Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T18:26:24Z

Naglowny:

[[File:TigerSalamander.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]
Tiger salamanders are a group of salamanders that include multiple species including ''Ambystoma tigrinum'', ''Ambystoma mavoritum'', and '' Ambystoma californiense'', and ''Ambystoma velasci''. They are all a part of the genus ''Ambystoma'' which are mole salamanders. Tiger salamanders are mainly quadrupedal and terrestrial when they are adults. As adults they can grow to be 15-20 centmeters on average with a record length of 33 centimeters.[1] The eastern tiger salamander(''A. tigrium'') can be distinguished by the olive or yellow markings along a black or yellow body.[1]

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== Range/Habitat ==
[[File:TigerSalamanderrange.gif|200px|thumb|right|The ranges of most of the species of tiger salamanders]]
The eastern tiger salamander is found from southern New York to Florida along the east coast.[2] The western range is from western Ohio to Minnesota and there is a range in Texas near the gulf coast.[2] The other species of tiger salamanders can be found throughout North America except New England and the west coast[3] with the exception of the California Tiger Salamander(''A. californiense'') which is found mostly in the Central Valley of California with isolated populations in Santa Barbara and Sonoma.[5] Tiger salamanders as a whole spend most of their adult life on land, however they need natural fishless pools and ponds to breed.[2] The salamanders can live in grasslands, parklands, sub-alpine meadows and semi-arid regions.[4] In New York the tiger salamanders are only confirmed to exist in Long Island and they live in sandy pine barrens. The salamanders live in sandy or friable soils and need the burrows of other animals to hibernated during the winter.[3]

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== Role in the Food Web ==

Adult tiger salamanders consume small vertebrates and invertebrates.[2] The larvae of the tiger salamander mainly consumes aquatic invertebrates. However, the larvae of the tiger salamander have also been observed to consume fathead minnows and various tadpoles of diffrent species of frogs and toads including species such as bullfrogs and green frogs which are noxious to fish.[3] Cannibalism has also been observed in the larvae of the salamanders. The diet of adult tiger salamanders is mostly unknown as they rarely have food in their stomachs when digested, but they have been observed to consume various insects, mollusks, and [[annelids]]. [3] Field mice may also be taken.

Tiger salamanders may fall prey to various birds such as herons and egrets, large bullfrogs, and large fish.[5] Various large aquatic invertebrates and fish will prey upon the larvae and eggs of the salamanders, but the ponds used for breeding by the salamanders would have been selected to be fish-less. If the salamander does breed in a pond with fish it will move to deeper waters to avoid the predatory fish as opposed to its favored shallows.[3]

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== Life Cycle ==
The breeding cycle of the salamanders begins as soon as there are permanent or semi-permanent ponds that have reached temperatures around 10 degrees Celsius. During breeding the male will deposit a sperm packet at the bottom of the lake and the female will pick it up with her cloaca and then lay the eggs either singly or in clusters of 100 to 5,000 depending on the size of the female and the geographic area.[4] Hatching time varies depending on temperature, but will likely take 2-3 weeks. [1] The development of the larvae normally takes 3-4 months, but depends on prey availability, temperature, and larval density. Upon exiting, the adults will spend most of their lives in burrows only leaving ti migrate or hunt during or around rainstorms.[4]
[[File:TigerSalamanderlarva.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A tiger salamander larva]]

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== Care in Captivity ==
Tiger salamanders are commonly kept as pets for either recreational or educational purposes or as research subjects. Salamanders, for the most part, are not considered good pets because of how delicate they are, how hard they are to feed, and how secretive they are.[6] This doesn't apply to tiger salamanders. They will accept food from their handlers and adapt well to captivity, unlike most salamanders.[6] Many states,like Ohio and California, have laws protecting tiger salamanders, so acquiring them may be difficult or impossible legally. Most captive tiger salamanders are wild caught and will take a little while to adapt to captivity. To house a larval tiger salamander a fully aquatic setup is required with very slowly moving water.[6] When the metamorphosis is almost complete, shown by the disappearance of the tail-fin the water should barely cover the salamander and have a way to leave the water easily when the salamander is ready.[6] The larvae shouldn't be kept with more than two other larvae or with any fish.[6] As an adult they are among the easiest salamander to keep in captivity as they need at least 4 inches of soil to burrow in, a water source, and a well ventilated cover.[1] They do not require external lighting or heating. In captivity nightcrawlers and crickets are good staple foods.[6] They do not require any additional supplements such as a calcium dust for these food sources. Waxworms and baby mice make good treats, but if they are used as a staple in the salamanders diet it would lead to the salamander becoming obese.[6]
[[File:TigerSalamanderCaptive.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Three Adult salamanders in captivity]]

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== Conservation Status ==
Habitat loss from development is a cause for decline in tiger salamanders.[2] Migration routes and breeding ponds can be disturbed or filled in by development causing a huge decline in population.[4] The eradication of soil dwelling vertebrates can also cause the wintering homes of the salamanders as they can't burrow too well efficiently.[4] When roads intersect the migration routes the salamanders could face fatalities via cars and other vehicles.[4] Fish and bullfrogs introduced into the salamanders' breeding ponds can prey upon the amphibians and their larvae. Agricultural chemical usage may also stunt larval growth and harm the immune systems of adults.[4]

Disease heavily impacts amphibian populations world wide. Two infectious diseases are prominent in populations of tiger salamanders; ''Ambystoma tigrinum'' virus (ATV) and amphibian chytrid fungus (''Batracochytridium dendrobatidis'' or ''Bd'').[4] ATV likely spreads faster with greater salamander density and closer proximity. Aggressive behaviors such as nipping, biting, and cannibalism may also spread the disease.[4] ATV has been cited to be the cause of many salamander die-offs in the northern United States and Canada. ''Bd'' is a fungal infection that is more prevalent in other amphibians than tiger salamanders. Since Bd is less likely to be found in tiger salamanders, ATV is considered to be the greatest disease threat.[4]

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== Sources ==
1. Graham, Donna. “Tiger Salamander.” Tiger Salamander, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Division of Wildlife, 1997, www3.northern.edu/natsource/AMPHIB1/Salama1.htm.

2. “Eastern Tiger Salamander Fact Sheet.” Freshwater Wetlands Program - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7143.html.

3. Smith, Brian E. “Conservation Assessment of the Tiger Salamander in the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and Wyoming.” May 2003, www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5226872.pdf.

4. Environment Canada. “Species at Risk Public Registry - COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Western Tiger Salamander Ambystoma Mavortium in Canada - 2012.” COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle in Canada 2010 - Species at Risk Public Registry, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. , 17 Dec. 2015, www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=413ABB1D-1.

5. Davison, Veronica, et al. “California Tiger Salamander - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts | Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office.” Greater Sage-Grouse | Species Information, Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office, www.fws.gov/sacramento/es_species/Accounts/Amphibians-Reptiles/ca_tiger_salamander/.

6. Clare, John. “Tiger Salamander Care Sheet.” Reptiles Magazine, www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Frogs-Amphibians/Tiger-Salamander-Care-Sheet/.

''Image Sources''

1. https://backyardzoologist.files.wordpress.com/

2. https://www.petcoach.co/article/tiger-salamanders-ambystoma-tigrinum-species-profile-housin/

3. https://www.caudata.org/forum/showthread.php?t=48791

4. http://extension.msstate.edu/news/feature-story/2013/msu-salamander-work-has-conservation-impact

Annelids

2018-05-09T05:53:03Z

Naglowny:

[[File:Earthworm.jpg|400px|thumb|left| Picture of an earthworm taken on 4/14/2018]]Annelids, or segmented worms, are segmented bilaterian invertebrates that are very important to a variety of marine and terrestrial environments. All annelids have a central body cavity called a coelom, bristles called setae, and segments called annulations which they are named after. There are three major groups of of annelids; the class Polychaeta which are almost entirely marine in nature and the subclasses of Oligochaeta which are earthworms and their relatives, and Hirudinea which are leeches. Among these groups there are approximately 17,000 described species. Many of the species of annelids reproduce sexually and are hermaphroditic, but some are able to asexually reproduce. Annelids are found across the entire planet in almost every kind of environment imaginable. Annelids are generally soft tissue organisms, but there is evidence of them in the fossil record dating back to the Ordovician period.

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== Classification ==

Annelids belong to the clade Lophotrochozoa. This clade includes the phyla Mollusca, Sipuncula, Brachiopodia, and Phorondia. [1] The two major groups of
annelids are the cilliates and polychaetes. Cilliates include members of the subclasses oligochaeta (eg. earthworms) and hirundinea (leeches). Oligochaetea are primarily terestrial, preferring damp soil, while leeches are mostly made up of freshwater aquatic species. Polychaetes are almost entirely made up of marine species, but a few freshwater species do exist.[1] There are abut 17,000 species of annelid and about 12,000 of them are members of polychaetes. Polychates are then divided into two groups dependent on if they are mostly mobile throughout life or if they live in tubes or burrows for the majority of their existence. There are also about 42 different groups of cilliates[2].[[File:Leech.jpg|200px|thumb|right| ''Haemadipsa picta'' or the Tiger Leech member of the hirundinea subclass]]

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== Distribution and Habitat ==

Annelids, due to their incredible diversity, live in nearly every habitat on planet, however they have no means of protecting themselves from desiccation, therefore they prefer to live in wet environments. These environments include oceanic sea floors, freshwater systems, and damp soil.[3] The class Polychaeta are primarily benthic [[organisms]] that can live in saline, brackish, or freshwater environments. Their distribution in these areas are primarily controlled by the space available to them, the dissolved oxygen content in the water, the rate of movement of the water, and the relative salinity and temperature of the water to the Polychaeta.[4] Oligochaetes are primarily found in the soil but a few are found in aquatic environments, and leeches are almost entirely aquatic or limited to humid areas.[3]

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== Morphology/Anatomy ==
Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical [[animals]]. The entire body of an annelid is composed of segments. They are named after the Latin word "anellus" which means little ring.[2] These segments can grow in number as the annelid grows in length, with exception of leeches which can have 34 segments and grow by expanding those 34 segments.[3] Annelids also have setae, or chaetae, which are long filaments or hooked structures made up up many chitinous cylinders held together by sclerotinized proteins.[2] These seatae are important in anchoring the annelids down and to help them move up surfaces.

[[File:EarthwormCrossSection.jpg|200px|thumb|left| Cross section of an earthworm]]

The digestive tract of an annelid is essentially one tube that runs from the mouth of the organism to the anus. The area between the inner cavity and the outside of the annelid is called the coelem. This area is filled with a coelemic fluid that also contains the other organ systems of the animals. This fluid is very important for a variety of functions of the organism such as locomotion, osmoregulation, and multiple metabolic processes among others. In polychaetes this fluid is also used to keep the worm's salt levels similar to the surrounding water. The coelmic fluids of leeches are filled with connective tissue and becomes more so as the leech ages. Oxygen is generally absorbed through the skin of the annelid and passed through the body by a closed circulatory system.[3]

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== Life Cycle and Reproduction ==
[[File:Earthwormsmating.jpg|200px|thumb|Left|Two earthworms mating. The sperm and eggs are exchanged between the two partners]]
Many terrestrial annelids are hermaphroditic, while many polychaete have defined male and female sexes for spawning[2]. In oligochaetes the exchange of gametes go both ways with the sperm and eggs being exchanged between both partners. This is done in a head to tail position and then the eggs become enveloped in a mucus cocoon from the clitellum where the eggs are actually fertilized.[3] The eggs hatch and do not undergo a larval stage, they just hatch as small oligochates. Polychaete spawn near the surface marine environments. When they want to spawn they will swim to the surface and the females will release the eggs and the males will fertilize them.[5] The worms then undergo various stages of development under the protection of their mother until they are fully developed displaying a type of brooding behavior[5]. [[File:Bobbit Worm.jpg|200px|thumb|Right|''Eunice aphroditois''
or the Bobbit Worm, an aquatic predatory polychaete worm that buries beneath sediments to ambush prey]]

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== Role in Soil ==

Oligochaetes are the main annelids found in [[soil]]. Earthworms are a major member of oligochaetes and of which there are about 3500 members living in soil. Earthworms are considered ecosystem engineers because of the role they play in the structure of soils and the diversity of the soil ecosystem. Earthworms either get their food from the surface leaf litter or the organic residue found in soil.[6] The majority of organics that an earthworm will ingest are from dead plant matter, but they will also consume living animals such as [[nematodes]] and other microfauna.[6] Earthworms prefer foods with a high nitrogen content and they also eat to burrow as well. As they burrow they leave nutrient rich casts which are important for returning nutrients to the soil. This aerates the soil, provides more nutrient for living plants, and helps prevent erosion. These nutrient rich casts are a big reason why earthworms are important to agriculture and why they are sought out when planting an new field.[6]

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== References ==

1. Parry, L. , Tanner, A. , Vinther, J. and Smith, A. (2014), The origin of annelids. Palaeontology, 57: 1091-1103. doi:10.1111/pala.12129

2. Rouse, G. W. (2001). Annelida (Segmented Worms). In eLS, (Ed.). doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001599

3. Reish, D. J. (2013, December 18). Annelid. Retrieved April 12, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/annelid

4. Lardicci, C. , Abbiati, M. , Crema, R. , Morri, C. , Bianchi, C. N. and Castelli, A. (1993), The Distribution of Polychaetes Along Environmental Gradients: An Example from the Or betel I o Lagoon, Italy. Marine Ecology, 14: 35-52. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.1993.tb00363.x

5. Annie Mercier, Sandrine Baillon, Jean-François Hamel,Life history and seasonal breeding of the deep-sea annelid Ophryotrocha sp. (Polychaeta: Dorvelleidae),Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers,Volume 91,2014,Pages 27-35,ISSN 0967-0637,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2014.05.007.

6. Lenardt, A. (2014, April 7). The Role of Earthworms in Soil Systems. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from https://blogs.unbc.ca/biol202/2014/04/07/the-role-of-earthworms-in-soil-systems/

''Image Sources''

1.Taken By Phynix Davis in Roosevelt Park on 4/14/2018

2.https://imgur.com/gallery/7oQDJ

3. http://www.savalli.us/BIO385/Diversity/09.Annelida.html

4.http://www.soilanimals.com/look/soil-food-web

5. https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/bobbitt-worm-blue-planet

Animals

2018-05-09T05:41:55Z

Naglowny: /* Resources */

Members of the biological kingdom of Animalia are animals. Animals are eukaryotic organisms that are generally multi-cellular, oxygen-dependent, heterotrophic, motile, and sexually reproductive. The cells of an animal do not have a rigid cell wall and, like other eukaryotic organisms, have organelles from folded membranes. Animal zygotes form a blastula during the development of an embryo to aid in the development of organs and other body structures. There are millions of estimated species of animals in the world and most of them are predicted to be insects. Animals are a major part of most of the ecosystems on the planet forming the majority of the food-webs in these ecosystems. Many species of animals spend at least a portion of their lives in soil.

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== Characteristics ==

[[File:Blastula.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The outer cells of a blastula are the blastomeres, they surround a fluid filled cavity surrounding the blastocoele. This is an embryo of an animal cell in its early stages.]]

Animals are multi-cellular organisms and, with the certain exceptions, these cells form specialized groups called tissues. These tissues have many different functions including, locomotion, structure, digestion, and various other processes necessary for life.[2} These tissues begin to be created when the blastula is formed. The blastula is a hollow sphere of zygotic cells that form after repeated division of fertilized animal egg. This hollow sphere begins the formation of the internal organs and tissues. A non-insignificant portion of tissues is not comprised of cells, they have a large amount of extracellular space in them. This space is mostly filled by the extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix is comprised of macromolecules such as proteins and polysaccharides. These molecules are produced by the cells in the tissues and they also arrange them within the tissues. The extracellular matrix is more prevalent in connective tissue and can calcify to form bones and similar structures.[1]

Animals are heterotrophic, they can not produce their own nutrients for aerobic respiration. Like fungi, animals must consume complex carbon molecules for aerobic respiration. These complex nutrients can be acquired by the from other organisms, live or dead. Detritovores consume the tissues of dead organisms. Grazers may consume parts of still living organisms, although these organisms are herbivores, primarily consuming plant matter. Predators kill and consume other organisms, mainly animals. Parasites and parasitoids both grow and develop either within or on other organisms, taking nutrients from them. Parasitoids, however, kill their hosts. [4]

[[File:Animal Cell.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|An animal cell with the organelles labeled. Notice the lack of a cell wall in the animal cell]]

The cells of animals are eukaryotic, meaning they are surrounded by a cell membrane and have a nucleus with all of the genetic data of the cell inside. The biggest difference between animal cells and the cells of plants and fungi is that animal cells lack a cell wall. This lack of a cell wall allows for the differentiation of cells and the production of tissues. Most animal cells are diploid, therefore chromosomes exist in homologous pairs.These pairs break up during mitosis, and during meiosis these cells cross-over and then divide to form haploid cells. The organelles within an animal cell are mostly made up of membranes, or in the case of mitochondria, the remnants of a symbiotic bacteria. Certain organelles are found more often in animal cells, such as the centrioles which aid in the process of cell division. [3]

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== Taxonomy and Diversity ==

There are roughly 1.7 million described species in the animal kingdom. These animals are spread across 40 different phyla. Arthropods comprise roughly 1.3 million of these species and are by far the most numerous among them representing about 80% of the kingdom. The next largest phylum are the mollusks, representing about 120,000 species and having less than 10% of the diversity of the arthropods. The phylum Craniata includes all vertebrates representing 85 thousand species. 35 thousand of these species are fish, 16 thousand are mammals, 15 thousand are reptiles, 11 thousand are birds, and 7 thousand are amphibians. [5]

[[File:phylogenetic_tree.jpg|600px|thumb|left|Phylogenetic tree of the major phyla of the Animal kingdom]]

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== Animals in Soil ==

Animals play a large role in the soil ecosystem. Invertebrates mix, loosen, and aerate soils, while the larger vertebrates burrow in the soil. Their organic materials such as their wastes and their decaying bodies are important to the replenishment of nutrients in the soil.

[[File:Honey Badger.jpg|400px|thumb|right|A pair of honey badgers fending off a pack of African wild dogs]]

There are multiple ways to classify animals that live in the soil. Size is one of the primary ways to classify these animals. Microfauna are between 0.0002 cm to 0.002 cm in body length, mesofauna are from 0.002 cm to 1 cm in length, and macrofauna are over 1 cm in body length. Another classification is the span of time an animal resides in soil, from animals like nematodes, that spend their entire lives in soil, to animals like ground nesting birds which tangentially exist on the soil. The animals location in the [[soil horizons]], the diet of the animal, and the method of locomotion through the soil are also ways to classify soil based fauna.

Both vertebrates and invertebrates effect the communities in soil. [[Nematodes]] are detritovores that also consume [[bacteria]] and [[fungi]] and can be parasitic to other invertebrates and plants. They are an important food source to other soil based animals. Earthworms mix the organic and inorganic aspects of soil, and alter nitrogen into more consumable forms for plant life. Mollusks and arthropods are both important for cycling surface plant matter underground. Vertebrates are important for the topography of the soil. Many of the mammals burrow and alter the soil horizons of a given area. Small rodents store food in these burrows, which eventually wind up back in the soil with their droppings. Nutrients may enter the soil via droppings from surface animals and large animals such as cattle may overgraze making the soil more susceptible to wind erosion. The burrows of some animals may become the homes of some organisms that don't normally live in the soil such as certain species of beetles and frogs. Fungi would then start growing which would then be consumed by arthropods which would then be consumed by vertebrates.[6]

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== Resources ==

1. Davidson, Michael W. "Animal Cell Structure". Archived from the original on 20 September 2007. Retrieved 20 September 2007.

2. Starr, Cecie (2007-09-25). Biology: Concepts and Applications without Physiology. Cengage Learning. pp. 362, 365. ISBN 0495381500.

3. Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland Science.

4. Britannica, T. E. (2017, June 19). Heterotroph. Retrieved March 06, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/science/heterotroph

5. Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (2013-08-30). "Animal biodiversity: An update of classification and diversity in 2013. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness
(Addenda 2013)". Zootaxa. 3703 (1): 5. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.3.

6. Hendricks, D. M. (n.d.). 5. Animals and Soil in Arizona. Retrieved March 06, 2018, from http://www.library.arizona.edu/exhibits/swetc/azso/body.1_div.5.html

'' Image Sources''

1.http://egreinaputri.blogspot.com/2012/09/

2.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21698/

3.http://slideplayer.com/slide/2383812/

4.w.planet.fr/monde-le-blaireau-et-lindicateur-un-pacte-gastronomique.1554461.1608.html

Animals

2018-05-09T05:41:40Z

Naglowny: /* Resources */

Members of the biological kingdom of Animalia are animals. Animals are eukaryotic organisms that are generally multi-cellular, oxygen-dependent, heterotrophic, motile, and sexually reproductive. The cells of an animal do not have a rigid cell wall and, like other eukaryotic organisms, have organelles from folded membranes. Animal zygotes form a blastula during the development of an embryo to aid in the development of organs and other body structures. There are millions of estimated species of animals in the world and most of them are predicted to be insects. Animals are a major part of most of the ecosystems on the planet forming the majority of the food-webs in these ecosystems. Many species of animals spend at least a portion of their lives in soil.

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== Characteristics ==

[[File:Blastula.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The outer cells of a blastula are the blastomeres, they surround a fluid filled cavity surrounding the blastocoele. This is an embryo of an animal cell in its early stages.]]

Animals are multi-cellular organisms and, with the certain exceptions, these cells form specialized groups called tissues. These tissues have many different functions including, locomotion, structure, digestion, and various other processes necessary for life.[2} These tissues begin to be created when the blastula is formed. The blastula is a hollow sphere of zygotic cells that form after repeated division of fertilized animal egg. This hollow sphere begins the formation of the internal organs and tissues. A non-insignificant portion of tissues is not comprised of cells, they have a large amount of extracellular space in them. This space is mostly filled by the extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix is comprised of macromolecules such as proteins and polysaccharides. These molecules are produced by the cells in the tissues and they also arrange them within the tissues. The extracellular matrix is more prevalent in connective tissue and can calcify to form bones and similar structures.[1]

Animals are heterotrophic, they can not produce their own nutrients for aerobic respiration. Like fungi, animals must consume complex carbon molecules for aerobic respiration. These complex nutrients can be acquired by the from other organisms, live or dead. Detritovores consume the tissues of dead organisms. Grazers may consume parts of still living organisms, although these organisms are herbivores, primarily consuming plant matter. Predators kill and consume other organisms, mainly animals. Parasites and parasitoids both grow and develop either within or on other organisms, taking nutrients from them. Parasitoids, however, kill their hosts. [4]

[[File:Animal Cell.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|An animal cell with the organelles labeled. Notice the lack of a cell wall in the animal cell]]

The cells of animals are eukaryotic, meaning they are surrounded by a cell membrane and have a nucleus with all of the genetic data of the cell inside. The biggest difference between animal cells and the cells of plants and fungi is that animal cells lack a cell wall. This lack of a cell wall allows for the differentiation of cells and the production of tissues. Most animal cells are diploid, therefore chromosomes exist in homologous pairs.These pairs break up during mitosis, and during meiosis these cells cross-over and then divide to form haploid cells. The organelles within an animal cell are mostly made up of membranes, or in the case of mitochondria, the remnants of a symbiotic bacteria. Certain organelles are found more often in animal cells, such as the centrioles which aid in the process of cell division. [3]

----

== Taxonomy and Diversity ==

There are roughly 1.7 million described species in the animal kingdom. These animals are spread across 40 different phyla. Arthropods comprise roughly 1.3 million of these species and are by far the most numerous among them representing about 80% of the kingdom. The next largest phylum are the mollusks, representing about 120,000 species and having less than 10% of the diversity of the arthropods. The phylum Craniata includes all vertebrates representing 85 thousand species. 35 thousand of these species are fish, 16 thousand are mammals, 15 thousand are reptiles, 11 thousand are birds, and 7 thousand are amphibians. [5]

[[File:phylogenetic_tree.jpg|600px|thumb|left|Phylogenetic tree of the major phyla of the Animal kingdom]]

----

== Animals in Soil ==

Animals play a large role in the soil ecosystem. Invertebrates mix, loosen, and aerate soils, while the larger vertebrates burrow in the soil. Their organic materials such as their wastes and their decaying bodies are important to the replenishment of nutrients in the soil.

[[File:Honey Badger.jpg|400px|thumb|right|A pair of honey badgers fending off a pack of African wild dogs]]

There are multiple ways to classify animals that live in the soil. Size is one of the primary ways to classify these animals. Microfauna are between 0.0002 cm to 0.002 cm in body length, mesofauna are from 0.002 cm to 1 cm in length, and macrofauna are over 1 cm in body length. Another classification is the span of time an animal resides in soil, from animals like nematodes, that spend their entire lives in soil, to animals like ground nesting birds which tangentially exist on the soil. The animals location in the [[soil horizons]], the diet of the animal, and the method of locomotion through the soil are also ways to classify soil based fauna.

Both vertebrates and invertebrates effect the communities in soil. [[Nematodes]] are detritovores that also consume [[bacteria]] and [[fungi]] and can be parasitic to other invertebrates and plants. They are an important food source to other soil based animals. Earthworms mix the organic and inorganic aspects of soil, and alter nitrogen into more consumable forms for plant life. Mollusks and arthropods are both important for cycling surface plant matter underground. Vertebrates are important for the topography of the soil. Many of the mammals burrow and alter the soil horizons of a given area. Small rodents store food in these burrows, which eventually wind up back in the soil with their droppings. Nutrients may enter the soil via droppings from surface animals and large animals such as cattle may overgraze making the soil more susceptible to wind erosion. The burrows of some animals may become the homes of some organisms that don't normally live in the soil such as certain species of beetles and frogs. Fungi would then start growing which would then be consumed by arthropods which would then be consumed by vertebrates.[6]

----

== Resources ==

1. Davidson, Michael W. "Animal Cell Structure". Archived from the original on 20 September 2007. Retrieved 20 September 2007.

2. Starr, Cecie (2007-09-25). Biology: Concepts and Applications without Physiology. Cengage Learning. pp. 362, 365. ISBN 0495381500.

3. Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland Science.

4. Britannica, T. E. (2017, June 19). Heterotroph. Retrieved March 06, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/science/heterotroph

5. Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (2013-08-30). "Animal biodiversity: An update of classification and diversity in 2013. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness
(Addenda 2013)". Zootaxa. 3703 (1): 5. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.3.

6. Hendricks, D. M. (n.d.). 5. Animals and Soil in Arizona. Retrieved March 06, 2018, from http://www.library.arizona.edu/exhibits/swetc/azso/body.1_div.5.html

'' Image Sources''
1.http://egreinaputri.blogspot.com/2012/09/

2.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21698/

3.http://slideplayer.com/slide/2383812/

4.w.planet.fr/monde-le-blaireau-et-lindicateur-un-pacte-gastronomique.1554461.1608.html

Animals

2018-05-09T05:34:05Z

Naglowny: /* Animals in Soil */

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T05:32:46Z

Naglowny:

[[File:TigerSalamander.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]
Tiger salamanders are a group of salamanders that include multiple species including ''Ambystoma tigrinum'', ''Ambystoma mavoritum'', and '' Ambystoma californiense'', and ''Ambystoma velasci''. They are all a part of the genus ''Ambystoma'' which are mole salamanders. Tiger salamanders are mainly quadrupedal and terrestrial when they are adults. As adults they can grow to be 15-20cm on average with a record length of 13 inches.[1] The eastern tiger salamander(''A. tigrium'') can be distinguished by the olive or yellow markings along a black or yellow body.[1]

----

== Range/Habitat ==
[[File:TigerSalamanderrange.gif|200px|thumb|right|The ranges of most of the species of tiger salamanders]]
The eastern tiger salamander is found from southern New York to Florida along the east coast.[2] The western range is from western Ohio to Minnesota and there is a range in Texas near the gulf coast.[2] The other species of tiger salamanders can be found throughout North America except New England and the west coast[3] with the exception of the California Tiger Salamander(''A. californiense'') which is found mostly in the Central Valley of California with isolated populations in Santa Barbara and Sonoma.[5] Tiger salamanders as a whole spend most of their adult life on land, however they need natural fishless pools and ponds to breed.[2] The salamanders can live in grasslands, parklands, sub-alpine meadows and semi-arid regions.[4] In New York the tiger salamanders are only confirmed to exist in Long Island and they live in sandy pine barrens. The salamanders live in sandy or friable soils and need the burrows of other animals to hibernated during the winter.[3]

----

== Role in the Food Web ==

Adult tiger salamanders consume small vertebrates and invertebrates.[2] The larvae of the tiger salamander mainly consumes aquatic invertebrates. However, the larvae of the tiger salamander have also been observed to consume fathead minnows and various tadpoles of diffrent species of frogs and toads including species such as bullfrogs and green frogs which are noxious to fish.[3] Cannibalism has also been observed in the larvae of the salamanders. The diet of adult tiger salamanders is mostly unknown as they rarely have food in their stomachs when digested, but they have been observed to consume various insects, mollusks, and [[annelids]]. [3] Field mice may also be taken.

Tiger salamanders may fall prey to various birds such as herons and egrets, large bullfrogs, and large fish.[5] Various large aquatic invertebrates and fish will prey upon the larvae and eggs of the salamanders, but the ponds used for breeding by the salamanders would have been selected to be fish-less. If the salamander does breed in a pond with fish it will move to deeper waters to avoid the predatory fish as opposed to its favored shallows.[3]

----

== Life Cycle ==
The breeding cycle of the salamanders begins as soon as there are permanent or semi-permanent ponds that have reached temperatures around 10 degrees Celsius. During breeding the male will deposit a sperm packet at the bottom of the lake and the female will pick it up with her cloaca and then lay the eggs either singly or in clusters of 100 to 5,000 depending on the size of the female and the geographic area.[4] Hatching time varies depending on temperature, but will likely take 2-3 weeks. [1] The development of the larvae normally takes 3-4 months, but depends on prey availability, temperature, and larval density. Upon exiting, the adults will spend most of their lives in burrows only leaving ti migrate or hunt during or around rainstorms.[4]
[[File:TigerSalamanderlarva.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A tiger salamander larva]]

----

== Care in Captivity ==
Tiger salamanders are commonly kept as pets for either recreational or educational purposes or as research subjects. Salamanders, for the most part, are not considered good pets because of how delicate they are, how hard they are to feed, and how secretive they are.[6] This doesn't apply to tiger salamanders. They will accept food from their handlers and adapt well to captivity, unlike most salamanders.[6] Many states,like Ohio and California, have laws protecting tiger salamanders, so acquiring them may be difficult or impossible legally. Most captive tiger salamanders are wild caught and will take a little while to adapt to captivity. To house a larval tiger salamander a fully aquatic setup is required with very slowly moving water.[6] When the metamorphosis is almost complete, shown by the disappearance of the tail-fin the water should barely cover the salamander and have a way to leave the water easily when the salamander is ready.[6] The larvae shouldn't be kept with more than two other larvae or with any fish.[6] As an adult they are among the easiest salamander to keep in captivity as they need at least 4 inches of soil to burrow in, a water source, and a well ventilated cover.[1] They do not require external lighting or heating. In captivity nightcrawlers and crickets are good staple foods.[6] They do not require any additional supplements such as a calcium dust for these food sources. Waxworms and baby mice make good treats, but if they are used as a staple in the salamanders diet it would lead to the salamander becoming obese.[6]
[[File:TigerSalamanderCaptive.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Three Adult salamanders in captivity]]

----

== Conservation Status ==
Habitat loss from development is a cause for decline in tiger salamanders.[2] Migration routes and breeding ponds can be disturbed or filled in by development causing a huge decline in population.[4] The eradication of soil dwelling vertebrates can also cause the wintering homes of the salamanders as they can't burrow too well efficiently.[4] When roads intersect the migration routes the salamanders could face fatalities via cars and other vehicles.[4] Fish and bullfrogs introduced into the salamanders' breeding ponds can prey upon the amphibians and their larvae. Agricultural chemical usage may also stunt larval growth and harm the immune systems of adults.[4]

Disease heavily impacts amphibian populations world wide. Two infectious diseases are prominent in populations of tiger salamanders; ''Ambystoma tigrinum'' virus (ATV) and amphibian chytrid fungus (''Batracochytridium dendrobatidis'' or ''Bd'').[4] ATV likely spreads faster with greater salamander density and closer proximity. Aggressive behaviors such as nipping, biting, and cannibalism may also spread the disease.[4] ATV has been cited to be the cause of many salamander die-offs in the northern United States and Canada. ''Bd'' is a fungal infection that is more prevalent in other amphibians than tiger salamanders. Since Bd is less likely to be found in tiger salamanders, ATV is considered to be the greatest disease threat.[4]

----

== Sources ==
1. Graham, Donna. “Tiger Salamander.” Tiger Salamander, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Division of Wildlife, 1997, www3.northern.edu/natsource/AMPHIB1/Salama1.htm.

2. “Eastern Tiger Salamander Fact Sheet.” Freshwater Wetlands Program - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7143.html.

3. Smith, Brian E. “Conservation Assessment of the Tiger Salamander in the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and Wyoming.” May 2003, www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5226872.pdf.

4. Environment Canada. “Species at Risk Public Registry - COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Western Tiger Salamander Ambystoma Mavortium in Canada - 2012.” COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle in Canada 2010 - Species at Risk Public Registry, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. , 17 Dec. 2015, www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=413ABB1D-1.

5. Davison, Veronica, et al. “California Tiger Salamander - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts | Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office.” Greater Sage-Grouse | Species Information, Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office, www.fws.gov/sacramento/es_species/Accounts/Amphibians-Reptiles/ca_tiger_salamander/.

6. Clare, John. “Tiger Salamander Care Sheet.” Reptiles Magazine, www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Frogs-Amphibians/Tiger-Salamander-Care-Sheet/.

''Image Sources''

1. https://backyardzoologist.files.wordpress.com/

2. https://www.petcoach.co/article/tiger-salamanders-ambystoma-tigrinum-species-profile-housin/

3. https://www.caudata.org/forum/showthread.php?t=48791

4. http://extension.msstate.edu/news/feature-story/2013/msu-salamander-work-has-conservation-impact

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T05:32:22Z

Naglowny:

[[File:TigerSalamander.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]
Tiger salamanders are a group of salamanders that include multiple species including ''Ambystoma tigrinum'', ''Ambystoma mavoritum'', and '' Ambystoma californiense'', and ''Ambystoma velasci''. They are all a part of the genus ''Ambystoma'' which are mole salamanders. Tiger salamanders are mainly quadrupedal and terrestrial when they are adults. As adults they can grow to be 15-20cm on average with a record length of 13 inches.[1] The eastern tiger salamander(''A. tigrium'') can be distinguished by the olive or yellow markings along a black or yellow body.[1]

----

== Range/Habitat ==
[[File:TigerSalamanderrange.gif|200px|thumb|right|The ranges of most of the species of tiger salamanders]]
The eastern tiger salamander is found from southern New York to Florida along the east coast.[2] The western range is from western Ohio to Minnesota and there is a range in Texas near the gulf coast.[2] The other species of tiger salamanders can be found throughout North America except New England and the west coast[3] with the exception of the California Tiger Salamander(''A. californiense'') which is found mostly in the Central Valley of California with isolated populations in Santa Barbara and Sonoma.[5] Tiger salamanders as a whole spend most of their adult life on land, however they need natural fishless pools and ponds to breed.[2] The salamanders can live in grasslands, parklands, sub-alpine meadows and semi-arid regions.[4] In New York the tiger salamanders are only confirmed to exist in Long Island and they live in sandy pine barrens. The salamanders live in sandy or friable soils and need the burrows of other animals to hibernated during the winter.[3]

----

== Role in the Food Web ==

Adult tiger salamanders consume small vertebrates and invertebrates.[2] The larvae of the tiger salamander mainly consumes aquatic invertebrates. However, the larvae of the tiger salamander have also been observed to consume fathead minnows and various tadpoles of diffrent species of frogs and toads including species such as bullfrogs and green frogs which are noxious to fish.[3] Cannibalism has also been observed in the larvae of the salamanders. The diet of adult tiger salamanders is mostly unknown as they rarely have food in their stomachs when digested, but they have been observed to consume various insects, mollusks, and [[annelids]]. [3] Field mice may also be taken.

Tiger salamanders may fall prey to various birds such as herons and egrets, large bullfrogs, and large fish.[5] Various large aquatic invertebrates and fish will prey upon the larvae and eggs of the salamanders, but the ponds used for breeding by the salamanders would have been selected to be fish-less. If the salamander does breed in a pond with fish it will move to deeper waters to avoid the predatory fish as opposed to its favored shallows.[3]

----

== Life Cycle ==
The breeding cycle of the salamanders begins as soon as there are permanent or semi-permanent ponds that have reached temperatures around 10 degrees Celsius. During breeding the male will deposit a sperm packet at the bottom of the lake and the female will pick it up with her cloaca and then lay the eggs either singly or in clusters of 100 to 5,000 depending on the size of the female and the geographic area.[4] Hatching time varies depending on temperature, but will likely take 2-3 weeks. [1] The development of the larvae normally takes 3-4 months, but depends on prey availability, temperature, and larval density. Upon exiting, the adults will spend most of their lives in burrows only leaving ti migrate or hunt during or around rainstorms.[4]
[[File:TigerSalamanderlarva.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A tiger salamander larva]]

----

== Care in Captivity ==
Tiger salamanders are commonly kept as pets for either recreational or educational purposes or as research subjects. Salamanders, for the most part, are not considered good pets because of how delicate they are, how hard they are to feed, and how secretive they are.[6] This doesn't apply to tiger salamanders. They will accept food from their handlers and adapt well to captivity, unlike most salamanders.[6] Many states,like Ohio and California, have laws protecting tiger salamanders, so acquiring them may be difficult or impossible legally. Most captive tiger salamanders are wild caught and will take a little while to adapt to captivity. To house a larval tiger salamander a fully aquatic setup is required with very slowly moving water.[6] When the metamorphosis is almost complete, shown by the disappearance of the tail-fin the water should barely cover the salamander and have a way to leave the water easily when the salamander is ready.[6] The larvae shouldn't be kept with more than two other larvae or with any fish.[6] As an adult they are among the easiest salamander to keep in captivity as they need at least 4 inches of soil to burrow in, a water source, and a well ventilated cover.[1] They do not require external lighting or heating. In captivity nightcrawlers and crickets are good staple foods.[6] They do not require any additional supplements such as a calcium dust for these food sources. Waxworms and baby mice make good treats, but if they are used as a staple in the salamanders diet it would lead to the salamander becoming obese.[6]
[[File:TigerSalamanderCaptive.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Three Adult salamanders in captivity]]

----

== Conservation Status ==
Habitat loss from development is a cause for decline in tiger salamanders.[2] Migration routes and breeding ponds can be disturbed or filled in by development causing a huge decline in population.[4] The eradication of soil dwelling vertebrates can also cause the wintering homes of the salamanders as they can't burrow too well efficiently.[4] When roads intersect the migration routes the salamanders could face fatalities via cars and other vehicles.[4] Fish and bullfrogs introduced into the salamanders' breeding ponds can prey upon the amphibians and their larvae. Agricultural chemical usage may also stunt larval growth and harm the immune systems of adults.[4]

Disease heavily impacts amphibian populations world wide. Two infectious diseases are prominent in populations of tiger salamanders; ''Ambystoma tigrinum'' virus (ATV) and amphibian chytrid fungus (''Batracochytridium dendrobatidis'' or ''Bd'').[4] ATV likely spreads faster with greater salamander density and closer proximity. Aggressive behaviors such as nipping, biting, and cannibalism may also spread the disease.[4] ATV has been cited to be the cause of many salamander die-offs in the northern United States and Canada. ''Bd'' is a fungal infection that is more prevalent in other amphibians than tiger salamanders. Since Bd is less likely to be found in tiger salamanders, ATV is considered to be the greatest disease threat.[4]

----

== Sources ==
1. Graham, Donna. “Tiger Salamander.” Tiger Salamander, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Division of Wildlife, 1997, www3.northern.edu/natsource/AMPHIB1/Salama1.htm.

2. “Eastern Tiger Salamander Fact Sheet.” Freshwater Wetlands Program - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7143.html.

3. Smith, Brian E. “Conservation Assessment of the Tiger Salamander in the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and Wyoming.” May 2003, www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5226872.pdf.

4. Environment Canada. “Species at Risk Public Registry - COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Western Tiger Salamander Ambystoma Mavortium in Canada - 2012.” COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle in Canada 2010 - Species at Risk Public Registry, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. , 17 Dec. 2015, www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=413ABB1D-1.

5. Davison, Veronica, et al. “California Tiger Salamander - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts | Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office.” Greater Sage-Grouse | Species Information, Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office, www.fws.gov/sacramento/es_species/Accounts/Amphibians-Reptiles/ca_tiger_salamander/.

6. Clare, John. “Tiger Salamander Care Sheet.” Reptiles Magazine, www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Frogs-Amphibians/Tiger-Salamander-Care-Sheet/.

''Image Sources''

1. https://backyardzoologist.files.wordpress.com/
2. https://www.petcoach.co/article/tiger-salamanders-ambystoma-tigrinum-species-profile-housin/
3. https://www.caudata.org/forum/showthread.php?t=48791
4. http://extension.msstate.edu/news/feature-story/2013/msu-salamander-work-has-conservation-impact

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T05:31:26Z

Naglowny:

[[File:TigerSalamander.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]
Tiger salamanders are a group of salamanders that include multiple species including ''Ambystoma tigrinum'', ''Ambystoma mavoritum'', and '' Ambystoma californiense'', and ''Ambystoma velasci''. They are all a part of the genus ''Ambystoma'' which are mole salamanders. Tiger salamanders are mainly quadrupedal and terrestrial when they are adults. As adults they can grow to be 15-20cm on average with a record length of 13 inches.[1] The eastern tiger salamander(''A. tigrium'') can be distinguished by the olive or yellow markings along a black or yellow body.[1]

----

== Range/Habitat ==
[[File:TigerSalamanderrange.gif|200px|thumb|right|The ranges of most of the species of tiger salamanders]]
The eastern tiger salamander is found from southern New York to Florida along the east coast.[2] The western range is from western Ohio to Minnesota and there is a range in Texas near the gulf coast.[2] The other species of tiger salamanders can be found throughout North America except New England and the west coast[3] with the exception of the California Tiger Salamander(''A. californiense'') which is found mostly in the Central Valley of California with isolated populations in Santa Barbara and Sonoma.[5] Tiger salamanders as a whole spend most of their adult life on land, however they need natural fishless pools and ponds to breed.[2] The salamanders can live in grasslands, parklands, sub-alpine meadows and semi-arid regions.[4] In New York the tiger salamanders are only confirmed to exist in Long Island and they live in sandy pine barrens. The salamanders live in sandy or friable soils and need the burrows of other animals to hibernated during the winter.[3]

----

== Role in the Food Web ==

Adult tiger salamanders consume small vertebrates and invertebrates.[2] The larvae of the tiger salamander mainly consumes aquatic invertebrates. However, the larvae of the tiger salamander have also been observed to consume fathead minnows and various tadpoles of diffrent species of frogs and toads including species such as bullfrogs and green frogs which are noxious to fish.[3] Cannibalism has also been observed in the larvae of the salamanders. The diet of adult tiger salamanders is mostly unknown as they rarely have food in their stomachs when digested, but they have been observed to consume various insects, mollusks, and [[annelids]]. [3] Field mice may also be taken.

Tiger salamanders may fall prey to various birds such as herons and egrets, large bullfrogs, and large fish.[5] Various large aquatic invertebrates and fish will prey upon the larvae and eggs of the salamanders, but the ponds used for breeding by the salamanders would have been selected to be fish-less. If the salamander does breed in a pond with fish it will move to deeper waters to avoid the predatory fish as opposed to its favored shallows.[3]

----

== Life Cycle ==
The breeding cycle of the salamanders begins as soon as there are permanent or semi-permanent ponds that have reached temperatures around 10 degrees Celsius. During breeding the male will deposit a sperm packet at the bottom of the lake and the female will pick it up with her cloaca and then lay the eggs either singly or in clusters of 100 to 5,000 depending on the size of the female and the geographic area.[4] Hatching time varies depending on temperature, but will likely take 2-3 weeks. [1] The development of the larvae normally takes 3-4 months, but depends on prey availability, temperature, and larval density. Upon exiting, the adults will spend most of their lives in burrows only leaving ti migrate or hunt during or around rainstorms.[4]
[[File:TigerSalamanderlarva.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A tiger salamander larva]]

----

== Care in Captivity ==
Tiger salamanders are commonly kept as pets for either recreational or educational purposes or as research subjects. Salamanders, for the most part, are not considered good pets because of how delicate they are, how hard they are to feed, and how secretive they are.[6] This doesn't apply to tiger salamanders. They will accept food from their handlers and adapt well to captivity, unlike most salamanders.[6] Many states,like Ohio and California, have laws protecting tiger salamanders, so acquiring them may be difficult or impossible legally. Most captive tiger salamanders are wild caught and will take a little while to adapt to captivity. To house a larval tiger salamander a fully aquatic setup is required with very slowly moving water.[6] When the metamorphosis is almost complete, shown by the disappearance of the tail-fin the water should barely cover the salamander and have a way to leave the water easily when the salamander is ready.[6] The larvae shouldn't be kept with more than two other larvae or with any fish.[6] As an adult they are among the easiest salamander to keep in captivity as they need at least 4 inches of soil to burrow in, a water source, and a well ventilated cover.[1] They do not require external lighting or heating. In captivity nightcrawlers and crickets are good staple foods.[6] They do not require any additional supplements such as a calcium dust for these food sources. Waxworms and baby mice make good treats, but if they are used as a staple in the salamanders diet it would lead to the salamander becoming obese.[6]
[[File:TigerSalamanderCaptive.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Three Adult salamanders in captivity]]

----

== Conservation Status ==
Habitat loss from development is a cause for decline in tiger salamanders.[2] Migration routes and breeding ponds can be disturbed or filled in by development causing a huge decline in population.[4] The eradication of soil dwelling vertebrates can also cause the wintering homes of the salamanders as they can't burrow too well efficiently.[4] When roads intersect the migration routes the salamanders could face fatalities via cars and other vehicles.[4] Fish and bullfrogs introduced into the salamanders' breeding ponds can prey upon the amphibians and their larvae. Agricultural chemical usage may also stunt larval growth and harm the immune systems of adults.[4]

Disease heavily impacts amphibian populations world wide. Two infectious diseases are prominent in populations of tiger salamanders; ''Ambystoma tigrinum'' virus (ATV) and amphibian chytrid fungus (''Batracochytridium dendrobatidis'' or ''Bd'').[4] ATV likely spreads faster with greater salamander density and closer proximity. Aggressive behaviors such as nipping, biting, and cannibalism may also spread the disease.[4] ATV has been cited to be the cause of many salamander die-offs in the northern United States and Canada. ''Bd'' is a fungal infection that is more prevalent in other amphibians than tiger salamanders. Since Bd is less likely to be found in tiger salamanders, ATV is considered to be the greatest disease threat.[4]

----

== Sources ==
1. Graham, Donna. “Tiger Salamander.” Tiger Salamander, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Division of Wildlife, 1997, www3.northern.edu/natsource/AMPHIB1/Salama1.htm.

2. “Eastern Tiger Salamander Fact Sheet.” Freshwater Wetlands Program - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7143.html.

3. Smith, Brian E. “Conservation Assessment of the Tiger Salamander in the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and Wyoming.” May 2003, www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5226872.pdf.

4. Environment Canada. “Species at Risk Public Registry - COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Western Tiger Salamander Ambystoma Mavortium in Canada - 2012.” COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle in Canada 2010 - Species at Risk Public Registry, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. , 17 Dec. 2015, www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=413ABB1D-1.

5. Davison, Veronica, et al. “California Tiger Salamander - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts | Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office.” Greater Sage-Grouse | Species Information, Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office, www.fws.gov/sacramento/es_species/Accounts/Amphibians-Reptiles/ca_tiger_salamander/.

6. Clare, John. “Tiger Salamander Care Sheet.” Reptiles Magazine, www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Frogs-Amphibians/Tiger-Salamander-Care-Sheet/.

''Image Sources''

1. https://backyardzoologist.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/img_22961.jpg
2. https://www.petcoach.co/article/tiger-salamanders-ambystoma-tigrinum-species-profile-housin/
3. https://www.caudata.org/forum/showthread.php?t=48791
4. http://extension.msstate.edu/news/feature-story/2013/msu-salamander-work-has-conservation-impact

File:TigerSalamanderlarva.jpg

2018-05-09T05:29:40Z

Naglowny:

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T05:26:46Z

Naglowny: /* Life Cycle */

[[File:TigerSalamander.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]
Tiger salamanders are a group of salamanders that include multiple species including ''Ambystoma tigrinum'', ''Ambystoma mavoritum'', and '' Ambystoma californiense'', and ''Ambystoma velasci''. They are all a part of the genus ''Ambystoma'' which are mole salamanders. Tiger salamanders are mainly quadrupedal and terrestrial when they are adults. As adults they can grow to be 15-20cm on average with a record length of 13 inches.[1] The eastern tiger salamander(''A. tigrium'') can be distinguished by the olive or yellow markings along a black or yellow body.[1]

----

== Range/Habitat ==
[[File:TigerSalamanderrange.gif|200px|thumb|right|The ranges of most of the species of tiger salamanders]]
The eastern tiger salamander is found from southern New York to Florida along the east coast.[2] The western range is from western Ohio to Minnesota and there is a range in Texas near the gulf coast.[2] The other species of tiger salamanders can be found throughout North America except New England and the west coast[3] with the exception of the California Tiger Salamander(''A. californiense'') which is found mostly in the Central Valley of California with isolated populations in Santa Barbara and Sonoma.[5] Tiger salamanders as a whole spend most of their adult life on land, however they need natural fishless pools and ponds to breed.[2] The salamanders can live in grasslands, parklands, sub-alpine meadows and semi-arid regions.[4] In New York the tiger salamanders are only confirmed to exist in Long Island and they live in sandy pine barrens. The salamanders live in sandy or friable soils and need the burrows of other animals to hibernated during the winter.[3]

----

== Role in the Food Web ==

Adult tiger salamanders consume small vertebrates and invertebrates.[2] The larvae of the tiger salamander mainly consumes aquatic invertebrates. However, the larvae of the tiger salamander have also been observed to consume fathead minnows and various tadpoles of diffrent species of frogs and toads including species such as bullfrogs and green frogs which are noxious to fish.[3] Cannibalism has also been observed in the larvae of the salamanders. The diet of adult tiger salamanders is mostly unknown as they rarely have food in their stomachs when digested, but they have been observed to consume various insects, mollusks, and [[annelids]]. [3] Field mice may also be taken.

Tiger salamanders may fall prey to various birds such as herons and egrets, large bullfrogs, and large fish.[5] Various large aquatic invertebrates and fish will prey upon the larvae and eggs of the salamanders, but the ponds used for breeding by the salamanders would have been selected to be fish-less. If the salamander does breed in a pond with fish it will move to deeper waters to avoid the predatory fish as opposed to its favored shallows.[3]

----

== Life Cycle ==
The breeding cycle of the salamanders begins as soon as there are permanent or semi-permanent ponds that have reached temperatures around 10 degrees Celsius. During breeding the male will deposit a sperm packet at the bottom of the lake and the female will pick it up with her cloaca and then lay the eggs either singly or in clusters of 100 to 5,000 depending on the size of the female and the geographic area.[4] Hatching time varies depending on temperature, but will likely take 2-3 weeks. [1] The development of the larvae normally takes 3-4 months, but depends on prey availability, temperature, and larval density. Upon exiting, the adults will spend most of their lives in burrows only leaving ti migrate or hunt during or around rainstorms.[4]
[[File:TigerSalamanderlarva.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A young tiger salamander larva]]

----

== Care in Captivity ==
Tiger salamanders are commonly kept as pets for either recreational or educational purposes or as research subjects. Salamanders, for the most part, are not considered good pets because of how delicate they are, how hard they are to feed, and how secretive they are.[6] This doesn't apply to tiger salamanders. They will accept food from their handlers and adapt well to captivity, unlike most salamanders.[6] Many states,like Ohio and California, have laws protecting tiger salamanders, so acquiring them may be difficult or impossible legally. Most captive tiger salamanders are wild caught and will take a little while to adapt to captivity. To house a larval tiger salamander a fully aquatic setup is required with very slowly moving water.[6] When the metamorphosis is almost complete, shown by the disappearance of the tail-fin the water should barely cover the salamander and have a way to leave the water easily when the salamander is ready.[6] The larvae shouldn't be kept with more than two other larvae or with any fish.[6] As an adult they are among the easiest salamander to keep in captivity as they need at least 4 inches of soil to burrow in, a water source, and a well ventilated cover.[1] They do not require external lighting or heating. In captivity nightcrawlers and crickets are good staple foods.[6] They do not require any additional supplements such as a calcium dust for these food sources. Waxworms and baby mice make good treats, but if they are used as a staple in the salamanders diet it would lead to the salamander becoming obese.[6]
[[File:TigerSalamanderCaptive.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Three Adult salamanders in captivity]]

----

== Conservation Status ==
Habitat loss from development is a cause for decline in tiger salamanders.[2] Migration routes and breeding ponds can be disturbed or filled in by development causing a huge decline in population.[4] The eradication of soil dwelling vertebrates can also cause the wintering homes of the salamanders as they can't burrow too well efficiently.[4] When roads intersect the migration routes the salamanders could face fatalities via cars and other vehicles.[4] Fish and bullfrogs introduced into the salamanders' breeding ponds can prey upon the amphibians and their larvae. Agricultural chemical usage may also stunt larval growth and harm the immune systems of adults.[4]

Disease heavily impacts amphibian populations world wide. Two infectious diseases are prominent in populations of tiger salamanders; ''Ambystoma tigrinum'' virus (ATV) and amphibian chytrid fungus (''Batracochytridium dendrobatidis'' or ''Bd'').[4] ATV likely spreads faster with greater salamander density and closer proximity. Aggressive behaviors such as nipping, biting, and cannibalism may also spread the disease.[4] ATV has been cited to be the cause of many salamander die-offs in the northern United States and Canada. ''Bd'' is a fungal infection that is more prevalent in other amphibians than tiger salamanders. Since Bd is less likely to be found in tiger salamanders, ATV is considered to be the greatest disease threat.[4]

----

== Sources ==
1. Graham, Donna. “Tiger Salamander.” Tiger Salamander, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Division of Wildlife, 1997, www3.northern.edu/natsource/AMPHIB1/Salama1.htm.

2. “Eastern Tiger Salamander Fact Sheet.” Freshwater Wetlands Program - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7143.html.

3. Smith, Brian E. “Conservation Assessment of the Tiger Salamander in the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and Wyoming.” May 2003, www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5226872.pdf.

4. Environment Canada. “Species at Risk Public Registry - COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Western Tiger Salamander Ambystoma Mavortium in Canada - 2012.” COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle in Canada 2010 - Species at Risk Public Registry, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. , 17 Dec. 2015, www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=413ABB1D-1.

5. Davison, Veronica, et al. “California Tiger Salamander - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts | Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office.” Greater Sage-Grouse | Species Information, Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office, www.fws.gov/sacramento/es_species/Accounts/Amphibians-Reptiles/ca_tiger_salamander/.

6. Clare, John. “Tiger Salamander Care Sheet.” Reptiles Magazine, www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Frogs-Amphibians/Tiger-Salamander-Care-Sheet/.

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T05:24:48Z

Naglowny:

[[File:TigerSalamander.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]
Tiger salamanders are a group of salamanders that include multiple species including ''Ambystoma tigrinum'', ''Ambystoma mavoritum'', and '' Ambystoma californiense'', and ''Ambystoma velasci''. They are all a part of the genus ''Ambystoma'' which are mole salamanders. Tiger salamanders are mainly quadrupedal and terrestrial when they are adults. As adults they can grow to be 15-20cm on average with a record length of 13 inches.[1] The eastern tiger salamander(''A. tigrium'') can be distinguished by the olive or yellow markings along a black or yellow body.[1]

----

== Range/Habitat ==
[[File:TigerSalamanderrange.gif|200px|thumb|right|The ranges of most of the species of tiger salamanders]]
The eastern tiger salamander is found from southern New York to Florida along the east coast.[2] The western range is from western Ohio to Minnesota and there is a range in Texas near the gulf coast.[2] The other species of tiger salamanders can be found throughout North America except New England and the west coast[3] with the exception of the California Tiger Salamander(''A. californiense'') which is found mostly in the Central Valley of California with isolated populations in Santa Barbara and Sonoma.[5] Tiger salamanders as a whole spend most of their adult life on land, however they need natural fishless pools and ponds to breed.[2] The salamanders can live in grasslands, parklands, sub-alpine meadows and semi-arid regions.[4] In New York the tiger salamanders are only confirmed to exist in Long Island and they live in sandy pine barrens. The salamanders live in sandy or friable soils and need the burrows of other animals to hibernated during the winter.[3]

----

== Role in the Food Web ==

Adult tiger salamanders consume small vertebrates and invertebrates.[2] The larvae of the tiger salamander mainly consumes aquatic invertebrates. However, the larvae of the tiger salamander have also been observed to consume fathead minnows and various tadpoles of diffrent species of frogs and toads including species such as bullfrogs and green frogs which are noxious to fish.[3] Cannibalism has also been observed in the larvae of the salamanders. The diet of adult tiger salamanders is mostly unknown as they rarely have food in their stomachs when digested, but they have been observed to consume various insects, mollusks, and [[annelids]]. [3] Field mice may also be taken.

Tiger salamanders may fall prey to various birds such as herons and egrets, large bullfrogs, and large fish.[5] Various large aquatic invertebrates and fish will prey upon the larvae and eggs of the salamanders, but the ponds used for breeding by the salamanders would have been selected to be fish-less. If the salamander does breed in a pond with fish it will move to deeper waters to avoid the predatory fish as opposed to its favored shallows.[3]

----

== Life Cycle ==
The breeding cycle of the salamanders begins as soon as there are permanent or semi-permanent ponds that have reached temperatures around 10 degrees Celsius. During breeding the male will deposit a sperm packet at the bottom of the lake and the female will pick it up with her cloaca and then lay the eggs either singly or in clusters of 100 to 5,000 depending on the size of the female and the geographic area.[4] Hatching time varies depending on temperature, but will likely take 2-3 weeks. [1] The development of the larvae normally takes 3-4 months, but depends on prey availability, temperature, and larval density. Upon exiting, the adults will spend most of their lives in burrows only leaving ti migrate or hunt during or around rainstorms.[4]
[[File:TigerSalamanderlarvae.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A young tiger salamander larvae]]

----

== Care in Captivity ==
Tiger salamanders are commonly kept as pets for either recreational or educational purposes or as research subjects. Salamanders, for the most part, are not considered good pets because of how delicate they are, how hard they are to feed, and how secretive they are.[6] This doesn't apply to tiger salamanders. They will accept food from their handlers and adapt well to captivity, unlike most salamanders.[6] Many states,like Ohio and California, have laws protecting tiger salamanders, so acquiring them may be difficult or impossible legally. Most captive tiger salamanders are wild caught and will take a little while to adapt to captivity. To house a larval tiger salamander a fully aquatic setup is required with very slowly moving water.[6] When the metamorphosis is almost complete, shown by the disappearance of the tail-fin the water should barely cover the salamander and have a way to leave the water easily when the salamander is ready.[6] The larvae shouldn't be kept with more than two other larvae or with any fish.[6] As an adult they are among the easiest salamander to keep in captivity as they need at least 4 inches of soil to burrow in, a water source, and a well ventilated cover.[1] They do not require external lighting or heating. In captivity nightcrawlers and crickets are good staple foods.[6] They do not require any additional supplements such as a calcium dust for these food sources. Waxworms and baby mice make good treats, but if they are used as a staple in the salamanders diet it would lead to the salamander becoming obese.[6]
[[File:TigerSalamanderCaptive.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Three Adult salamanders in captivity]]

----

== Conservation Status ==
Habitat loss from development is a cause for decline in tiger salamanders.[2] Migration routes and breeding ponds can be disturbed or filled in by development causing a huge decline in population.[4] The eradication of soil dwelling vertebrates can also cause the wintering homes of the salamanders as they can't burrow too well efficiently.[4] When roads intersect the migration routes the salamanders could face fatalities via cars and other vehicles.[4] Fish and bullfrogs introduced into the salamanders' breeding ponds can prey upon the amphibians and their larvae. Agricultural chemical usage may also stunt larval growth and harm the immune systems of adults.[4]

Disease heavily impacts amphibian populations world wide. Two infectious diseases are prominent in populations of tiger salamanders; ''Ambystoma tigrinum'' virus (ATV) and amphibian chytrid fungus (''Batracochytridium dendrobatidis'' or ''Bd'').[4] ATV likely spreads faster with greater salamander density and closer proximity. Aggressive behaviors such as nipping, biting, and cannibalism may also spread the disease.[4] ATV has been cited to be the cause of many salamander die-offs in the northern United States and Canada. ''Bd'' is a fungal infection that is more prevalent in other amphibians than tiger salamanders. Since Bd is less likely to be found in tiger salamanders, ATV is considered to be the greatest disease threat.[4]

----

== Sources ==
1. Graham, Donna. “Tiger Salamander.” Tiger Salamander, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Division of Wildlife, 1997, www3.northern.edu/natsource/AMPHIB1/Salama1.htm.

2. “Eastern Tiger Salamander Fact Sheet.” Freshwater Wetlands Program - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7143.html.

3. Smith, Brian E. “Conservation Assessment of the Tiger Salamander in the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and Wyoming.” May 2003, www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5226872.pdf.

4. Environment Canada. “Species at Risk Public Registry - COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Western Tiger Salamander Ambystoma Mavortium in Canada - 2012.” COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle in Canada 2010 - Species at Risk Public Registry, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. , 17 Dec. 2015, www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=413ABB1D-1.

5. Davison, Veronica, et al. “California Tiger Salamander - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts | Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office.” Greater Sage-Grouse | Species Information, Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office, www.fws.gov/sacramento/es_species/Accounts/Amphibians-Reptiles/ca_tiger_salamander/.

6. Clare, John. “Tiger Salamander Care Sheet.” Reptiles Magazine, www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Frogs-Amphibians/Tiger-Salamander-Care-Sheet/.

File:TigerSalamanderCaptive.jpg

2018-05-09T05:21:48Z

Naglowny:

File:TigerSalamanderrange.gif

2018-05-09T05:20:02Z

Naglowny:

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T05:19:50Z

Naglowny:

[[File:TigerSalamander.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]
Tiger salamanders are a group of salamanders that include multiple species including ''Ambystoma tigrinum'', ''Ambystoma mavoritum'', and '' Ambystoma californiense'', and ''Ambystoma velasci''. They are all a part of the genus ''Ambystoma'' which are mole salamanders. Tiger salamanders are mainly quadrupedal and terrestrial when they are adults. As adults they can grow to be 15-20cm on average with a record length of 13 inches.[1] The eastern tiger salamander(''A. tigrium'') can be distinguished by the olive or yellow markings along a black or yellow body.[1]

----

== Range/Habitat ==
[[File:TigerSalamanderrange.gif|200px|thumb|right|The ranges of most of the species of tiger salamanders]]
The eastern tiger salamander is found from southern New York to Florida along the east coast.[2] The western range is from western Ohio to Minnesota and there is a range in Texas near the gulf coast.[2] The other species of tiger salamanders can be found throughout North America except New England and the west coast[3] with the exception of the California Tiger Salamander(''A. californiense'') which is found mostly in the Central Valley of California with isolated populations in Santa Barbara and Sonoma.[5] Tiger salamanders as a whole spend most of their adult life on land, however they need natural fishless pools and ponds to breed.[2] The salamanders can live in grasslands, parklands, sub-alpine meadows and semi-arid regions.[4] In New York the tiger salamanders are only confirmed to exist in Long Island and they live in sandy pine barrens. The salamanders live in sandy or friable soils and need the burrows of other animals to hibernated during the winter.[3]

----

== Role in the Food Web ==

Adult tiger salamanders consume small vertebrates and invertebrates.[2] The larvae of the tiger salamander mainly consumes aquatic invertebrates. However, the larvae of the tiger salamander have also been observed to consume fathead minnows and various tadpoles of diffrent species of frogs and toads including species such as bullfrogs and green frogs which are noxious to fish.[3] Cannibalism has also been observed in the larvae of the salamanders. The diet of adult tiger salamanders is mostly unknown as they rarely have food in their stomachs when digested, but they have been observed to consume various insects, mollusks, and [[annelids]]. [3] Field mice may also be taken.

Tiger salamanders may fall prey to various birds such as herons and egrets, large bullfrogs, and large fish.[5] Various large aquatic invertebrates and fish will prey upon the larvae and eggs of the salamanders, but the ponds used for breeding by the salamanders would have been selected to be fish-less. If the salamander does breed in a pond with fish it will move to deeper waters to avoid the predatory fish as opposed to its favored shallows.[3]

----

== Life Cycle ==
The breeding cycle of the salamanders begins as soon as there are permanent or semi-permanent ponds that have reached temperatures around 10 degrees Celsius. During breeding the male will deposit a sperm packet at the bottom of the lake and the female will pick it up with her cloaca and then lay the eggs either singly or in clusters of 100 to 5,000 depending on the size of the female and the geographic area.[4] Hatching time varies depending on temperature, but will likely take 2-3 weeks. [1] The development of the larvae normally takes 3-4 months, but depends on prey availability, temperature, and larval density. Upon exiting, the adults will spend most of their lives in burrows only leaving ti migrate or hunt during or around rainstorms.[4]
[[File:TigerSalamanderlarvae.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A young tiger salamander larvae]]

----

== Care in Captivity ==
Tiger salamanders are commonly kept as pets for either recreational or educational purposes or as research subjects. Salamanders, for the most part, are not considered good pets because of how delicate they are, how hard they are to feed, and how secretive they are.[6] This doesn't apply to tiger salamanders. They will accept food from their handlers and adapt well to captivity, unlike most salamanders.[6] Many states,like Ohio and California, have laws protecting tiger salamanders, so acquiring them may be difficult or impossible legally. Most captive tiger salamanders are wild caught and will take a little while to adapt to captivity. To house a larval tiger salamander a fully aquatic setup is required with very slowly moving water.[6] When the metamorphosis is almost complete, shown by the disappearance of the tail-fin the water should barely cover the salamander and have a way to leave the water easily when the salamander is ready.[6] The larvae shouldn't be kept with more than two other larvae or with any fish.[6] As an adult they are among the easiest salamander to keep in captivity as they need at least 4 inches of soil to burrow in, a water source, and a well ventilated cover.[1] They do not require external lighting or heating. In captivity nightcrawlers and crickets are good staple foods.[6] They do not require any additional supplements such as a calcium dust for these food sources. Waxworms and baby mice make good treats, but if they are used as a staple in the salamanders diet it would lead to the salamander becoming obese.[6]
[[File:TigerSalamanderCaptive.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Three Adult salamanders in captivity]]

----

== Conservation Status ==
Habitat loss from development is a cause for decline in tiger salamanders.[2] Migration routes and breeding ponds can be disturbed or filled in by development causing a huge decline in population.[4] The eradication of soil dwelling vertebrates can also cause the wintering homes of the salamanders as they can't burrow too well efficiently.[4] When roads intersect the migration routes the salamanders could face fatalities via cars and other vehicles.[4] Fish and bullfrogs introduced into the salamanders' breeding ponds can prey upon the amphibians and their larvae. Agricultural chemical usage may also stunt larval growth and harm the immune systems of adults.[4]

Disease heavily impacts amphibian populations world wide. Two infectious diseases are prominent in populations of tiger salamanders; ''Ambystoma tigrinum'' virus (ATV) and amphibian chytrid fungus (''Batracochytridium dendrobatidis'' or ''Bd'').[4] ATV likely spreads faster with greater salamander density and closer proximity. Aggressive behaviors such as nipping, biting, and cannibalism may also spread the disease.[4] ATV has been cited to be the cause of many salamander die-offs in the northern United States and Canada. ''Bd'' is a fungal infection that is more prevalent in other amphibians than tiger salamanders. Since Bd is less likely to be found in tiger salamanders, ATV is considered to be the greatest disease threat.[4]

----

== Sources ==
1. Graham, Donna. “Tiger Salamander.” Tiger Salamander, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Division of Wildlife, 1997, www3.northern.edu/natsource/AMPHIB1/Salama1.htm.

2. “Eastern Tiger Salamander Fact Sheet.” Freshwater Wetlands Program - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7143.html.

3. Smith, Brian E. “Conservation Assessment of the Tiger Salamander in the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and Wyoming.” May 2003, www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5226872.pdf.

4. Environment Canada. “Species at Risk Public Registry - COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Western Tiger Salamander Ambystoma Mavortium in Canada - 2012.” COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle in Canada 2010 - Species at Risk Public Registry, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. , 17 Dec. 2015, www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=413ABB1D-1.

5. Davison, Veronica, et al. “California Tiger Salamander - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts | Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office.” Greater Sage-Grouse | Species Information, Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office, www.fws.gov/sacramento/es_species/Accounts/Amphibians-Reptiles/ca_tiger_salamander/.

6. Clare, John. “Tiger Salamander Care Sheet.” Reptiles Magazine, www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Frogs-Amphibians/Tiger-Salamander-Care-Sheet/.

File:TigerSalamander.jpg

2018-05-09T05:15:46Z

Naglowny:

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T05:15:23Z

Naglowny:

[[File:TigerSalamander.jpg|400px|thumb|left|]]
Tiger salamanders are a group of salamanders that include multiple species including ''Ambystoma tigrinum'', ''Ambystoma mavoritum'', and '' Ambystoma californiense'', and ''Ambystoma velasci''. They are all a part of the genus ''Ambystoma'' which are mole salamanders. Tiger salamanders are mainly quadrupedal and terrestrial when they are adults. As adults they can grow to be 15-20cm on average with a record length of 13 inches.[1] The eastern tiger salamander(''A. tigrium'') can be distinguished by the olive or yellow markings along a black or yellow body.[1]

----

== Range/Habitat ==
[[File:TigerSalamanderrange.jpg|200px|thumb|right|The ranges of most of the species of tiger salamanders]]
The eastern tiger salamander is found from southern New York to Florida along the east coast.[2] The western range is from western Ohio to Minnesota and there is a range in Texas near the gulf coast.[2] The other species of tiger salamanders can be found throughout North America except New England and the west coast[3] with the exception of the California Tiger Salamander(''A. californiense'') which is found mostly in the Central Valley of California with isolated populations in Santa Barbara and Sonoma.[5] Tiger salamanders as a whole spend most of their adult life on land, however they need natural fishless pools and ponds to breed.[2] The salamanders can live in grasslands, parklands, sub-alpine meadows and semi-arid regions.[4] In New York the tiger salamanders are only confirmed to exist in Long Island and they live in sandy pine barrens. The salamanders live in sandy or friable soils and need the burrows of other animals to hibernated during the winter.[3]

----

== Role in the Food Web ==

Adult tiger salamanders consume small vertebrates and invertebrates.[2] The larvae of the tiger salamander mainly consumes aquatic invertebrates. However, the larvae of the tiger salamander have also been observed to consume fathead minnows and various tadpoles of diffrent species of frogs and toads including species such as bullfrogs and green frogs which are noxious to fish.[3] Cannibalism has also been observed in the larvae of the salamanders. The diet of adult tiger salamanders is mostly unknown as they rarely have food in their stomachs when digested, but they have been observed to consume various insects, mollusks, and [[annelids]]. [3] Field mice may also be taken.

Tiger salamanders may fall prey to various birds such as herons and egrets, large bullfrogs, and large fish.[5] Various large aquatic invertebrates and fish will prey upon the larvae and eggs of the salamanders, but the ponds used for breeding by the salamanders would have been selected to be fish-less. If the salamander does breed in a pond with fish it will move to deeper waters to avoid the predatory fish as opposed to its favored shallows.[3]

----

== Life Cycle ==
The breeding cycle of the salamanders begins as soon as there are permanent or semi-permanent ponds that have reached temperatures around 10 degrees Celsius. During breeding the male will deposit a sperm packet at the bottom of the lake and the female will pick it up with her cloaca and then lay the eggs either singly or in clusters of 100 to 5,000 depending on the size of the female and the geographic area.[4] Hatching time varies depending on temperature, but will likely take 2-3 weeks. [1] The development of the larvae normally takes 3-4 months, but depends on prey availability, temperature, and larval density. Upon exiting, the adults will spend most of their lives in burrows only leaving ti migrate or hunt during or around rainstorms.[4]
[[File:TigerSalamanderlarvae.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A young tiger salamander larvae]]

----

== Care in Captivity ==
Tiger salamanders are commonly kept as pets for either recreational or educational purposes or as research subjects. Salamanders, for the most part, are not considered good pets because of how delicate they are, how hard they are to feed, and how secretive they are.[6] This doesn't apply to tiger salamanders. They will accept food from their handlers and adapt well to captivity, unlike most salamanders.[6] Many states,like Ohio and California, have laws protecting tiger salamanders, so acquiring them may be difficult or impossible legally. Most captive tiger salamanders are wild caught and will take a little while to adapt to captivity. To house a larval tiger salamander a fully aquatic setup is required with very slowly moving water.[6] When the metamorphosis is almost complete, shown by the disappearance of the tail-fin the water should barely cover the salamander and have a way to leave the water easily when the salamander is ready.[6] The larvae shouldn't be kept with more than two other larvae or with any fish.[6] As an adult they are among the easiest salamander to keep in captivity as they need at least 4 inches of soil to burrow in, a water source, and a well ventilated cover.[1] They do not require external lighting or heating. In captivity nightcrawlers and crickets are good staple foods.[6] They do not require any additional supplements such as a calcium dust for these food sources. Waxworms and baby mice make good treats, but if they are used as a staple in the salamanders diet it would lead to the salamander becoming obese.[6]
[[File:TigerSalamanderCaptive.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Three Adult salamanders in captivity]]

----

== Conservation Status ==
Habitat loss from development is a cause for decline in tiger salamanders.[2] Migration routes and breeding ponds can be disturbed or filled in by development causing a huge decline in population.[4] The eradication of soil dwelling vertebrates can also cause the wintering homes of the salamanders as they can't burrow too well efficiently.[4] When roads intersect the migration routes the salamanders could face fatalities via cars and other vehicles.[4] Fish and bullfrogs introduced into the salamanders' breeding ponds can prey upon the amphibians and their larvae. Agricultural chemical usage may also stunt larval growth and harm the immune systems of adults.[4]

Disease heavily impacts amphibian populations world wide. Two infectious diseases are prominent in populations of tiger salamanders; ''Ambystoma tigrinum'' virus (ATV) and amphibian chytrid fungus (''Batracochytridium dendrobatidis'' or ''Bd'').[4] ATV likely spreads faster with greater salamander density and closer proximity. Aggressive behaviors such as nipping, biting, and cannibalism may also spread the disease.[4] ATV has been cited to be the cause of many salamander die-offs in the northern United States and Canada. ''Bd'' is a fungal infection that is more prevalent in other amphibians than tiger salamanders. Since Bd is less likely to be found in tiger salamanders, ATV is considered to be the greatest disease threat.[4]

----

== Sources ==
1. Graham, Donna. “Tiger Salamander.” Tiger Salamander, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Division of Wildlife, 1997, www3.northern.edu/natsource/AMPHIB1/Salama1.htm.

2. “Eastern Tiger Salamander Fact Sheet.” Freshwater Wetlands Program - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7143.html.

3. Smith, Brian E. “Conservation Assessment of the Tiger Salamander in the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and Wyoming.” May 2003, www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5226872.pdf.

4. Environment Canada. “Species at Risk Public Registry - COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Western Tiger Salamander Ambystoma Mavortium in Canada - 2012.” COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle in Canada 2010 - Species at Risk Public Registry, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. , 17 Dec. 2015, www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=413ABB1D-1.

5. Davison, Veronica, et al. “California Tiger Salamander - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts | Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office.” Greater Sage-Grouse | Species Information, Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office, www.fws.gov/sacramento/es_species/Accounts/Amphibians-Reptiles/ca_tiger_salamander/.

6. Clare, John. “Tiger Salamander Care Sheet.” Reptiles Magazine, www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Frogs-Amphibians/Tiger-Salamander-Care-Sheet/.

Annelids

2018-05-09T05:01:02Z

Naglowny: /* Distribution and Habitat */

Annelids

2018-05-09T05:00:42Z

Naglowny: /* Morphology/Anatomy */

[[File:Earthworm.jpg|400px|thumb|left| Picture of an earthworm taken on 4/14/2018]]Annelids, or segmented worms, are segmented bilaterian invertebrates that are very important to a variety of marine and terrestrial environments. All annelids have a central body cavity called a coelom, bristles called setae, and segments called annulations which they are named after. There are three major groups of of annelids; the class Polychaeta which are almost entirely marine in nature and the subclasses of Oligochaeta which are earthworms and their relatives, and Hirudinea which are leeches. Among these groups there are approximately 17,000 described species. Many of the species of annelids reproduce sexually and are hermaphroditic, but some are able to asexually reproduce. Annelids are found across the entire planet in almost every kind of environment imaginable. Annelids are generally soft tissue organisms, but there is evidence of them in the fossil record dating back to the Ordovician period.

----

== Classification ==

Annelids belong to the clade Lophotrochozoa. This clade includes the phyla Mollusca, Sipuncula, Brachiopodia, and Phorondia. [1] The two major groups of
annelids are the cilliates and polychaetes. Cilliates include members of the subclasses oligochaeta (eg. earthworms) and hirundinea (leeches). Oligochaetea are primarily terestrial, preferring damp soil, while leeches are mostly made up of freshwater aquatic species. Polychaetes are almost entirely made up of marine species, but a few freshwater species do exist.[1] There are abut 17,000 species of annelid and about 12,000 of them are members of polychaetes. Polychates are then divided into two groups dependent on if they are mostly mobile throughout life or if they live in tubes or burrows for the majority of their existence. There are also about 42 different groups of cilliates[2].[[File:Leech.jpg|200px|thumb|right| ''Haemadipsa picta'' or the Tiger Leech member of the hirundinea subclass]]

----

== Distribution and Habitat ==

Annelids, due to their incredible diversity, live in nearly every habitat on planet, however they have no means of protecting themselves from desiccation, therefore they prefer to live in wet environments. These environments include oceanic sea floors, freshwater systems, and damp soil.[3] The class Polychaeta are primarily benthic organisms that can live in saline, brackish, or freshwater environments. Their distribution in these areas are primarily controlled by the space available to them, the dissolved oxygen content in the water, the rate of movement of the water, and the relative salinity and temperature of the water to the Polychaeta.[4] Oligochaetes are primarily found in the soil but a few are found in aquatic environments, and leeches are almost entirely aquatic or limited to humid areas.[3]

----

== Morphology/Anatomy ==
Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical [[animals]]. The entire body of an annelid is composed of segments. They are named after the Latin word "anellus" which means little ring.[2] These segments can grow in number as the annelid grows in length, with exception of leeches which can have 34 segments and grow by expanding those 34 segments.[3] Annelids also have setae, or chaetae, which are long filaments or hooked structures made up up many chitinous cylinders held together by sclerotinized proteins.[2] These seatae are important in anchoring the annelids down and to help them move up surfaces.

[[File:EarthwormCrossSection.jpg|200px|thumb|left| Cross section of an earthworm]]

The digestive tract of an annelid is essentially one tube that runs from the mouth of the organism to the anus. The area between the inner cavity and the outside of the annelid is called the coelem. This area is filled with a coelemic fluid that also contains the other organ systems of the animals. This fluid is very important for a variety of functions of the organism such as locomotion, osmoregulation, and multiple metabolic processes among others. In polychaetes this fluid is also used to keep the worm's salt levels similar to the surrounding water. The coelmic fluids of leeches are filled with connective tissue and becomes more so as the leech ages. Oxygen is generally absorbed through the skin of the annelid and passed through the body by a closed circulatory system.[3]

----

== Life Cycle and Reproduction ==
[[File:Earthwormsmating.jpg|200px|thumb|Left|Two earthworms mating. The sperm and eggs are exchanged between the two partners]]
Many terrestrial annelids are hermaphroditic, while many polychaete have defined male and female sexes for spawning[2]. In oligochaetes the exchange of gametes go both ways with the sperm and eggs being exchanged between both partners. This is done in a head to tail position and then the eggs become enveloped in a mucus cocoon from the clitellum where the eggs are actually fertilized.[3] The eggs hatch and do not undergo a larval stage, they just hatch as small oligochates. Polychaete spawn near the surface marine environments. When they want to spawn they will swim to the surface and the females will release the eggs and the males will fertilize them.[5] The worms then undergo various stages of development under the protection of their mother until they are fully developed displaying a type of brooding behavior[5]. [[File:Bobbit Worm.jpg|200px|thumb|Right|''Eunice aphroditois''
or the Bobbit Worm, an aquatic predatory polychaete worm that buries beneath sediments to ambush prey]]

----

== Role in Soil ==

Oligochaetes are the main annelids found in [[soil]]. Earthworms are a major member of oligochaetes and of which there are about 3500 members living in soil. Earthworms are considered ecosystem engineers because of the role they play in the structure of soils and the diversity of the soil ecosystem. Earthworms either get their food from the surface leaf litter or the organic residue found in soil.[6] The majority of organics that an earthworm will ingest are from dead plant matter, but they will also consume living animals such as [[nematodes]] and other microfauna.[6] Earthworms prefer foods with a high nitrogen content and they also eat to burrow as well. As they burrow they leave nutrient rich casts which are important for returning nutrients to the soil. This aerates the soil, provides more nutrient for living plants, and helps prevent erosion. These nutrient rich casts are a big reason why earthworms are important to agriculture and why they are sought out when planting an new field.[6]

----

== References ==

1. Parry, L. , Tanner, A. , Vinther, J. and Smith, A. (2014), The origin of annelids. Palaeontology, 57: 1091-1103. doi:10.1111/pala.12129

2. Rouse, G. W. (2001). Annelida (Segmented Worms). In eLS, (Ed.). doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001599

3. Reish, D. J. (2013, December 18). Annelid. Retrieved April 12, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/annelid

4. Lardicci, C. , Abbiati, M. , Crema, R. , Morri, C. , Bianchi, C. N. and Castelli, A. (1993), The Distribution of Polychaetes Along Environmental Gradients: An Example from the Or betel I o Lagoon, Italy. Marine Ecology, 14: 35-52. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.1993.tb00363.x

5. Annie Mercier, Sandrine Baillon, Jean-François Hamel,Life history and seasonal breeding of the deep-sea annelid Ophryotrocha sp. (Polychaeta: Dorvelleidae),Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers,Volume 91,2014,Pages 27-35,ISSN 0967-0637,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2014.05.007.

6. Lenardt, A. (2014, April 7). The Role of Earthworms in Soil Systems. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from https://blogs.unbc.ca/biol202/2014/04/07/the-role-of-earthworms-in-soil-systems/

Annelids

2018-05-09T05:00:12Z

Naglowny: /* Role in Soil */

[[File:Earthworm.jpg|400px|thumb|left| Picture of an earthworm taken on 4/14/2018]]Annelids, or segmented worms, are segmented bilaterian invertebrates that are very important to a variety of marine and terrestrial environments. All annelids have a central body cavity called a coelom, bristles called setae, and segments called annulations which they are named after. There are three major groups of of annelids; the class Polychaeta which are almost entirely marine in nature and the subclasses of Oligochaeta which are earthworms and their relatives, and Hirudinea which are leeches. Among these groups there are approximately 17,000 described species. Many of the species of annelids reproduce sexually and are hermaphroditic, but some are able to asexually reproduce. Annelids are found across the entire planet in almost every kind of environment imaginable. Annelids are generally soft tissue organisms, but there is evidence of them in the fossil record dating back to the Ordovician period.

----

== Classification ==

Annelids belong to the clade Lophotrochozoa. This clade includes the phyla Mollusca, Sipuncula, Brachiopodia, and Phorondia. [1] The two major groups of
annelids are the cilliates and polychaetes. Cilliates include members of the subclasses oligochaeta (eg. earthworms) and hirundinea (leeches). Oligochaetea are primarily terestrial, preferring damp soil, while leeches are mostly made up of freshwater aquatic species. Polychaetes are almost entirely made up of marine species, but a few freshwater species do exist.[1] There are abut 17,000 species of annelid and about 12,000 of them are members of polychaetes. Polychates are then divided into two groups dependent on if they are mostly mobile throughout life or if they live in tubes or burrows for the majority of their existence. There are also about 42 different groups of cilliates[2].[[File:Leech.jpg|200px|thumb|right| ''Haemadipsa picta'' or the Tiger Leech member of the hirundinea subclass]]

----

== Distribution and Habitat ==

Annelids, due to their incredible diversity, live in nearly every habitat on planet, however they have no means of protecting themselves from desiccation, therefore they prefer to live in wet environments. These environments include oceanic sea floors, freshwater systems, and damp soil.[3] The class Polychaeta are primarily benthic organisms that can live in saline, brackish, or freshwater environments. Their distribution in these areas are primarily controlled by the space available to them, the dissolved oxygen content in the water, the rate of movement of the water, and the relative salinity and temperature of the water to the Polychaeta.[4] Oligochaetes are primarily found in the soil but a few are found in aquatic environments, and leeches are almost entirely aquatic or limited to humid areas.[3]

----

== Morphology/Anatomy ==
Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical animals. The entire body of an annelid is composed of segments. They are named after the Latin word "anellus" which means little ring.[2] These segments can grow in number as the annelid grows in length, with exception of leeches which can have 34 segments and grow by expanding those 34 segments.[3] Annelids also have setae, or chaetae, which are long filaments or hooked structures made up up many chitinous cylinders held together by sclerotinized proteins.[2] These seatae are important in anchoring the annelids down and to help them move up surfaces.

[[File:EarthwormCrossSection.jpg|200px|thumb|left| Cross section of an earthworm]]

The digestive tract of an annelid is essentially one tube that runs from the mouth of the organism to the anus. The area between the inner cavity and the outside of the annelid is called the coelem. This area is filled with a coelemic fluid that also contains the other organ systems of the animals. This fluid is very important for a variety of functions of the organism such as locomotion, osmoregulation, and multiple metabolic processes among others. In polychaetes this fluid is also used to keep the worm's salt levels similar to the surrounding water. The coelmic fluids of leeches are filled with connective tissue and becomes more so as the leech ages. Oxygen is generally absorbed through the skin of the annelid and passed through the body by a closed circulatory system.[3]

----

== Life Cycle and Reproduction ==
[[File:Earthwormsmating.jpg|200px|thumb|Left|Two earthworms mating. The sperm and eggs are exchanged between the two partners]]
Many terrestrial annelids are hermaphroditic, while many polychaete have defined male and female sexes for spawning[2]. In oligochaetes the exchange of gametes go both ways with the sperm and eggs being exchanged between both partners. This is done in a head to tail position and then the eggs become enveloped in a mucus cocoon from the clitellum where the eggs are actually fertilized.[3] The eggs hatch and do not undergo a larval stage, they just hatch as small oligochates. Polychaete spawn near the surface marine environments. When they want to spawn they will swim to the surface and the females will release the eggs and the males will fertilize them.[5] The worms then undergo various stages of development under the protection of their mother until they are fully developed displaying a type of brooding behavior[5]. [[File:Bobbit Worm.jpg|200px|thumb|Right|''Eunice aphroditois''
or the Bobbit Worm, an aquatic predatory polychaete worm that buries beneath sediments to ambush prey]]

----

== Role in Soil ==

Oligochaetes are the main annelids found in [[soil]]. Earthworms are a major member of oligochaetes and of which there are about 3500 members living in soil. Earthworms are considered ecosystem engineers because of the role they play in the structure of soils and the diversity of the soil ecosystem. Earthworms either get their food from the surface leaf litter or the organic residue found in soil.[6] The majority of organics that an earthworm will ingest are from dead plant matter, but they will also consume living animals such as [[nematodes]] and other microfauna.[6] Earthworms prefer foods with a high nitrogen content and they also eat to burrow as well. As they burrow they leave nutrient rich casts which are important for returning nutrients to the soil. This aerates the soil, provides more nutrient for living plants, and helps prevent erosion. These nutrient rich casts are a big reason why earthworms are important to agriculture and why they are sought out when planting an new field.[6]

----

== References ==

1. Parry, L. , Tanner, A. , Vinther, J. and Smith, A. (2014), The origin of annelids. Palaeontology, 57: 1091-1103. doi:10.1111/pala.12129

2. Rouse, G. W. (2001). Annelida (Segmented Worms). In eLS, (Ed.). doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001599

3. Reish, D. J. (2013, December 18). Annelid. Retrieved April 12, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/annelid

4. Lardicci, C. , Abbiati, M. , Crema, R. , Morri, C. , Bianchi, C. N. and Castelli, A. (1993), The Distribution of Polychaetes Along Environmental Gradients: An Example from the Or betel I o Lagoon, Italy. Marine Ecology, 14: 35-52. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.1993.tb00363.x

5. Annie Mercier, Sandrine Baillon, Jean-François Hamel,Life history and seasonal breeding of the deep-sea annelid Ophryotrocha sp. (Polychaeta: Dorvelleidae),Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers,Volume 91,2014,Pages 27-35,ISSN 0967-0637,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2014.05.007.

6. Lenardt, A. (2014, April 7). The Role of Earthworms in Soil Systems. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from https://blogs.unbc.ca/biol202/2014/04/07/the-role-of-earthworms-in-soil-systems/

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T04:56:15Z

Naglowny: /* Sources */

Tiger salamanders are a group of salamanders that include multiple species including ''Ambystoma tigrinum'', ''Ambystoma mavoritum'', and '' Ambystoma californiense'', and ''Ambystoma velasci''. They are all a part of the genus ''Ambystoma'' which are mole salamanders. Tiger salamanders are mainly quadrupedal and terrestrial when they are adults. As adults they can grow to be 15-20cm on average with a record length of 13 inches.[1] The eastern tiger salamander(''A. tigrium'') can be distinguished by the olive or yellow markings along a black or yellow body.[1]

----

== Range/Habitat ==
The eastern tiger salamander is found from southern New York to Florida along the east coast.[2] The western range is from western Ohio to Minnesota and there is a range in Texas near the gulf coast.[2] The other species of tiger salamanders can be found throughout North America except New England and the west coast[3] with the exception of the California Tiger Salamander(''A. californiense'') which is found mostly in the Central Valley of California with isolated populations in Santa Barbara and Sonoma.[5] Tiger salamanders as a whole spend most of their adult life on land, however they need natural fishless pools and ponds to breed.[2] The salamanders can live in grasslands, parklands, sub-alpine meadows and semi-arid regions.[4] In New York the tiger salamanders are only confirmed to exist in Long Island and they live in sandy pine barrens. The salamanders live in sandy or friable soils and need the burrows of other animals to hibernated during the winter.[3]

----

== Role in the Food Web ==

Adult tiger salamanders consume small vertebrates and invertebrates.[2] The larvae of the tiger salamander mainly consumes aquatic invertebrates. However, the larvae of the tiger salamander have also been observed to consume fathead minnows and various tadpoles of diffrent species of frogs and toads including species such as bullfrogs and green frogs which are noxious to fish.[3] Cannibalism has also been observed in the larvae of the salamanders. The diet of adult tiger salamanders is mostly unknown as they rarely have food in their stomachs when digested, but they have been observed to consume various insects, mollusks, and [[annelids]]. [3] Field mice may also be taken.

Tiger salamanders may fall prey to various birds such as herons and egrets, large bullfrogs, and large fish.[5] Various large aquatic invertebrates and fish will prey upon the larvae and eggs of the salamanders, but the ponds used for breeding by the salamanders would have been selected to be fish-less. If the salamander does breed in a pond with fish it will move to deeper waters to avoid the predatory fish as opposed to its favored shallows.[3]

----

== Life Cycle ==
The breeding cycle of the salamanders begins as soon as there are permanent or semi-permanent ponds that have reached temperatures around 10 degrees Celsius. During breeding the male will deposit a sperm packet at the bottom of the lake and the female will pick it up with her cloaca and then lay the eggs either singly or in clusters of 100 to 5,000 depending on the size of the female and the geographic area.[4] Hatching time varies depending on temperature, but will likely take 2-3 weeks. [1] The development of the larvae normally takes 3-4 months, but depends on prey availability, temperature, and larval density. Upon exiting, the adults will spend most of their lives in burrows only leaving ti migrate or hunt during or around rainstorms.[4]

----

== Care in Captivity ==
Tiger salamanders are commonly kept as pets for either recreational or educational purposes or as research subjects. Salamanders, for the most part, are not considered good pets because of how delicate they are, how hard they are to feed, and how secretive they are.[6] This doesn't apply to tiger salamanders. They will accept food from their handlers and adapt well to captivity, unlike most salamanders.[6] Many states,like Ohio and California, have laws protecting tiger salamanders, so acquiring them may be difficult or impossible legally. Most captive tiger salamanders are wild caught and will take a little while to adapt to captivity. To house a larval tiger salamander a fully aquatic setup is required with very slowly moving water.[6] When the metamorphosis is almost complete, shown by the disappearance of the tail-fin the water should barely cover the salamander and have a way to leave the water easily when the salamander is ready.[6] The larvae shouldn't be kept with more than two other larvae or with any fish.[6] As an adult they are among the easiest salamander to keep in captivity as they need at least 4 inches of soil to burrow in, a water source, and a well ventilated cover.[1] They do not require external lighting or heating. In captivity nightcrawlers and crickets are good staple foods.[6] They do not require any additional supplements such as a calcium dust for these food sources. Waxworms and baby mice make good treats, but if they are used as a staple in the salamanders diet it would lead to the salamander becoming obese.[6]

----

== Conservation Status ==
Habitat loss from development is a cause for decline in tiger salamanders.[2] Migration routes and breeding ponds can be disturbed or filled in by development causing a huge decline in population.[4] The eradication of soil dwelling vertebrates can also cause the wintering homes of the salamanders as they can't burrow too well efficiently.[4] When roads intersect the migration routes the salamanders could face fatalities via cars and other vehicles.[4] Fish and bullfrogs introduced into the salamanders' breeding ponds can prey upon the amphibians and their larvae. Agricultural chemical usage may also stunt larval growth and harm the immune systems of adults.[4]

Disease heavily impacts amphibian populations world wide. Two infectious diseases are prominent in populations of tiger salamanders; ''Ambystoma tigrinum'' virus (ATV) and amphibian chytrid fungus (''Batracochytridium dendrobatidis'' or ''Bd'').[4] ATV likely spreads faster with greater salamander density and closer proximity. Aggressive behaviors such as nipping, biting, and cannibalism may also spread the disease.[4] ATV has been cited to be the cause of many salamander die-offs in the northern United States and Canada. ''Bd'' is a fungal infection that is more prevalent in other amphibians than tiger salamanders. Since Bd is less likely to be found in tiger salamanders, ATV is considered to be the greatest disease threat.[4]

----

== Sources ==
1. Graham, Donna. “Tiger Salamander.” Tiger Salamander, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Division of Wildlife, 1997, www3.northern.edu/natsource/AMPHIB1/Salama1.htm.

2. “Eastern Tiger Salamander Fact Sheet.” Freshwater Wetlands Program - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7143.html.

3. Smith, Brian E. “Conservation Assessment of the Tiger Salamander in the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and Wyoming.” May 2003, www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5226872.pdf.

4. Environment Canada. “Species at Risk Public Registry - COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Western Tiger Salamander Ambystoma Mavortium in Canada - 2012.” COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle in Canada 2010 - Species at Risk Public Registry, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. , 17 Dec. 2015, www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=413ABB1D-1.

5. Davison, Veronica, et al. “California Tiger Salamander - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts | Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office.” Greater Sage-Grouse | Species Information, Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office, www.fws.gov/sacramento/es_species/Accounts/Amphibians-Reptiles/ca_tiger_salamander/.

6. Clare, John. “Tiger Salamander Care Sheet.” Reptiles Magazine, www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Frogs-Amphibians/Tiger-Salamander-Care-Sheet/.

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T04:55:50Z

Naglowny: /* Conservation Status */

Tiger salamanders are a group of salamanders that include multiple species including ''Ambystoma tigrinum'', ''Ambystoma mavoritum'', and '' Ambystoma californiense'', and ''Ambystoma velasci''. They are all a part of the genus ''Ambystoma'' which are mole salamanders. Tiger salamanders are mainly quadrupedal and terrestrial when they are adults. As adults they can grow to be 15-20cm on average with a record length of 13 inches.[1] The eastern tiger salamander(''A. tigrium'') can be distinguished by the olive or yellow markings along a black or yellow body.[1]

----

== Range/Habitat ==
The eastern tiger salamander is found from southern New York to Florida along the east coast.[2] The western range is from western Ohio to Minnesota and there is a range in Texas near the gulf coast.[2] The other species of tiger salamanders can be found throughout North America except New England and the west coast[3] with the exception of the California Tiger Salamander(''A. californiense'') which is found mostly in the Central Valley of California with isolated populations in Santa Barbara and Sonoma.[5] Tiger salamanders as a whole spend most of their adult life on land, however they need natural fishless pools and ponds to breed.[2] The salamanders can live in grasslands, parklands, sub-alpine meadows and semi-arid regions.[4] In New York the tiger salamanders are only confirmed to exist in Long Island and they live in sandy pine barrens. The salamanders live in sandy or friable soils and need the burrows of other animals to hibernated during the winter.[3]

----

== Role in the Food Web ==

Adult tiger salamanders consume small vertebrates and invertebrates.[2] The larvae of the tiger salamander mainly consumes aquatic invertebrates. However, the larvae of the tiger salamander have also been observed to consume fathead minnows and various tadpoles of diffrent species of frogs and toads including species such as bullfrogs and green frogs which are noxious to fish.[3] Cannibalism has also been observed in the larvae of the salamanders. The diet of adult tiger salamanders is mostly unknown as they rarely have food in their stomachs when digested, but they have been observed to consume various insects, mollusks, and [[annelids]]. [3] Field mice may also be taken.

Tiger salamanders may fall prey to various birds such as herons and egrets, large bullfrogs, and large fish.[5] Various large aquatic invertebrates and fish will prey upon the larvae and eggs of the salamanders, but the ponds used for breeding by the salamanders would have been selected to be fish-less. If the salamander does breed in a pond with fish it will move to deeper waters to avoid the predatory fish as opposed to its favored shallows.[3]

----

== Life Cycle ==
The breeding cycle of the salamanders begins as soon as there are permanent or semi-permanent ponds that have reached temperatures around 10 degrees Celsius. During breeding the male will deposit a sperm packet at the bottom of the lake and the female will pick it up with her cloaca and then lay the eggs either singly or in clusters of 100 to 5,000 depending on the size of the female and the geographic area.[4] Hatching time varies depending on temperature, but will likely take 2-3 weeks. [1] The development of the larvae normally takes 3-4 months, but depends on prey availability, temperature, and larval density. Upon exiting, the adults will spend most of their lives in burrows only leaving ti migrate or hunt during or around rainstorms.[4]

----

== Care in Captivity ==
Tiger salamanders are commonly kept as pets for either recreational or educational purposes or as research subjects. Salamanders, for the most part, are not considered good pets because of how delicate they are, how hard they are to feed, and how secretive they are.[6] This doesn't apply to tiger salamanders. They will accept food from their handlers and adapt well to captivity, unlike most salamanders.[6] Many states,like Ohio and California, have laws protecting tiger salamanders, so acquiring them may be difficult or impossible legally. Most captive tiger salamanders are wild caught and will take a little while to adapt to captivity. To house a larval tiger salamander a fully aquatic setup is required with very slowly moving water.[6] When the metamorphosis is almost complete, shown by the disappearance of the tail-fin the water should barely cover the salamander and have a way to leave the water easily when the salamander is ready.[6] The larvae shouldn't be kept with more than two other larvae or with any fish.[6] As an adult they are among the easiest salamander to keep in captivity as they need at least 4 inches of soil to burrow in, a water source, and a well ventilated cover.[1] They do not require external lighting or heating. In captivity nightcrawlers and crickets are good staple foods.[6] They do not require any additional supplements such as a calcium dust for these food sources. Waxworms and baby mice make good treats, but if they are used as a staple in the salamanders diet it would lead to the salamander becoming obese.[6]

----

== Conservation Status ==
Habitat loss from development is a cause for decline in tiger salamanders.[2] Migration routes and breeding ponds can be disturbed or filled in by development causing a huge decline in population.[4] The eradication of soil dwelling vertebrates can also cause the wintering homes of the salamanders as they can't burrow too well efficiently.[4] When roads intersect the migration routes the salamanders could face fatalities via cars and other vehicles.[4] Fish and bullfrogs introduced into the salamanders' breeding ponds can prey upon the amphibians and their larvae. Agricultural chemical usage may also stunt larval growth and harm the immune systems of adults.[4]

Disease heavily impacts amphibian populations world wide. Two infectious diseases are prominent in populations of tiger salamanders; ''Ambystoma tigrinum'' virus (ATV) and amphibian chytrid fungus (''Batracochytridium dendrobatidis'' or ''Bd'').[4] ATV likely spreads faster with greater salamander density and closer proximity. Aggressive behaviors such as nipping, biting, and cannibalism may also spread the disease.[4] ATV has been cited to be the cause of many salamander die-offs in the northern United States and Canada. ''Bd'' is a fungal infection that is more prevalent in other amphibians than tiger salamanders. Since Bd is less likely to be found in tiger salamanders, ATV is considered to be the greatest disease threat.[4]

----

== Sources ==
1. Graham, Donna. “Tiger Salamander.” Tiger Salamander, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Division of Wildlife, 1997, www3.northern.edu/natsource/AMPHIB1/Salama1.htm.
2. “Eastern Tiger Salamander Fact Sheet.” Freshwater Wetlands Program - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, www.dec.ny.gov/animals/7143.html.
3. Smith, Brian E. “Conservation Assessment of the Tiger Salamander in the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and Wyoming.” May 2003, www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5226872.pdf.
4. Environment Canada. “Species at Risk Public Registry - COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Western Tiger Salamander Ambystoma Mavortium in Canada - 2012.” COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle in Canada 2010 - Species at Risk Public Registry, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. , 17 Dec. 2015, www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=413ABB1D-1.
5. Davison, Veronica, et al. “California Tiger Salamander - Amphibians and Reptiles, Endangered Species Accounts | Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office.” Greater Sage-Grouse | Species Information, Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office, www.fws.gov/sacramento/es_species/Accounts/Amphibians-Reptiles/ca_tiger_salamander/.
6. Clare, John. “Tiger Salamander Care Sheet.” Reptiles Magazine, www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Frogs-Amphibians/Tiger-Salamander-Care-Sheet/.

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T02:31:17Z

Naglowny: /* Conservation Status */

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T02:07:22Z

Naglowny: /* Care in Captivity */

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T01:34:40Z

Naglowny: /* Life Cycle */

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T01:03:52Z

Naglowny:

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T00:59:20Z

Naglowny: /* Role in the Food Web */

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T00:19:19Z

Naglowny: /* Range/Habitat */

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T00:18:54Z

Naglowny: /* Role in the Food Web */

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-09T00:17:28Z

Naglowny:

Tiger Salamander

2018-05-08T17:57:32Z

Naglowny: Created page with "Tiger salamanders are a group of salamanders that include multiple species including ''Ambystoma tigrinum'', ''Ambystoma mavoritum'', and '' Ambystoma californiense'', and ''A..."

Main Page

2018-05-08T15:51:48Z

Naglowny: /* List of Possible Topics: */

=<strong>[[Soil Ecology]] WIKI from the University at Buffalo</strong>=
[[File:Rhizo.jpg|230px|thumb|left|Soil ecology encompasses interactions between plants, soils, and the organisms that live within them.]] [[Soil]] is a vast reservoir for a wide [[diversity]] of [[organisms]]. [[Plant roots]] explore this [[diversity]] daily. Various other [[animals]] consume [[smaller creatures]] either intentionally or unintentionally by [[foraging]] on [[plant roots]], [[insects]], and [[microorganisms]].
Soil ecology is the study of how these [[soil organisms]] interact with other organisms and their environment - their influence on and response to numerous [[soil processes]] and [[properties]] form the basis for delivering [[essential ecosystem services]]. Some of the key processes in soil are [[nutrient cycling]], soil [[aggregate formation]], and [[biodiversity interactions]]. Sometimes, individual species can strongly influence overall soil ecology, such as [[Black Willow]]
The [[diversity]] and abundance of [[soil life]] exceeds that of any other ecosystem. [[Plant establishment]], competitiveness, and growth is governed largely by the [[ecology belowground]], with many interactions attributed to the interconnectivity of [[Plant Roots]] due to [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]]. Therefore, a deep understanding of these systems are an essential component of plant sciences and [[terrestrial ecology]].

Many of the concepts of soil ecology were developed by Hans Jenny and his creation of the [[Jenny Equation]]. These concepts envelop the ideas of the abiotic interactions of [[Organisms]] and plants.

=List of Possible Topics:=

[[Ecosystem Services]], [[Vegetable Mould]], [[Founders of Soil Concepts]], [[Pedogenesis]], [[Jenny Equation]], [[Water Behavior in Soils]], [[Soil Horizons]], [[Soil Textures]], [[Monocots]], [[Dicots]], [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]], [[Springtail]], [[Soil Sampling Methods]], [[Zygomycota]], [[Glomeromycota]], [[Ascomycota]], [[Basidiomycota]], [[Humus]], [[Clay]], [[Silt]], [[Loam]], [[Soil Structures]], [[Flavonoids]], [[Diazotrophs]], [[Black Willow]], [[Cryprogamic Soil Crust]], [[Ciliates]], [[Nutrient Cycling]], [[Isopods]], [[Nematodes]], [[Actinorhiza]], [[Erythraeidae]], [[Amynthas_agrestis]], [[Lichen]], [[Tardigrades]], [[Ectomycorrizae]], [[Hydraulic Actions of Water]] [[Periodical Cicadas]], [[Mites]], [[Rotifers]], [[Small creaters]], ''[[Emiliania huxleyi]]'', [[Annelids]]

<strong>If you dudes/dudettes have any questions, email me at krzidell and I'll do everything I can.</strong>

Moles

2018-04-27T19:08:48Z

Naglowny:

[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb soil and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [1]

== Taxonomy ==
'''Domain''': Eukaryota

'''Kingdom''': Animalia

'''Phylum''': Chordata

'''Class''': Mammalia

'''Order''': Insectivora

'''Family''': Talpidae

This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.

== Description ==
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve their ways through the earth. On their noses are Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, earthworm-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia, [4]

== Lifestyle ==
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. (Image obtained from Vegetable Gardener)]]
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [5] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating.

== Diet ==
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], slugs, grubs, and earthworms. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. For consuming earthworms, moles can poison them with their saliva, which paralyzes them, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.

== Relationship with Humans ==
Moles are traditionally considered pests, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. They can aerate it and prey on grubs, which often damage plant roots. [6] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [5]

== References ==
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp

[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts

[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae

[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html

[5] "Secret of how moles breathe underground revealed". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://web.archive.org/web/20100723133025/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/7899216/Secret-of-how-moles-breathe-underground-revealed.html

[6] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/

Moles

2018-04-27T19:07:32Z

Naglowny: /* Relationship with Humans */

[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb soil and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (Scalopus aquaticus), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (Parascalops breweri), the Star-Nosed Mole (Condylura cristata), the Broad-Footed Mole (Scapanus latimanus), Townsend’s Mole (Scapanus townsendii), the Coast Mole (Scapanus orarius) and the Shrew Mole (Neurotrichus gibbsii). [1]

== Taxonomy ==
'''Domain''': Eukaryota

'''Kingdom''': Animalia

'''Phylum''': Chordata

'''Class''': Mammalia

'''Order''': Insectivora

'''Family''': Talpidae

This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.

== Description ==
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve their ways through the earth. On their noses are Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, earthworm-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia, [4]

== Lifestyle ==
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. (Image obtained from Vegetable Gardener)]]
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [5] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating.

== Diet ==
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], slugs, grubs, and earthworms. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. For consuming earthworms, moles can poison them with their saliva, which paralyzes them, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.

== Relationship with Humans ==
Moles are traditionally considered pests, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. They can aerate it and prey on grubs, which often damage plant roots. [6] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [5]

== References ==
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp

[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts

[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae

[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html

[5] "Secret of how moles breathe underground revealed". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://web.archive.org/web/20100723133025/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/7899216/Secret-of-how-moles-breathe-underground-revealed.html

[6] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/

Moles

2018-04-27T19:06:57Z

Naglowny: /* Relationship with Humans */

[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb soil and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (Scalopus aquaticus), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (Parascalops breweri), the Star-Nosed Mole (Condylura cristata), the Broad-Footed Mole (Scapanus latimanus), Townsend’s Mole (Scapanus townsendii), the Coast Mole (Scapanus orarius) and the Shrew Mole (Neurotrichus gibbsii). [1]

== Taxonomy ==
'''Domain''': Eukaryota

'''Kingdom''': Animalia

'''Phylum''': Chordata

'''Class''': Mammalia

'''Order''': Insectivora

'''Family''': Talpidae

This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.

== Description ==
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve their ways through the earth. On their noses are Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, earthworm-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia, [4]

== Lifestyle ==
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. (Image obtained from Vegetable Gardener)]]
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [5] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating.

== Diet ==
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], slugs, grubs, and earthworms. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. For consuming earthworms, moles can poison them with their saliva, which paralyzes them, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.

== Relationship with Humans ==
Moles are traditionally considered pests, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. They can aerate it and prey on grubs, which often damage plant roots. [6] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirables due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [5]

== References ==
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp

[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts

[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae

[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html

[5] "Secret of how moles breathe underground revealed". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://web.archive.org/web/20100723133025/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/7899216/Secret-of-how-moles-breathe-underground-revealed.html

[6] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/

Moles

2018-04-27T19:06:11Z

Naglowny: /* Diet */

[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb soil and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (Scalopus aquaticus), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (Parascalops breweri), the Star-Nosed Mole (Condylura cristata), the Broad-Footed Mole (Scapanus latimanus), Townsend’s Mole (Scapanus townsendii), the Coast Mole (Scapanus orarius) and the Shrew Mole (Neurotrichus gibbsii). [1]

== Taxonomy ==
'''Domain''': Eukaryota

'''Kingdom''': Animalia

'''Phylum''': Chordata

'''Class''': Mammalia

'''Order''': Insectivora

'''Family''': Talpidae

This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.

== Description ==
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve their ways through the earth. On their noses are Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, earthworm-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia, [4]

== Lifestyle ==
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. (Image obtained from Vegetable Gardener)]]
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [5] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating.

== Diet ==
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], slugs, grubs, and earthworms. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. For consuming earthworms, moles can poison them with their saliva, which paralyzes them, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.

== Relationship with Humans ==
Moles have traditionally been considered pests, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. They can aerate it and prey on grubs, which often damage plant roots. [6] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirables due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [5]

== References ==
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp

[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts

[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae

[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html

[5] "Secret of how moles breathe underground revealed". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://web.archive.org/web/20100723133025/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/7899216/Secret-of-how-moles-breathe-underground-revealed.html

[6] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/

Moles

2018-04-27T18:37:47Z

Naglowny: /* Lifestyle */

[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb soil and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (Scalopus aquaticus), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (Parascalops breweri), the Star-Nosed Mole (Condylura cristata), the Broad-Footed Mole (Scapanus latimanus), Townsend’s Mole (Scapanus townsendii), the Coast Mole (Scapanus orarius) and the Shrew Mole (Neurotrichus gibbsii). [1]

== Taxonomy ==
'''Domain''': Eukaryota

'''Kingdom''': Animalia

'''Phylum''': Chordata

'''Class''': Mammalia

'''Order''': Insectivora

'''Family''': Talpidae

This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.

== Description ==
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve their ways through the earth. On their noses are Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, earthworm-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia, [4]

== Lifestyle ==
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. (Image obtained from Vegetable Gardener)]]
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [5] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating.

== Diet ==
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], slugs, grubs, and earthworms. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is also another detriment due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. For consuming earthworms, moles can poison them with their saliva, which paralyzes them, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.

== Relationship with Humans ==
Moles have traditionally been considered pests, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. They can aerate it and prey on grubs, which often damage plant roots. [6] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirables due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [5]

== References ==
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp

[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts

[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae

[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html

[5] "Secret of how moles breathe underground revealed". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://web.archive.org/web/20100723133025/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/7899216/Secret-of-how-moles-breathe-underground-revealed.html

[6] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/

File:Bobbit Worm.jpg

2018-04-19T01:37:17Z

Naglowny:

File:Earthwormsmating.jpg

2018-04-19T01:37:01Z

Naglowny:

File:EarthwormCrossSection.jpg

2018-04-19T01:36:10Z

Naglowny:

File:Leech.jpg

2018-04-19T01:35:23Z

Naglowny:

File:Earthworm.jpg

2018-04-19T01:34:59Z

Naglowny:

Annelids

2018-04-19T01:34:40Z

Naglowny: /* Morphology/Anatomy */

[[File:Earthworm.jpg|400px|thumb|left| Picture of an earthworm taken on 4/14/2018]]Annelids, or segmented worms, are segmented bilaterian invertebrates that are very important to a variety of marine and terrestrial environments. All annelids have a central body cavity called a coelom, bristles called setae, and segments called annulations which they are named after. There are three major groups of of annelids; the class Polychaeta which are almost entirely marine in nature and the subclasses of Oligochaeta which are earthworms and their relatives, and Hirudinea which are leeches. Among these groups there are approximately 17,000 described species. Many of the species of annelids reproduce sexually and are hermaphroditic, but some are able to asexually reproduce. Annelids are found across the entire planet in almost every kind of environment imaginable. Annelids are generally soft tissue organisms, but there is evidence of them in the fossil record dating back to the Ordovician period.

----

== Classification ==

Annelids belong to the clade Lophotrochozoa. This clade includes the phyla Mollusca, Sipuncula, Brachiopodia, and Phorondia. [1] The two major groups of
annelids are the cilliates and polychaetes. Cilliates include members of the subclasses oligochaeta(eg. earthworms) and hirundinea(leeches). Oligochaetea are primarily terestrial, preferring damp soil, while leeches are mostly made up of freshwater aquatic species. Polychaetes are almost entirely made up of marine species, but a few freshwater species do exist.[1] There are abut 17,000 species of annelid and about 12,000 of them are members of polychaetes. Polychates are then divided into two groups dependent on if they are mostly mobile throughout life or if they live in tubes or burrows for the majority of their existence. There are also about 42 different groups of cilliates[2].[[File:Leech.jpg|200px|thumb|right| ''Haemadipsa picta'' or the Tiger Leech member of the hirundinea subclass]]

----

== Distribution and Habitat ==

Annelids, due to their incredible diversity, live in nearly every habitat on planet, however they have no means of protecting themselves from desiccation, therefore they prefer to live in wet environments. These environments include oceanic sea floors, freshwater systems, and damp soil.[3] The class Polychaeta are primarily benthic organisms that can live in saline, brackish, or freshwater environments. Their distribution in these areas are primarily controlled by the space available to them, the dissolved oxygen content in the water, the rate of movement of the water, and the relative salinity and temperature of the water to the Polychaeta.[4] Oligochaetes are primarily found in the soil but a few are found in aquatic environments, and leeches are almost entirely aquatic or limited to humid areas.[3]

----

== Morphology/Anatomy ==
Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical animals. The entire body of an annelid is composed of segments. They are named after the Latin word "anellus" which means little ring.[2] These segments can grow in number as the annelid grows in length, with exception of leeches which can have 34 segments and grow by expanding those 34 segments.[3] Annelids also have setae, or chaetae, which are long filaments or hooked structures made up up many chitinous cylinders held together by sclerotinized proteins.[2] These seatae are important in anchoring the annelids down and to help them move up surfaces.

[[File:EarthwormCrossSection.jpg|200px|thumb|left| Cross section of an earthworm]]

The digestive tract of an annelid is essentially one tube that runs from the mouth of the organism to the anus. The area between the inner cavity and the outside of the annelid is called the coelem. This area is filled with a coelemic fluid that also contains the other organ systems of the animals. This fluid is very important for a variety of functions of the organism such as locomotion, osmoregulation, and multiple metabolic processes among others. In polychaetes this fluid is also used to keep the worm's salt levels similar to the surrounding water. The coelmic fluids of leeches are filled with connective tissue and becomes more so as the leech ages. Oxygen is generally absorbed through the skin of the annelid and passed through the body by a closed circulatory system.[3]

----

== Life Cycle and Reproduction ==
[[File:Earthwormsmating.jpg|200px|thumb|Left|Two earthworms mating. The sperm and eggs are exchanged between the two partners]]
Many terrestrial annelids are hermaphroditic, while many polychaete have defined male and female sexes for spawning[2]. In oligochaetes the exchange of gametes go both ways with the sperm and eggs being exchanged between both partners. This is done in a head to tail position and then the eggs become enveloped in a mucus cocoon from the clitellum where the eggs are actually fertilized.[3] The eggs hatch and do not undergo a larval stage, they just hatch as small oligochates. Polychaete spawn near the surface marine environments. When they want to spawn they will swim to the surface and the females will release the eggs and the males will fertilize them.[5] The worms then undergo various stages of development under the protection of their mother until they are fully developed displaying a type of brooding behavior[5]. [[File:Bobbit Worm.jpg|200px|thumb|Right|''Eunice aphroditois''
or the Bobbit Worm, an aquatic predatory polychaete worm that buries beneath sediments to ambush prey]]

----

== Role in Soil ==

Oligochaetes are the main annelids found in soil. Earthworms are a major member of oligochaetes and of which there are about 3500 members living in soil. Earthworms are considered ecosystem engineers because of the role they play in the structure of soils and the diversity of the soil ecosystem. Earthworms either get their food from the surface leaf litter or the organic residue found in soil.[6] The majority of organics that an earthworm will ingest are from dead plant matter, but they will also consume living animals such as nematodes and other microfauna.[6] Earthworms prefer foods with a high nitrogen content and they also eat to burrow as well. As they burrow they leave nutrient rich casts which are important for returning nutrients to the soil. This aerates the soil, provides more nutrient for living plants, and helps prevent erosion. These nutrient rich casts are a big reason why earthworms are important to agriculture and why they are sought out when planting an new field.[6]

----

== References ==

1. Parry, L. , Tanner, A. , Vinther, J. and Smith, A. (2014), The origin of annelids. Palaeontology, 57: 1091-1103. doi:10.1111/pala.12129

2. Rouse, G. W. (2001). Annelida (Segmented Worms). In eLS, (Ed.). doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001599

3. Reish, D. J. (2013, December 18). Annelid. Retrieved April 12, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/annelid

4. Lardicci, C. , Abbiati, M. , Crema, R. , Morri, C. , Bianchi, C. N. and Castelli, A. (1993), The Distribution of Polychaetes Along Environmental Gradients: An Example from the Or betel I o Lagoon, Italy. Marine Ecology, 14: 35-52. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.1993.tb00363.x

5. Annie Mercier, Sandrine Baillon, Jean-François Hamel,Life history and seasonal breeding of the deep-sea annelid Ophryotrocha sp. (Polychaeta: Dorvelleidae),Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers,Volume 91,2014,Pages 27-35,ISSN 0967-0637,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2014.05.007.

6. Lenardt, A. (2014, April 7). The Role of Earthworms in Soil Systems. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from https://blogs.unbc.ca/biol202/2014/04/07/the-role-of-earthworms-in-soil-systems/

Annelids

2018-04-19T01:34:08Z

Naglowny: /* Life Cycle and Reproduction */

[[File:Earthworm.jpg|400px|thumb|left| Picture of an earthworm taken on 4/14/2018]]Annelids, or segmented worms, are segmented bilaterian invertebrates that are very important to a variety of marine and terrestrial environments. All annelids have a central body cavity called a coelom, bristles called setae, and segments called annulations which they are named after. There are three major groups of of annelids; the class Polychaeta which are almost entirely marine in nature and the subclasses of Oligochaeta which are earthworms and their relatives, and Hirudinea which are leeches. Among these groups there are approximately 17,000 described species. Many of the species of annelids reproduce sexually and are hermaphroditic, but some are able to asexually reproduce. Annelids are found across the entire planet in almost every kind of environment imaginable. Annelids are generally soft tissue organisms, but there is evidence of them in the fossil record dating back to the Ordovician period.

----

== Classification ==

Annelids belong to the clade Lophotrochozoa. This clade includes the phyla Mollusca, Sipuncula, Brachiopodia, and Phorondia. [1] The two major groups of
annelids are the cilliates and polychaetes. Cilliates include members of the subclasses oligochaeta(eg. earthworms) and hirundinea(leeches). Oligochaetea are primarily terestrial, preferring damp soil, while leeches are mostly made up of freshwater aquatic species. Polychaetes are almost entirely made up of marine species, but a few freshwater species do exist.[1] There are abut 17,000 species of annelid and about 12,000 of them are members of polychaetes. Polychates are then divided into two groups dependent on if they are mostly mobile throughout life or if they live in tubes or burrows for the majority of their existence. There are also about 42 different groups of cilliates[2].[[File:Leech.jpg|200px|thumb|right| ''Haemadipsa picta'' or the Tiger Leech member of the hirundinea subclass]]

----

== Distribution and Habitat ==

Annelids, due to their incredible diversity, live in nearly every habitat on planet, however they have no means of protecting themselves from desiccation, therefore they prefer to live in wet environments. These environments include oceanic sea floors, freshwater systems, and damp soil.[3] The class Polychaeta are primarily benthic organisms that can live in saline, brackish, or freshwater environments. Their distribution in these areas are primarily controlled by the space available to them, the dissolved oxygen content in the water, the rate of movement of the water, and the relative salinity and temperature of the water to the Polychaeta.[4] Oligochaetes are primarily found in the soil but a few are found in aquatic environments, and leeches are almost entirely aquatic or limited to humid areas.[3]

----

== Morphology/Anatomy ==
Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical animals. The entire body of an annelid is composed of segments. They are named after the Latin word "anellus" which means little ring.[2] These segments can grow in number as the annelid grows in length, with exception of leeches which can have 34 segments and grow by expanding those 34 segments.[3] Annelids also have setae, or chaetae, which are long filaments or hooked structures made up up many chitinous cylinders held together by sclerotinized proteins.[2] These seatae are important in anchoring the annelids down and to help them move up surfaces.

[[File:EarthwormCrossSection.jpg|200px|thumb|left| Cross section of an earthworm]

The digestive tract of an annelid is essentially one tube that runs from the mouth of the organism to the anus. The area between the inner cavity and the outside of the annelid is called the coelem. This area is filled with a coelemic fluid that also contains the other organ systems of the animals. This fluid is very important for a variety of functions of the organism such as locomotion, osmoregulation, and multiple metabolic processes among others. In polychaetes this fluid is also used to keep the worm's salt levels similar to the surrounding water. The coelmic fluids of leeches are filled with connective tissue and becomes more so as the leech ages. Oxygen is generally absorbed through the skin of the annelid and passed through the body by a closed circulatory system.[3]

----

== Life Cycle and Reproduction ==
[[File:Earthwormsmating.jpg|200px|thumb|Left|Two earthworms mating. The sperm and eggs are exchanged between the two partners]]
Many terrestrial annelids are hermaphroditic, while many polychaete have defined male and female sexes for spawning[2]. In oligochaetes the exchange of gametes go both ways with the sperm and eggs being exchanged between both partners. This is done in a head to tail position and then the eggs become enveloped in a mucus cocoon from the clitellum where the eggs are actually fertilized.[3] The eggs hatch and do not undergo a larval stage, they just hatch as small oligochates. Polychaete spawn near the surface marine environments. When they want to spawn they will swim to the surface and the females will release the eggs and the males will fertilize them.[5] The worms then undergo various stages of development under the protection of their mother until they are fully developed displaying a type of brooding behavior[5]. [[File:Bobbit Worm.jpg|200px|thumb|Right|''Eunice aphroditois''
or the Bobbit Worm, an aquatic predatory polychaete worm that buries beneath sediments to ambush prey]]

----

== Role in Soil ==

Oligochaetes are the main annelids found in soil. Earthworms are a major member of oligochaetes and of which there are about 3500 members living in soil. Earthworms are considered ecosystem engineers because of the role they play in the structure of soils and the diversity of the soil ecosystem. Earthworms either get their food from the surface leaf litter or the organic residue found in soil.[6] The majority of organics that an earthworm will ingest are from dead plant matter, but they will also consume living animals such as nematodes and other microfauna.[6] Earthworms prefer foods with a high nitrogen content and they also eat to burrow as well. As they burrow they leave nutrient rich casts which are important for returning nutrients to the soil. This aerates the soil, provides more nutrient for living plants, and helps prevent erosion. These nutrient rich casts are a big reason why earthworms are important to agriculture and why they are sought out when planting an new field.[6]

----

== References ==

1. Parry, L. , Tanner, A. , Vinther, J. and Smith, A. (2014), The origin of annelids. Palaeontology, 57: 1091-1103. doi:10.1111/pala.12129

2. Rouse, G. W. (2001). Annelida (Segmented Worms). In eLS, (Ed.). doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001599

3. Reish, D. J. (2013, December 18). Annelid. Retrieved April 12, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/annelid

4. Lardicci, C. , Abbiati, M. , Crema, R. , Morri, C. , Bianchi, C. N. and Castelli, A. (1993), The Distribution of Polychaetes Along Environmental Gradients: An Example from the Or betel I o Lagoon, Italy. Marine Ecology, 14: 35-52. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.1993.tb00363.x

5. Annie Mercier, Sandrine Baillon, Jean-François Hamel,Life history and seasonal breeding of the deep-sea annelid Ophryotrocha sp. (Polychaeta: Dorvelleidae),Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers,Volume 91,2014,Pages 27-35,ISSN 0967-0637,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2014.05.007.

6. Lenardt, A. (2014, April 7). The Role of Earthworms in Soil Systems. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from https://blogs.unbc.ca/biol202/2014/04/07/the-role-of-earthworms-in-soil-systems/

Annelids

2018-04-19T01:33:49Z

Naglowny:

[[File:Earthworm.jpg|400px|thumb|left| Picture of an earthworm taken on 4/14/2018]]Annelids, or segmented worms, are segmented bilaterian invertebrates that are very important to a variety of marine and terrestrial environments. All annelids have a central body cavity called a coelom, bristles called setae, and segments called annulations which they are named after. There are three major groups of of annelids; the class Polychaeta which are almost entirely marine in nature and the subclasses of Oligochaeta which are earthworms and their relatives, and Hirudinea which are leeches. Among these groups there are approximately 17,000 described species. Many of the species of annelids reproduce sexually and are hermaphroditic, but some are able to asexually reproduce. Annelids are found across the entire planet in almost every kind of environment imaginable. Annelids are generally soft tissue organisms, but there is evidence of them in the fossil record dating back to the Ordovician period.

----

== Classification ==

Annelids belong to the clade Lophotrochozoa. This clade includes the phyla Mollusca, Sipuncula, Brachiopodia, and Phorondia. [1] The two major groups of
annelids are the cilliates and polychaetes. Cilliates include members of the subclasses oligochaeta(eg. earthworms) and hirundinea(leeches). Oligochaetea are primarily terestrial, preferring damp soil, while leeches are mostly made up of freshwater aquatic species. Polychaetes are almost entirely made up of marine species, but a few freshwater species do exist.[1] There are abut 17,000 species of annelid and about 12,000 of them are members of polychaetes. Polychates are then divided into two groups dependent on if they are mostly mobile throughout life or if they live in tubes or burrows for the majority of their existence. There are also about 42 different groups of cilliates[2].[[File:Leech.jpg|200px|thumb|right| ''Haemadipsa picta'' or the Tiger Leech member of the hirundinea subclass]]

----

== Distribution and Habitat ==

Annelids, due to their incredible diversity, live in nearly every habitat on planet, however they have no means of protecting themselves from desiccation, therefore they prefer to live in wet environments. These environments include oceanic sea floors, freshwater systems, and damp soil.[3] The class Polychaeta are primarily benthic organisms that can live in saline, brackish, or freshwater environments. Their distribution in these areas are primarily controlled by the space available to them, the dissolved oxygen content in the water, the rate of movement of the water, and the relative salinity and temperature of the water to the Polychaeta.[4] Oligochaetes are primarily found in the soil but a few are found in aquatic environments, and leeches are almost entirely aquatic or limited to humid areas.[3]

----

== Morphology/Anatomy ==
Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical animals. The entire body of an annelid is composed of segments. They are named after the Latin word "anellus" which means little ring.[2] These segments can grow in number as the annelid grows in length, with exception of leeches which can have 34 segments and grow by expanding those 34 segments.[3] Annelids also have setae, or chaetae, which are long filaments or hooked structures made up up many chitinous cylinders held together by sclerotinized proteins.[2] These seatae are important in anchoring the annelids down and to help them move up surfaces.

[[File:EarthwormCrossSection.jpg|200px|thumb|left| Cross section of an earthworm]

The digestive tract of an annelid is essentially one tube that runs from the mouth of the organism to the anus. The area between the inner cavity and the outside of the annelid is called the coelem. This area is filled with a coelemic fluid that also contains the other organ systems of the animals. This fluid is very important for a variety of functions of the organism such as locomotion, osmoregulation, and multiple metabolic processes among others. In polychaetes this fluid is also used to keep the worm's salt levels similar to the surrounding water. The coelmic fluids of leeches are filled with connective tissue and becomes more so as the leech ages. Oxygen is generally absorbed through the skin of the annelid and passed through the body by a closed circulatory system.[3]

----

== Life Cycle and Reproduction ==
[[File:Earthwormsmating.jpg|200px|thumb|Left|Two earthworms mating. The sperm and eggs are exchanged between the two partners]
Many terrestrial annelids are hermaphroditic, while many polychaete have defined male and female sexes for spawning[2]. In oligochaetes the exchange of gametes go both ways with the sperm and eggs being exchanged between both partners. This is done in a head to tail position and then the eggs become enveloped in a mucus cocoon from the clitellum where the eggs are actually fertilized.[3] The eggs hatch and do not undergo a larval stage, they just hatch as small oligochates. Polychaete spawn near the surface marine environments. When they want to spawn they will swim to the surface and the females will release the eggs and the males will fertilize them.[5] The worms then undergo various stages of development under the protection of their mother until they are fully developed displaying a type of brooding behavior[5]. [[File:Bobbit Worm.jpg|200px|thumb|Right|''Eunice aphroditois''
or the Bobbit Worm, an aquatic predatory polychaete worm that buries beneath sediments to ambush prey]

----

== Role in Soil ==

Oligochaetes are the main annelids found in soil. Earthworms are a major member of oligochaetes and of which there are about 3500 members living in soil. Earthworms are considered ecosystem engineers because of the role they play in the structure of soils and the diversity of the soil ecosystem. Earthworms either get their food from the surface leaf litter or the organic residue found in soil.[6] The majority of organics that an earthworm will ingest are from dead plant matter, but they will also consume living animals such as nematodes and other microfauna.[6] Earthworms prefer foods with a high nitrogen content and they also eat to burrow as well. As they burrow they leave nutrient rich casts which are important for returning nutrients to the soil. This aerates the soil, provides more nutrient for living plants, and helps prevent erosion. These nutrient rich casts are a big reason why earthworms are important to agriculture and why they are sought out when planting an new field.[6]

----

== References ==

1. Parry, L. , Tanner, A. , Vinther, J. and Smith, A. (2014), The origin of annelids. Palaeontology, 57: 1091-1103. doi:10.1111/pala.12129

2. Rouse, G. W. (2001). Annelida (Segmented Worms). In eLS, (Ed.). doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001599

3. Reish, D. J. (2013, December 18). Annelid. Retrieved April 12, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/annelid

4. Lardicci, C. , Abbiati, M. , Crema, R. , Morri, C. , Bianchi, C. N. and Castelli, A. (1993), The Distribution of Polychaetes Along Environmental Gradients: An Example from the Or betel I o Lagoon, Italy. Marine Ecology, 14: 35-52. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.1993.tb00363.x

5. Annie Mercier, Sandrine Baillon, Jean-François Hamel,Life history and seasonal breeding of the deep-sea annelid Ophryotrocha sp. (Polychaeta: Dorvelleidae),Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers,Volume 91,2014,Pages 27-35,ISSN 0967-0637,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2014.05.007.

6. Lenardt, A. (2014, April 7). The Role of Earthworms in Soil Systems. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from https://blogs.unbc.ca/biol202/2014/04/07/the-role-of-earthworms-in-soil-systems/

Annelids

2018-04-19T01:12:27Z

Naglowny:

[[File:Earthworm.jpg|400px|thumb|left| Picture of an earthworm taken on 4/14/2108]]Annelids, or segmented worms, are segmented bilaterian invertebrates that are very important to a variety of marine and terrestrial environments. All annelids have a central body cavity called a coelom, bristles called setae, and segments called annulations which they are named after. There are three major groups of of annelids; the class Polychaeta which are almost entirely marine in nature and the subclasses of Oligochaeta which are earthworms and their relatives, and Hirudinea which are leeches. Among these groups there are approximately 17,000 described species. Many of the species of annelids reproduce sexually and are hermaphroditic, but some are able to asexually reproduce. Annelids are found across the entire planet in almost every kind of environment imaginable. Annelids are generally soft tissue organisms, but there is evidence of them in the fossil record dating back to the Ordovician period.

----

== Classification ==

Annelids belong to the clade Lophotrochozoa. This clade includes the phyla Mollusca, Sipuncula, Brachiopodia, and Phorondia. [1] The two major groups of
annelids are the cilliates and polychaetes. Cilliates include members of the subclasses oligochaeta(eg. earthworms) and hirundinea(leeches). Oligochaetea are primarily terestrial, preferring damp soil, while leeches are mostly made up of freshwater aquatic species. Polychaetes are almost entirely made up of marine species, but a few freshwater species do exist.[1] There are abut 17,000 species of annelid and about 12,000 of them are members of polychaetes. Polychates are then divided into two groups dependent on if they are mostly mobile throughout life or if they live in tubes or burrows for the majority of their existence. There are also about 42 different groups of cilliates[2].

----

== Distribution and Habitat ==

Annelids, due to their incredible diversity, live in nearly every habitat on planet, however they have no means of protecting themselves from desiccation, therefore they prefer to live in wet environments. These environments include oceanic sea floors, freshwater systems, and damp soil.[3] The class Polychaeta are primarily benthic organisms that can live in saline, brackish, or freshwater environments. Their distribution in these areas are primarily controlled by the space available to them, the dissolved oxygen content in the water, the rate of movement of the water, and the relative salinity and temperature of the water to the Polychaeta.[4] Oligochaetes are primarily found in the soil but a few are found in aquatic environments, and leeches are almost entirely aquatic or limited to humid areas.[3]

----

== Morphology/Anatomy ==
Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical animals. The entire body of an annelid is composed of segments. They are named after the Latin word "anellus" which means little ring.[2] These segments can grow in number as the annelid grows in length, with exception of leeches which can have 34 segments and grow by expanding those 34 segments.[3] Annelids also have setae, or chaetae, which are long filaments or hooked structures made up up many chitinous cylinders held together by sclerotinized proteins.[2] These seatae are important in anchoring the annelids down and to help them move up surfaces.

The digestive tract of an annelid is essentially one tube that runs from the mouth of the organism to the anus. The area between the inner cavity and the outside of the annelid is called the coelem. This area is filled with a coelemic fluid that also contains the other organ systems of the animals. This fluid is very important for a variety of functions of the organism such as locomotion, osmoregulation, and multiple metabolic processes among others. In polychaetes this fluid is also used to keep the worm's salt levels similar to the surrounding water. The coelmic fluids of leeches are filled with connective tissue and becomes more so as the leech ages. Oxygen is generally absorbed through the skin of the annelid and passed through the body by a closed circulatory system.[3]

----

== Life Cycle and Reproduction ==

Many terrestrial annelids are hermaphroditic, while many polychaete have defined male and female sexes for spawning[2]. In oligochaetes the exchange of gametes go both ways with the sperm and eggs being exchanged between both partners. This is done in a head to tail position and then the eggs become enveloped in a mucus cocoon from the clitellum where the eggs are actually fertilized.[3] The eggs hatch and do not undergo a larval stage, they just hatch as small oligochates. Polychaete spawn near the surface marine environments. When they want to spawn they will swim to the surface and the females will release the eggs and the males will fertilize them.[5] The worms then undergo various stages of development under the protection of their mother until they are fully developed displaying a type of brooding behavior[5].

----

== Role in Soil ==

Oligochaetes are the main annelids found in soil. Earthworms are a major member of oligochaetes and of which there are about 3500 members living in soil. Earthworms are considered ecosystem engineers because of the role they play in the structure of soils and the diversity of the soil ecosystem. Earthworms either get their food from the surface leaf litter or the organic residue found in soil.[6] The majority of organics that an earthworm will ingest are from dead plant matter, but they will also consume living animals such as nematodes and other microfauna.[6] Earthworms prefer foods with a high nitrogen content and they also eat to burrow as well. As they burrow they leave nutrient rich casts which are important for returning nutrients to the soil. This aerates the soil, provides more nutrient for living plants, and helps prevent erosion. These nutrient rich casts are a big reason why earthworms are important to agriculture and why they are sought out when planting an new field.[6]

----

== References ==

1. Parry, L. , Tanner, A. , Vinther, J. and Smith, A. (2014), The origin of annelids. Palaeontology, 57: 1091-1103. doi:10.1111/pala.12129

2. Rouse, G. W. (2001). Annelida (Segmented Worms). In eLS, (Ed.). doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001599

3. Reish, D. J. (2013, December 18). Annelid. Retrieved April 12, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/annelid

4. Lardicci, C. , Abbiati, M. , Crema, R. , Morri, C. , Bianchi, C. N. and Castelli, A. (1993), The Distribution of Polychaetes Along Environmental Gradients: An Example from the Or betel I o Lagoon, Italy. Marine Ecology, 14: 35-52. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.1993.tb00363.x

5. Annie Mercier, Sandrine Baillon, Jean-François Hamel,Life history and seasonal breeding of the deep-sea annelid Ophryotrocha sp. (Polychaeta: Dorvelleidae),Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers,Volume 91,2014,Pages 27-35,ISSN 0967-0637,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2014.05.007.

6. Lenardt, A. (2014, April 7). The Role of Earthworms in Soil Systems. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from https://blogs.unbc.ca/biol202/2014/04/07/the-role-of-earthworms-in-soil-systems/

Annelids

2018-04-14T05:51:57Z

Naglowny: /* Role in Soil */

Annelids, or segmented worms, are segmented bilaterian invertebrates that are very important to a variety of marine and terrestrial environments. All annelids have a central body cavity called a coelom, bristles called setae, and segments called annulations which they are named after. There are three major groups of of annelids; the class Polychaeta which are almost entirely marine in nature and the subclasses of Oligochaeta which are earthworms and their relatives, and Hirudinea which are leeches. Among these groups there are approximately 17,000 described species. Many of the species of annelids reproduce sexually and are hermaphroditic, but some are able to asexually reproduce. Annelids are found across the entire planet in almost every kind of environment imaginable. Annelids are generally soft tissue organisms, but there is evidence of them in the fossil record dating back to the Ordovician period.

----

== Classification ==

Annelids belong to the clade Lophotrochozoa. This clade includes the phyla Mollusca, Sipuncula, Brachiopodia, and Phorondia. [1] The two major groups of
annelids are the cilliates and polychaetes. Cilliates include members of the subclasses oligochaeta(eg. earthworms) and hirundinea(leeches). Oligochaetea are primarily terestrial, preferring damp soil, while leeches are mostly made up of freshwater aquatic species. Polychaetes are almost entirely made up of marine species, but a few freshwater species do exist.[1] There are abut 17,000 species of annelid and about 12,000 of them are members of polychaetes. Polychates are then divided into two groups dependent on if they are mostly mobile throughout life or if they live in tubes or burrows for the majority of their existence. There are also about 42 different groups of cilliates[2].

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== Distribution and Habitat ==

Annelids, due to their incredible diversity, live in nearly every habitat on planet, however they have no means of protecting themselves from desiccation, therefore they prefer to live in wet environments. These environments include oceanic sea floors, freshwater systems, and damp soil.[3] The class Polychaeta are primarily benthic organisms that can live in saline, brackish, or freshwater environments. Their distribution in these areas are primarily controlled by the space available to them, the dissolved oxygen content in the water, the rate of movement of the water, and the relative salinity and temperature of the water to the Polychaeta.[4] Oligochaetes are primarily found in the soil but a few are found in aquatic environments, and leeches are almost entirely aquatic or limited to humid areas.[3]

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== Morphology/Anatomy ==
Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical animals. The entire body of an annelid is composed of segments. They are named after the Latin word "anellus" which means little ring.[2] These segments can grow in number as the annelid grows in length, with exception of leeches which can have 34 segments and grow by expanding those 34 segments.[3] Annelids also have setae, or chaetae, which are long filaments or hooked structures made up up many chitinous cylinders held together by sclerotinized proteins.[2] These seatae are important in anchoring the annelids down and to help them move up surfaces.

The digestive tract of an annelid is essentially one tube that runs from the mouth of the organism to the anus. The area between the inner cavity and the outside of the annelid is called the coelem. This area is filled with a coelemic fluid that also contains the other organ systems of the animals. This fluid is very important for a variety of functions of the organism such as locomotion, osmoregulation, and multiple metabolic processes among others. In polychaetes this fluid is also used to keep the worm's salt levels similar to the surrounding water. The coelmic fluids of leeches are filled with connective tissue and becomes more so as the leech ages. Oxygen is generally absorbed through the skin of the annelid and passed through the body by a closed circulatory system.[3]

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== Life Cycle and Reproduction ==

Many terrestrial annelids are hermaphroditic, while many polychaete have defined male and female sexes for spawning[2]. In oligochaetes the exchange of gametes go both ways with the sperm and eggs being exchanged between both partners. This is done in a head to tail position and then the eggs become enveloped in a mucus cocoon from the clitellum where the eggs are actually fertilized.[3] The eggs hatch and do not undergo a larval stage, they just hatch as small oligochates. Polychaete spawn near the surface marine environments. When they want to spawn they will swim to the surface and the females will release the eggs and the males will fertilize them.[5] The worms then undergo various stages of development under the protection of their mother until they are fully developed displaying a type of brooding behavior[5].

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== Role in Soil ==

Oligochaetes are the main annelids found in soil. Earthworms are a major member of oligochaetes and of which there are about 3500 members living in soil. Earthworms are considered ecosystem engineers because of the role they play in the structure of soils and the diversity of the soil ecosystem. Earthworms either get their food from the surface leaf litter or the organic residue found in soil.[6] The majority of organics that an earthworm will ingest are from dead plant matter, but they will also consume living animals such as nematodes and other microfauna.[6] Earthworms prefer foods with a high nitrogen content and they also eat to burrow as well. As they burrow they leave nutrient rich casts which are important for returning nutrients to the soil. This aerates the soil, provides more nutrient for living plants, and helps prevent erosion. These nutrient rich casts are a big reason why earthworms are important to agriculture and why they are sought out when planting an new field.[6]

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== References ==

1. Parry, L. , Tanner, A. , Vinther, J. and Smith, A. (2014), The origin of annelids. Palaeontology, 57: 1091-1103. doi:10.1111/pala.12129

2. Rouse, G. W. (2001). Annelida (Segmented Worms). In eLS, (Ed.). doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001599

3. Reish, D. J. (2013, December 18). Annelid. Retrieved April 12, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/annelid

4. Lardicci, C. , Abbiati, M. , Crema, R. , Morri, C. , Bianchi, C. N. and Castelli, A. (1993), The Distribution of Polychaetes Along Environmental Gradients: An Example from the Or betel I o Lagoon, Italy. Marine Ecology, 14: 35-52. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.1993.tb00363.x

5. Annie Mercier, Sandrine Baillon, Jean-François Hamel,Life history and seasonal breeding of the deep-sea annelid Ophryotrocha sp. (Polychaeta: Dorvelleidae),Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers,Volume 91,2014,Pages 27-35,ISSN 0967-0637,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2014.05.007.

6. Lenardt, A. (2014, April 7). The Role of Earthworms in Soil Systems. Retrieved April 14, 2018, from https://blogs.unbc.ca/biol202/2014/04/07/the-role-of-earthworms-in-soil-systems/

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