Like many amphibian species, their habitat is threatened by human development. Commercial, residential, and industrial construction all have a negative impact on their populations and habitats. Blue-spotted Salamanders have been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List [2].<br /> <br /> [[File:Blue-spotted_Salamander_Distribution_Map.jpg|thumb|left|Distrubtion map of Blue-spotted Salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Ecology ==<br /> <br /> Their diet consists primarily of small invertebrates such as snails, earthworms, centipedes, and spiders. Moreover, salamanders may eat aquatic [[insects]] such as water fleas and copepods, especially if they are in breeding pools. When not breeding in the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], they prefer to stay hidden in darkness under logs and fallen leaves. During the night or in the process of a storm, they will go out a lot more because of the abundant moisture that they are provided. If danger exists, these salamanders are capable of producing toxic secretions as a form of defense. [1] The poisonous secretions are part of their defense mechanism for protecting themselves from predators. The unappealing taste deters predators from consuming them.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Reproduction == <br /> <br /> Breeding season occurs from late March to early April, when salamanders migrate to the [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. Both male and female Blue-spotted salamanders reach sexual maturity at the age of two years old. In a display of courtship, the male uses its snout to nuzzle and nudge the female. He then mounts the female by using his front legs to hold her body, but then rubs his chin on her head. Breeding sessions can last several hours with the pair periodically coming to the surface for air and afterwards resuming their underwater activity.<br /> <br /> After the courting, the male releases the female and deposits a [[spermatophore]] in front of her. If everything goes as planned, the female will move over the spermatophore and take it into her cloaca. The males can produce 10-40 spermatophores in one breeding season, but most are not utilized by the females. Females lay 1-12 eggs per clutch, which are laid in a gelatinous mass usually on leaves, sticks or rocks below the surface of the water. Hatching usually takes about 3 to 5 weeks for these eggs. The larva undergoes metamorphosis in late summer and lives an independent life cycle on land [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:AmbystomaComplex.jpg | thumb | right | Unisex mole complex [6]]]<br /> <br /> == Relations with Jefferson's Salamander == <br /> <br /> Blue-spotted salamanders are known to cross breed with the Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum). This species is commonly known as the Unisex mole complex (Ambystoma unisex complex) since all the members of this complex are female, as they have multiple sets of chromosomes. As a result of their similar physical appearances, these salamanders can often be difficult to correctly identify [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References == <br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 58-62<br /> <br /> [2] &quot;Ambystoma laterale&quot; IUCN Red List of Threatended Species. 2004.<br /> <br /> [3] Blue-spotted salamander photographed at Letchworth Woods, University at Buffalo on 25th October 2020 by Nikolai Harper<br /> <br /> [4] Photograph of distribution from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 60<br /> <br /> [5] &quot;Critter Connections&quot; Youth Magazine of the Texas Wildlife Association, September 2019<br /> <br /> [6] Unisex mole salamander photographed by Josh Vandermeulen on April 7th, 2010 in Ontario, CA, from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [7] &quot;Jefferson/Bluespotted complex&quot; Cortland Herptology Connection, Cramer, C. &amp; Ducey, P. State University of New York College at Cortland.</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6610 2021-05-05T02:23:27Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> Eastern red-backed salamanders can be found as far south as North Carolina, west over to Ohio, and north into New England through Nova Scotia. They can be found in varying types of forests, from deciduous or coniferous. Dry or sandy soils will usually be avoided by this species, as well as areas that frequently flood. Like most salamanders one can find them hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks as they are most active during the night.<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. <br /> Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined, they may be the most populous vertebrate in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. Eastern red-backed salamanders are fairy tolerant to habitat disturbance as long as they key components are maintained, that being leaf litter, fallen logs, rocks, ect. [1]<br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction &amp; Growth == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September, the hatchlings will remain with the mother for a weeks after hatching. [2] Maturity is reached in about two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6609 2021-05-05T02:23:06Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> Eastern red-backed salamanders can be found as far south as North Carolina, west over to Ohio, and north into New England through Nova Scotia. They can be found in varying types of forests, from deciduous or coniferous. Dry or sandy soils will usually be avoided by this species, as well as areas that frequently flood. Like most salamanders one can find them hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks as they are most active during the night.<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. <br /> <br /> Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined, they may be the most populous vertebrate in the north-eastern forests [2]. They are preyed upon by larger salamanders, birds, snakes, and mammals [1]. Eastern red-backed salamanders are fairy tolerant to habitat disturbance as long as they key components are maintained, that being leaf litter, fallen logs, rocks, ect. [1]<br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction &amp; Growth == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September, the hatchlings will remain with the mother for a weeks after hatching. [2] Maturity is reached in about two years and females usually lay their first clutch at three years old. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 91-95<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp<br /> <br /> [7] Distribution map from Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 92</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6607 2021-05-05T02:05:06Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> Eastern red-backed salamanders can be found as far south as North Carolina, west over to Ohio, and north into New England through Nova Scotia. They can be found in varying types of forests, from deciduous or coniferous. Dry or sandy soils will usually be avoided by this species. Like most salamanders one can find them hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks as they are most active during the night.<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined [2]. <br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September, the hatchlings will remain with the mother for a weeks after hatching. [2]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 99-102<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6604 2021-05-05T01:54:44Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> Eastern red-backed salamanders can be found as far south as North Carolina, west over to Ohio, and north into New England through Nova Scotia. They can be found in varying types of forests, from deciduous or coniferous. Dry or sandy soils will usually be avoided by this species. Like most salamanders one can find them hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks as they are most active during the night.<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined [2]. <br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around them to ensure they stay moist, she will only eat when opportunity presents itself. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 99-102<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6603 2021-05-05T01:51:50Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body and are much less commonly found. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> Eastern red-backed salamanders can be found as far south as North Carolina, west over to Ohio, and north into New England through Nova Scotia. They can be found in varying types of forests, from deciduous or coniferous. Dry or sandy soils will usually be avoided by this species. Like most salamanders one can find them hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks as they are most active during the night.<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined [2]. <br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around and only eat when opportunity presents itself. them to ensure they stay moist. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 99-102<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6602 2021-05-05T01:51:03Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> Eastern red-backed salamanders can be found as far south as North Carolina, west over to Ohio, and north into New England through Nova Scotia. They can be found in varying types of forests, from deciduous or coniferous. Dry or sandy soils will usually be avoided by this species. Like most salamanders one can find them hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks as they are most active during the night.<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined [2]. <br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. Since dehydration of eggs can occur easily she will wrap herself around and only eat when opportunity presents itself. them to ensure they stay moist. [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 99-102<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp</div>

Nikolaih https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eastern_red-backed_salamander&diff=6601 2021-05-05T01:44:42Z

<p>Nikolaih: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_pic_1.jpg |thumb| Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> == General Description ==<br /> <br /> Plethodontidae is the family that the eastern red-backed salamanders are classified in, as they are lungless. Oxygen dissolves into the moisture on their skin and then the oxygen is absorbed into the skin. It is vital for them to maintain their moisture, without it they cannot breathe. It should also be noted that one should not physically handle a salamander for long period of time as they can lose that moisture. <br /> <br /> These salamanders come in two different color phases, the first being the lead-back, and the other being the red-back. The red-backed phase is the usual coloring of reddish orange along the back. Lead-backs have a dark grey to black coloring over their body. Adults will reach about 2-5 inches in length.<br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:Eastern_red-backed_salamander_map_pic_2.jpeg |thumb| Distribution map of Eastern red-backed salamander [4]]]<br /> <br /> == Geographic Distribution &amp; Habitat ==<br /> Eastern red-backed salamanders can be found as far south as North Carolina, west over to Ohio, and north into New England through Nova Scotia. They can be found in varying types of forests, from deciduous or coniferous. Dry or sandy soils will usually be avoided by this species. Like most salamanders one can find them hidden under logs, leaf litter, and rocks as they are most active during the night.<br /> <br /> <br /> == [[Ecology]] == <br /> <br /> Their role in the soils ecosystem is vitally important, especially in regards to the fungal community. Fungus plays an essential role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] of forests, without them the organic matter would not be broken down as quickkly. Many invertebrates such as [[mites]], beetles, centipedes, and snails feed upon fungus as a source of nutrition. The eastern red-backed salamanders ensure a balance is kept by feeding on them, thus, controlling the populations of these [[insects]] [2]. The eastern red-backs not only indirectly influence the volume of fungus present but also the [[diversity]] of fungus in the ecosystem as well. Based on the 2002 study by Jaeger et al, 1 square kilometer can be home to 3 million eastern red-backed salamanders. It is estimated that their population outnumbers all birds and mammals in that area combined [2]. <br /> <br /> [[File: RedBackedSalamanderEggs.jpg | thumb | Female eastern red-back guarding her eggs [6] ]]<br /> == Reproduction == <br /> <br /> Mating season for eastern red-backs begins in sometime between October through December. Males will follow the pheromone trails left by the females. The courtship initiates with the male rubbing his head on the female's snout. After the rubbing has ceased the male then deposits the [[spermatophore]] and the female retrieves it with her cloaca. <br /> <br /> A very large amount of energy is required for the females to produce their eggs, so it is thought that they only breed once every other year. She lays her eggs sometime in the summer. Most amphibians will leave their eggs after they have been laid but the female salamander remains with them until hatching occurs. She will protect them from hungry predators and ensure they stay moist [2]. Eggs then hatch two months later in August or September. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Harding, J. &amp; Mifsud, D. &quot;Amphibians &amp; Reptiles of the Great Lakes Region&quot;. University of Michigan Press, 2017. pg 99-102<br /> <br /> [2] Clark,E. &quot;Essential ubiquity: &quot;How one tiny salamander species has a huge impact&quot; Mongabay Series: Salamanders, 21 December 2018<br /> <br /> [3] AmphibiaWeb. 2021. &lt;https://amphibiaweb.org&gt; University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.<br /> <br /> [4] Eastern red-backed salamander photographed by Larry Clarfeld on April 26th, 2018 from iNaturalist<br /> <br /> [5] Robert G. Jaeger, Jennifer R. Gillette, Robert C. Cooper, Sexual coercion in a territorial salamander: males punish socially polyandrous female partners, Animal Behavior, Volume 63, Issue 5, 2002, Pages 871-877, doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1977.<br /> <br /> [6] Female eastern red-backed salamander guarding her eggs, photograph from https://www.amphibianfact.com/red-backed-salamander.asp</div>

Nikolaih