Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Gastropoda

2021-05-07T14:16:16Z

Mmlemere: /* Background & Life History */

[[File:Partula.jpg|thumb|''Partula taeniata, a tree snail from Moorea, French Polynesia.''[https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php]]
== Background & Life History ==
Gastropods are one of the most diverse animal groups, both in form and habitat. They are the largest group of mollusks with more than 62,000 described living species, and they comprise about 80% of all living mollusks. Estimates of total extant species range from 40,000 to over 100,000, but there may be as many as 150,000 species [5]. They have a long and rich fossil record from the Early Cambrian that shows periodic extinctions of subclades, followed by diversification of new groups. The Class Gastropoda includes the snails, [[slugs]], limpets, and sea hares. Gastropods have figured prominently in paleobiologic and biological studies, and have served as study [[organisms]] in numerous evolutionary, biomechanical, ecological, physiological, and behavioral investigations [5].

Gastropods are mainly dioecious while some forms are hermaphroditic. Hermaphroditic forms exchange bundles of sperm to avoid self-fertilization; copulation may be complex and in some species ends with each individual sending a sperm-containing dart into the tissues of the other [6]. Marine species have veliger larvae. Most aquatic gastropods are benthic and mainly epifaunal but some are planktonic [5].

== Ecology & Habitat ==
Gastropods live in every conceivable habitat on Earth, having a worldwide distribution. They have adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly every available medium. They occupy all marine habitats ranging from the deepest ocean basins to the supralittoral, as well as freshwater habitats, and other inland aquatic habitats including salt lakes [3]. They are also the only terrestrial mollusks, being found in virtually all habitats ranging from high mountains to deserts and rainforest, and from the tropics to high latitudes. Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails and slugs). Some live in freshwater, but the majority of all named species of gastropods live in a marine environment. In habitats where there is not enough calcium carbonate to build a really solid shell, such as on some acidic soils on land, there are still various species of slugs, and also some snails with a thin translucent shell, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin [4].

Their feeding habits are extremely varied, although most species make use of a radula in some aspect of their feeding behavior. They include grazers, browsers, suspension feeders, scavengers, [[detritivores]], and carnivores. Carnivory in some taxa may simply involve grazing on colonial [[animals]], while others engage in hunting their prey. Some gastropod carnivores drill holes in their shelled prey. This method of entry has been acquired independently in several groups, as is also the case with carnivory itself. Some gastropods feed suctorially and have lost the radula [5].

== Morphology ==
Gastropods are characterized by having a true head, an unsegmented body, a broad, flat foot and the possession of a single, often coiled shell, although this is lost in some slug groups. When present, the shell is in one piece and spirally coiled. The uppermost part of the shell is formed from the larval shell (the protoconch). The shell is partly or entirely lost in the juveniles or adults of some groups, with total loss occurring in several groups of land slugs and sea slugs. All fossil gastropods and most modern ones have a coiled shell, which is all that remains for the identification of fossil forms, while the identification of modern species is based largely on soft body parts [2]. The mantle cavity and visceral mass undergo torsion. Torsion takes place during the veliger stage, usually very rapidly. Veligers are at first bilaterally symmetric, but torsion destroys this pattern and results in an asymmetric adult. Some species reverse torsion ("detorsion"), but evidence of having passed through a twisted phase can be seen in the anatomy of these forms [6]. Torsion in gastropods has the unfortunate result of waste being expelled from the gut and nephridia near the gills. A variety of morphological and physiological adaptations have arisen to separate water used for respiration from water bearing waste products [6]. There is also usually a well-developed radula. They also have a muscular foot which is used for "creeping" locomotion in most species, while in some it is modified for swimming or burrowing. The foot is usually rather large and typically bears an operculum that seals the shell opening (aperture) when the head-foot is retracted into the shell. They move by producing a mucus lubricant under the flat ventral surface of the foot and a series of muscular contractions allow them to “slide” across the substrate. Most gastropods have a well-developed head that includes eyes (short to long stalks), 1-2 pairs of tentacles, and a concentration of nervous tissue (ganglion) [6]. The mantle edge in some taxa is extended anteriorly to form an inhalant siphon and this is sometimes associated with an elongation of the shell opening (aperture) [5]. The nervous and circulatory systems are well developed with the concentration of nerve ganglia being a common evolutionary theme. Many snails have an [[operculum]], a horny plate that seals the opening when the snail's body is drawn into the shell. Externally, gastropods appear to be bilaterally symmetrical, however, they are one of the most successful clades of asymmetric organisms known [5].

[[File:Shell morph.jpg|caption]] ''Variation in shell morphology in some marine gastropods.[3]
[[File:Gastropod Morphology.jpg]]

==Ecological Importance==

Because of their abundance and [[diversity]], gastropoda play important roles in ecosystem functions by serving as prey for many other species and promoting the [[decomposition]] of dead plant/ vegetable matter and the subsequent recycling of nutrients [7]. They eat very low on the food web, as most land snails will consume rotting vegetation like moist leaf litter, and also fungi and sometimes eat [[soil]] directly. Indirectly, they are of great importance as furnishing food for many fish and other animals. Snails specifically can be of economic importance carrying parasites that affect both humans and animals.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

*[1] Holthuis, B.V. (1995): ''Evolution between marine and freshwater habitats: a case study of the gastropod suborder Neritopsina.'' Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington
*[2] Allaby, M. 2020. A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press, Incorporated, Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM.
*[3] “The Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, 1999, ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php.
*[4] “Gastropoda.” Wikipedia, 29 Nov. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropoda.
*[5] “Mollusca: Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, ucmp.berkeley.edu/mollusca/mollusca/gastropoda/gastropoda.html.
*[6] Myers, P., and J. B. Burch. 2001. Gastropoda. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Gastropoda/.
*[7] P. Bloch, C. 2012. Why Snails? How Gastropods Improve Our Understanding of Ecological Disturbance. Bridgewater Review Vol. 31.

Gastropoda

2021-05-07T14:16:01Z

Mmlemere: /* Background & Life History */

[[File:Partula.jpg|thumb|''Partula taeniata, a tree snail from Moorea, French Polynesia.''[https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php]]
== Background & Life History ==
Gastropods are one of the most diverse animal groups, both in form and habitat. They are the largest group of mollusks with more than 62,000 described living species, and they comprise about 80% of all living mollusks. Estimates of total extant species range from 40,000 to over 100,000, but there may be as many as 150,000 species [5]. They have a long and rich fossil record from the Early Cambrian that shows periodic extinctions of subclades, followed by diversification of new groups. The Class Gastropoda includes the snails, [[slugs]], [[limpets]], and sea hares. Gastropods have figured prominently in paleobiologic and biological studies, and have served as study [[organisms]] in numerous evolutionary, biomechanical, ecological, physiological, and behavioral investigations [5].

Gastropods are mainly dioecious while some forms are hermaphroditic. Hermaphroditic forms exchange bundles of sperm to avoid self-fertilization; copulation may be complex and in some species ends with each individual sending a sperm-containing dart into the tissues of the other [6]. Marine species have veliger larvae. Most aquatic gastropods are benthic and mainly epifaunal but some are planktonic [5].

== Ecology & Habitat ==
Gastropods live in every conceivable habitat on Earth, having a worldwide distribution. They have adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly every available medium. They occupy all marine habitats ranging from the deepest ocean basins to the supralittoral, as well as freshwater habitats, and other inland aquatic habitats including salt lakes [3]. They are also the only terrestrial mollusks, being found in virtually all habitats ranging from high mountains to deserts and rainforest, and from the tropics to high latitudes. Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails and slugs). Some live in freshwater, but the majority of all named species of gastropods live in a marine environment. In habitats where there is not enough calcium carbonate to build a really solid shell, such as on some acidic soils on land, there are still various species of slugs, and also some snails with a thin translucent shell, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin [4].

Their feeding habits are extremely varied, although most species make use of a radula in some aspect of their feeding behavior. They include grazers, browsers, suspension feeders, scavengers, [[detritivores]], and carnivores. Carnivory in some taxa may simply involve grazing on colonial [[animals]], while others engage in hunting their prey. Some gastropod carnivores drill holes in their shelled prey. This method of entry has been acquired independently in several groups, as is also the case with carnivory itself. Some gastropods feed suctorially and have lost the radula [5].

== Morphology ==
Gastropods are characterized by having a true head, an unsegmented body, a broad, flat foot and the possession of a single, often coiled shell, although this is lost in some slug groups. When present, the shell is in one piece and spirally coiled. The uppermost part of the shell is formed from the larval shell (the protoconch). The shell is partly or entirely lost in the juveniles or adults of some groups, with total loss occurring in several groups of land slugs and sea slugs. All fossil gastropods and most modern ones have a coiled shell, which is all that remains for the identification of fossil forms, while the identification of modern species is based largely on soft body parts [2]. The mantle cavity and visceral mass undergo torsion. Torsion takes place during the veliger stage, usually very rapidly. Veligers are at first bilaterally symmetric, but torsion destroys this pattern and results in an asymmetric adult. Some species reverse torsion ("detorsion"), but evidence of having passed through a twisted phase can be seen in the anatomy of these forms [6]. Torsion in gastropods has the unfortunate result of waste being expelled from the gut and nephridia near the gills. A variety of morphological and physiological adaptations have arisen to separate water used for respiration from water bearing waste products [6]. There is also usually a well-developed radula. They also have a muscular foot which is used for "creeping" locomotion in most species, while in some it is modified for swimming or burrowing. The foot is usually rather large and typically bears an operculum that seals the shell opening (aperture) when the head-foot is retracted into the shell. They move by producing a mucus lubricant under the flat ventral surface of the foot and a series of muscular contractions allow them to “slide” across the substrate. Most gastropods have a well-developed head that includes eyes (short to long stalks), 1-2 pairs of tentacles, and a concentration of nervous tissue (ganglion) [6]. The mantle edge in some taxa is extended anteriorly to form an inhalant siphon and this is sometimes associated with an elongation of the shell opening (aperture) [5]. The nervous and circulatory systems are well developed with the concentration of nerve ganglia being a common evolutionary theme. Many snails have an [[operculum]], a horny plate that seals the opening when the snail's body is drawn into the shell. Externally, gastropods appear to be bilaterally symmetrical, however, they are one of the most successful clades of asymmetric organisms known [5].

[[File:Shell morph.jpg|caption]] ''Variation in shell morphology in some marine gastropods.[3]
[[File:Gastropod Morphology.jpg]]

==Ecological Importance==

Because of their abundance and [[diversity]], gastropoda play important roles in ecosystem functions by serving as prey for many other species and promoting the [[decomposition]] of dead plant/ vegetable matter and the subsequent recycling of nutrients [7]. They eat very low on the food web, as most land snails will consume rotting vegetation like moist leaf litter, and also fungi and sometimes eat [[soil]] directly. Indirectly, they are of great importance as furnishing food for many fish and other animals. Snails specifically can be of economic importance carrying parasites that affect both humans and animals.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

*[1] Holthuis, B.V. (1995): ''Evolution between marine and freshwater habitats: a case study of the gastropod suborder Neritopsina.'' Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington
*[2] Allaby, M. 2020. A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press, Incorporated, Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM.
*[3] “The Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, 1999, ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php.
*[4] “Gastropoda.” Wikipedia, 29 Nov. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropoda.
*[5] “Mollusca: Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, ucmp.berkeley.edu/mollusca/mollusca/gastropoda/gastropoda.html.
*[6] Myers, P., and J. B. Burch. 2001. Gastropoda. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Gastropoda/.
*[7] P. Bloch, C. 2012. Why Snails? How Gastropods Improve Our Understanding of Ecological Disturbance. Bridgewater Review Vol. 31.

Actinomycetes

2021-05-06T15:57:48Z

Mmlemere: /* Background */

=Overview=

[[File:Actinomycetes bacteria .jpg|200px|right|thumb|Actinomycetes bacteria by Oregon Caves from Cave Junction, USA / CC BY (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)]]

Actinomycetes is a nontaxonomic term for a group of common [[soil]] [[microorganisms]] sometimes called "thread or ray bacteria." They are a versatile group of Gram-positive, rod shaped and spore forming bacteria widely distributed in the terrestrial and aquatic environments [6]. These are prokaryotic [[organisms]] that are classified as bacteria, but are unique enough to be discussed as an individual group [7]. The specialty of the actinomycetes is that they have a mycelial appearance unlike most bacteria [2]. These bacteria are rather unexplored because the cultivation and maintenance of actinobacteria are not that easy as in the case of other bacteria. They are an important component of the bacterial communities, especially under conditions of high pH, high temperature or water stress. Although they were originally recognized as soil microorganisms, it is now being recognized that marine actinomycetes are also important. Actinomycetes are heterotrophic in nature. Most of them are strict saprophytes, while some from parasitic or mutualistic associations with plants and [[animals]] [1]. One distinguishing feature of this group of bacteria is that they are able to utilize a great variety of substrates found in soil, especially some of the less degradable insect and plant polymers such as chitin, cellulose and hemicellulose [7].

=Distribution & Ecology=

Actinomycetes can be found in a wide range soil and marine habitats in different parts of the world. Because they can live in different environments and exhibit high versatility in their nutrition, this allows them to spread and thrive in different regions across the globe and compete with other organisms in their surroundings. While Actinomycetes can be found in a variety of habitats, they constitute a huge extent of the microbial population in many soils. Thus making them some of the most common micro-organisms in different types of soil (about 1 million cells per gram of soil). However, a variety of factors like pH, oxygen, and temperature influence the species that inhabit different types of soil [3]. It has been found that the pH is a major environmental factor determining the distribution and activity of soil actinomycetes as Neutrophils' occur in less number in acidic soils below pH 5.0, whereas acdophilic and acidoduric streptomycetes are more numerous in acidic soils [1]. The biggest groupings of actinomycetes in the soil can be found in the organic horizon. Actinomycetes may assume a part in advancing plant development, through control of root pathogens or in some aberrant route, since a few species can produce antifungal compounds [4]. It is also important to note that there is evidence that actinomycetes usually form a small fraction of the bacterial flora in marine habitats, but population numbers are lower compared with those from terrestrial and freshwater sites. Apart from their wide distribution, Actinomycetes are also nutritionally versatile and capable of producing different kinds of spores, allowing them to successfully compete with other organisms in their surroundings.

=Significance=

Actinomycetes have several key roles in their ecosystems. Scientists have long known that actinomycetes keep soil bacteria populations in balance. They have the ability to break down various organic materials in soil as well as their ability to produce a range of bioactive molecules, including antibiotics and various kinds of enzymes. With this, about 15% of the world's nitrogen fixed naturally is from symbiotic relationships between various species of the Frankia family of actinobacteria and their host plants. Their role in the [[decomposition]] of plant and other material especially in the degradation of complex and relatively recalcitrant polymers is hugely important [3]. Lignin, cellulose and lignocellulose are all examples of what they degrade. There is evidence that actinomycetes are involved in the degradation of many other naturally occurring polymers in soil such as hemicellulose, pectin, keratin, chitin and fungal cell wall material [1]. Given that they help recycle materials that can be used by plants, it is beneficial in agriculture practices. They also produce a variety of enzymes that are useful in various industries, such as the medical industry. As they are known for their ability to produce various antibiotics, the actinomycetes are widely explored by various research groups in search of novel drug molecules. Another significance of these bacteria is that from the [[rhizosphere]], they suppress the growth of pathogens. Since they produce various bioactive metabolites that are used to produce various drugs (antifungal, anti-parasitic and antibiotics etc). Actinomycetes are an ecologically important group, which play a crucial role in several biological processes such as biogeochemical cycles, bioremediation, bio-weathering and plant growth improvement [5].

[[File:Actinomyces israelii.jpg|300px|thumb|Actinomyces israelii| Scanning electron micrograph of Actinomyces israelii By GrahamColm at English Wikipedia, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4197579]]

=References=

{{Reflist}}

* [1] C. Dilip V., Mulaje S. S., Mohalkar R.Y. 2013, May. A REVIEW ON ACTINOMYCETES AND THEIR BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION | International Journal Of Pharmaceutical Sciences And Research.

* [2] A Closer Look at Actinomycetes – Nova Science Publishers. 2020, April. . https://novapublishers.com/shop/a-closer-look-at-actinomycetes/.

* [3] Actinomycetes - Definition, Classification/Characteristics and Culture. (n.d.). https://www.microscopemaster.com/actinomycetes.html.

* [4] Ali Mohammed Abdullah Bawazir, Manjula Shantaram. (n.d.). [[Ecology]] and distribution of actinomycetes in nature– A review. http://journalcra.com/article/ecology-and-distribution-actinomycetes-nature%E2%80%93-review.

* [5] Bawazir, A. M. A., M. Shantaram. 2018. ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ACTINOMYCETES IN NATURE– A REVIEW. International Journal of Current Research 10:5.

* [6] Loynachan, T. 2008, June 4. Soil Actinomycetes. Text. https://www.asmscience.org/content/education/imagegallery/image.3180.

* [7] Pepper, I. L., and T. J. Gentry. 2015, December. Actinomycete - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/actinomycete.

Gastropoda

2021-05-06T15:57:00Z

Mmlemere: /* Morphology */

File:Gastropod Morphology.jpg

2021-05-06T15:56:20Z

Mmlemere: Gastropod Morphology - WWC Archives The British Wildlife Wiki 2011

Gastropod Morphology - WWC Archives
The British Wildlife Wiki 2011

Gastropoda

2021-05-06T15:51:48Z

Mmlemere: /* Morphology */

[[File:Partula.jpg|thumb|''Partula taeniata, a tree snail from Moorea, French Polynesia.''[https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php]]
== Background & Life History ==
Gastropods are one of the most diverse animal groups, both in form and habitat. They are the largest group of mollusks with more than 62,000 described living species, and they comprise about 80% of all living mollusks. Estimates of total extant species range from 40,000 to over 100,000, but there may be as many as 150,000 species [5]. They have a long and rich fossil record from the Early Cambrian that shows periodic extinctions of subclades, followed by diversification of new groups. The Class Gastropoda includes the snails, [[slugs]], limpets, and sea hares. Gastropods have figured prominently in paleobiologic and biological studies, and have served as study [[organisms]] in numerous evolutionary, biomechanical, ecological, physiological, and behavioral investigations [5].

Gastropods are mainly dioecious while some forms are hermaphroditic. Hermaphroditic forms exchange bundles of sperm to avoid self-fertilization; copulation may be complex and in some species ends with each individual sending a sperm-containing dart into the tissues of the other [6]. Marine species have veliger larvae. Most aquatic gastropods are benthic and mainly epifaunal but some are planktonic [5].

== Ecology & Habitat ==
Gastropods live in every conceivable habitat on Earth, having a worldwide distribution. They have adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly every available medium. They occupy all marine habitats ranging from the deepest ocean basins to the supralittoral, as well as freshwater habitats, and other inland aquatic habitats including salt lakes [3]. They are also the only terrestrial mollusks, being found in virtually all habitats ranging from high mountains to deserts and rainforest, and from the tropics to high latitudes. Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails and slugs). Some live in freshwater, but the majority of all named species of gastropods live in a marine environment. In habitats where there is not enough calcium carbonate to build a really solid shell, such as on some acidic soils on land, there are still various species of slugs, and also some snails with a thin translucent shell, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin [4].

Their feeding habits are extremely varied, although most species make use of a radula in some aspect of their feeding behavior. They include grazers, browsers, suspension feeders, scavengers, [[detritivores]], and carnivores. Carnivory in some taxa may simply involve grazing on colonial [[animals]], while others engage in hunting their prey. Some gastropod carnivores drill holes in their shelled prey. This method of entry has been acquired independently in several groups, as is also the case with carnivory itself. Some gastropods feed suctorially and have lost the radula [5].

== Morphology ==
Gastropods are characterized by having a true head, an unsegmented body, a broad, flat foot and the possession of a single, often coiled shell, although this is lost in some slug groups. When present, the shell is in one piece and spirally coiled. The uppermost part of the shell is formed from the larval shell (the protoconch). The shell is partly or entirely lost in the juveniles or adults of some groups, with total loss occurring in several groups of land slugs and sea slugs. All fossil gastropods and most modern ones have a coiled shell, which is all that remains for the identification of fossil forms, while the identification of modern species is based largely on soft body parts [2]. The mantle cavity and visceral mass undergo torsion. Torsion takes place during the veliger stage, usually very rapidly. Veligers are at first bilaterally symmetric, but torsion destroys this pattern and results in an asymmetric adult. Some species reverse torsion ("detorsion"), but evidence of having passed through a twisted phase can be seen in the anatomy of these forms [6]. Torsion in gastropods has the unfortunate result of waste being expelled from the gut and nephridia near the gills. A variety of morphological and physiological adaptations have arisen to separate water used for respiration from water bearing waste products [6]. There is also usually a well-developed radula. They also have a muscular foot which is used for "creeping" locomotion in most species, while in some it is modified for swimming or burrowing. The foot is usually rather large and typically bears an operculum that seals the shell opening (aperture) when the head-foot is retracted into the shell. They move by producing a mucus lubricant under the flat ventral surface of the foot and a series of muscular contractions allow them to “slide” across the substrate. Most gastropods have a well-developed head that includes eyes (short to long stalks), 1-2 pairs of tentacles, and a concentration of nervous tissue (ganglion) [6]. The mantle edge in some taxa is extended anteriorly to form an inhalant siphon and this is sometimes associated with an elongation of the shell opening (aperture) [5]. The nervous and circulatory systems are well developed with the concentration of nerve ganglia being a common evolutionary theme. Many snails have an [[operculum]], a horny plate that seals the opening when the snail's body is drawn into the shell. Externally, gastropods appear to be bilaterally symmetrical, however, they are one of the most successful clades of asymmetric organisms known [5].

[[File:Shell morph.jpg|caption]] ''Variation in shell morphology in some marine gastropods.[3]

==Ecological Importance==

Because of their abundance and [[diversity]], gastropoda play important roles in ecosystem functions by serving as prey for many other species and promoting the [[decomposition]] of dead plant/ vegetable matter and the subsequent recycling of nutrients [7]. They eat very low on the food web, as most land snails will consume rotting vegetation like moist leaf litter, and also fungi and sometimes eat [[soil]] directly. Indirectly, they are of great importance as furnishing food for many fish and other animals. Snails specifically can be of economic importance carrying parasites that affect both humans and animals.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

*[1] Holthuis, B.V. (1995): ''Evolution between marine and freshwater habitats: a case study of the gastropod suborder Neritopsina.'' Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington
*[2] Allaby, M. 2020. A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press, Incorporated, Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM.
*[3] “The Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, 1999, ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php.
*[4] “Gastropoda.” Wikipedia, 29 Nov. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropoda.
*[5] “Mollusca: Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, ucmp.berkeley.edu/mollusca/mollusca/gastropoda/gastropoda.html.
*[6] Myers, P., and J. B. Burch. 2001. Gastropoda. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Gastropoda/.
*[7] P. Bloch, C. 2012. Why Snails? How Gastropods Improve Our Understanding of Ecological Disturbance. Bridgewater Review Vol. 31.

Microarthropods

2021-05-04T15:33:50Z

Mmlemere: /* Overview */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[collembolas]] [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes. The diet of microarthropods is varied as some microarthropods function as decomposers and many others are predators of other small organisms.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin. The thin layer where soil and litter meet is the most biologically active; many species of microarthropods thrive only in the interface between soil and litter. Others are found in deeper layers; these are often thinner, wormlike in form, with shorter legs than their counterparts in leaf litter [8].

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6]. Many microarthropods, especially springtails and soil mites, are responsible for breaking down organic material into a form that bacteria can consume, and are fundamental to the creation of [[humus]] and the formation of soil [8].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Microarthropods

2021-05-04T15:33:28Z

Mmlemere: /* Overview */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), collembolas [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes. The diet of microarthropods is varied as some microarthropods function as decomposers and many others are predators of other small organisms.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin. The thin layer where soil and litter meet is the most biologically active; many species of microarthropods thrive only in the interface between soil and litter. Others are found in deeper layers; these are often thinner, wormlike in form, with shorter legs than their counterparts in leaf litter [8].

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6]. Many microarthropods, especially springtails and soil mites, are responsible for breaking down organic material into a form that bacteria can consume, and are fundamental to the creation of [[humus]] and the formation of soil [8].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Gastropoda

2021-05-04T15:07:22Z

Mmlemere: /* Ecological Importance */

[[File:Partula.jpg|thumb|''Partula taeniata, a tree snail from Moorea, French Polynesia.''[https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php]]
== Background & Life History ==
Gastropods are one of the most diverse animal groups, both in form and habitat. They are the largest group of mollusks with more than 62,000 described living species, and they comprise about 80% of all living mollusks. Estimates of total extant species range from 40,000 to over 100,000, but there may be as many as 150,000 species [5]. They have a long and rich fossil record from the Early Cambrian that shows periodic extinctions of subclades, followed by diversification of new groups. The Class Gastropoda includes the snails, slugs, limpets, and sea hares. Gastropods have figured prominently in paleobiologic and biological studies, and have served as study [[organisms]] in numerous evolutionary, biomechanical, ecological, physiological, and behavioral investigations [5].

Gastropods are mainly dioecious while some forms are hermaphroditic. Hermaphroditic forms exchange bundles of sperm to avoid self-fertilization; copulation may be complex and in some species ends with each individual sending a sperm-containing dart into the tissues of the other [6]. Marine species have veliger larvae. Most aquatic gastropods are benthic and mainly epifaunal but some are planktonic [5].

== Ecology & Habitat ==
Gastropods live in every conceivable habitat on Earth, having a worldwide distribution. They have adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly every available medium. They occupy all marine habitats ranging from the deepest ocean basins to the supralittoral, as well as freshwater habitats, and other inland aquatic habitats including salt lakes [3]. They are also the only terrestrial mollusks, being found in virtually all habitats ranging from high mountains to deserts and rainforest, and from the tropics to high latitudes. Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails and slugs). Some live in freshwater, but the majority of all named species of gastropods live in a marine environment. In habitats where there is not enough calcium carbonate to build a really solid shell, such as on some acidic soils on land, there are still various species of slugs, and also some snails with a thin translucent shell, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin [4].

Their feeding habits are extremely varied, although most species make use of a radula in some aspect of their feeding behavior. They include grazers, browsers, suspension feeders, scavengers, [[detritivores]], and carnivores. Carnivory in some taxa may simply involve grazing on colonial [[animals]], while others engage in hunting their prey. Some gastropod carnivores drill holes in their shelled prey. This method of entry has been acquired independently in several groups, as is also the case with carnivory itself. Some gastropods feed suctorially and have lost the radula [5].

== Morphology ==
Gastropods are characterized by having a true head, an unsegmented body, a broad, flat foot and the possession of a single, often coiled shell, although this is lost in some slug groups. When present, the shell is in one piece and spirally coiled. The uppermost part of the shell is formed from the larval shell (the protoconch). The shell is partly or entirely lost in the juveniles or adults of some groups, with total loss occurring in several groups of land slugs and sea slugs. All fossil gastropods and most modern ones have a coiled shell, which is all that remains for the identification of fossil forms, while the identification of modern species is based largely on soft body parts [2]. The mantle cavity and visceral mass undergo torsion. Torsion takes place during the veliger stage, usually very rapidly. Veligers are at first bilaterally symmetric, but torsion destroys this pattern and results in an asymmetric adult. Some species reverse torsion ("detorsion"), but evidence of having passed through a twisted phase can be seen in the anatomy of these forms [6]. Torsion in gastropods has the unfortunate result of waste being expelled from the gut and nephridia near the gills. A variety of morphological and physiological adaptations have arisen to separate water used for respiration from water bearing waste products [6]. There is also usually a well-developed radula. They also have a muscular foot which is used for "creeping" locomotion in most species, while in some it is modified for swimming or burrowing. The foot is usually rather large and typically bears an operculum that seals the shell opening (aperture) when the head-foot is retracted into the shell. They move by producing a mucus lubricant under the flat ventral surface of the foot and a series of muscular contractions allow them to “slide” across the substrate. Most gastropods have a well-developed head that includes eyes (short to long stalks), 1-2 pairs of tentacles, and a concentration of nervous tissue (ganglion) [6]. The mantle edge in some taxa is extended anteriorly to form an inhalant siphon and this is sometimes associated with an elongation of the shell opening (aperture) [5]. The nervous and circulatory systems are well developed with the concentration of nerve ganglia being a common evolutionary theme. Many snails have an operculum, a horny plate that seals the opening when the snail's body is drawn into the shell. Externally, gastropods appear to be bilaterally symmetrical, however, they are one of the most successful clades of asymmetric organisms known [5].

[[File:Shell morph.jpg|caption]] ''Variation in shell morphology in some marine gastropods.[3]

==Ecological Importance==

Because of their abundance and [[diversity]], gastropoda play important roles in ecosystem functions by serving as prey for many other species and promoting the [[decomposition]] of dead plant/ vegetable matter and the subsequent recycling of nutrients [7]. They eat very low on the food web, as most land snails will consume rotting vegetation like moist leaf litter, and also fungi and sometimes eat [[soil]] directly. Indirectly, they are of great importance as furnishing food for many fish and other animals. Snails specifically can be of economic importance carrying parasites that affect both humans and animals.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

*[1] Holthuis, B.V. (1995): ''Evolution between marine and freshwater habitats: a case study of the gastropod suborder Neritopsina.'' Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington
*[2] Allaby, M. 2020. A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press, Incorporated, Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM.
*[3] “The Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, 1999, ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php.
*[4] “Gastropoda.” Wikipedia, 29 Nov. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropoda.
*[5] “Mollusca: Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, ucmp.berkeley.edu/mollusca/mollusca/gastropoda/gastropoda.html.
*[6] Myers, P., and J. B. Burch. 2001. Gastropoda. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Gastropoda/.
*[7] P. Bloch, C. 2012. Why Snails? How Gastropods Improve Our Understanding of Ecological Disturbance. Bridgewater Review Vol. 31.

Gastropoda

2021-05-04T15:03:28Z

Mmlemere: /* Morphology */

[[File:Partula.jpg|thumb|''Partula taeniata, a tree snail from Moorea, French Polynesia.''[https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php]]
== Background & Life History ==
Gastropods are one of the most diverse animal groups, both in form and habitat. They are the largest group of mollusks with more than 62,000 described living species, and they comprise about 80% of all living mollusks. Estimates of total extant species range from 40,000 to over 100,000, but there may be as many as 150,000 species [5]. They have a long and rich fossil record from the Early Cambrian that shows periodic extinctions of subclades, followed by diversification of new groups. The Class Gastropoda includes the snails, slugs, limpets, and sea hares. Gastropods have figured prominently in paleobiologic and biological studies, and have served as study [[organisms]] in numerous evolutionary, biomechanical, ecological, physiological, and behavioral investigations [5].

Gastropods are mainly dioecious while some forms are hermaphroditic. Hermaphroditic forms exchange bundles of sperm to avoid self-fertilization; copulation may be complex and in some species ends with each individual sending a sperm-containing dart into the tissues of the other [6]. Marine species have veliger larvae. Most aquatic gastropods are benthic and mainly epifaunal but some are planktonic [5].

== Ecology & Habitat ==
Gastropods live in every conceivable habitat on Earth, having a worldwide distribution. They have adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly every available medium. They occupy all marine habitats ranging from the deepest ocean basins to the supralittoral, as well as freshwater habitats, and other inland aquatic habitats including salt lakes [3]. They are also the only terrestrial mollusks, being found in virtually all habitats ranging from high mountains to deserts and rainforest, and from the tropics to high latitudes. Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails and slugs). Some live in freshwater, but the majority of all named species of gastropods live in a marine environment. In habitats where there is not enough calcium carbonate to build a really solid shell, such as on some acidic soils on land, there are still various species of slugs, and also some snails with a thin translucent shell, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin [4].

Their feeding habits are extremely varied, although most species make use of a radula in some aspect of their feeding behavior. They include grazers, browsers, suspension feeders, scavengers, [[detritivores]], and carnivores. Carnivory in some taxa may simply involve grazing on colonial [[animals]], while others engage in hunting their prey. Some gastropod carnivores drill holes in their shelled prey. This method of entry has been acquired independently in several groups, as is also the case with carnivory itself. Some gastropods feed suctorially and have lost the radula [5].

== Morphology ==
Gastropods are characterized by having a true head, an unsegmented body, a broad, flat foot and the possession of a single, often coiled shell, although this is lost in some slug groups. When present, the shell is in one piece and spirally coiled. The uppermost part of the shell is formed from the larval shell (the protoconch). The shell is partly or entirely lost in the juveniles or adults of some groups, with total loss occurring in several groups of land slugs and sea slugs. All fossil gastropods and most modern ones have a coiled shell, which is all that remains for the identification of fossil forms, while the identification of modern species is based largely on soft body parts [2]. The mantle cavity and visceral mass undergo torsion. Torsion takes place during the veliger stage, usually very rapidly. Veligers are at first bilaterally symmetric, but torsion destroys this pattern and results in an asymmetric adult. Some species reverse torsion ("detorsion"), but evidence of having passed through a twisted phase can be seen in the anatomy of these forms [6]. Torsion in gastropods has the unfortunate result of waste being expelled from the gut and nephridia near the gills. A variety of morphological and physiological adaptations have arisen to separate water used for respiration from water bearing waste products [6]. There is also usually a well-developed radula. They also have a muscular foot which is used for "creeping" locomotion in most species, while in some it is modified for swimming or burrowing. The foot is usually rather large and typically bears an operculum that seals the shell opening (aperture) when the head-foot is retracted into the shell. They move by producing a mucus lubricant under the flat ventral surface of the foot and a series of muscular contractions allow them to “slide” across the substrate. Most gastropods have a well-developed head that includes eyes (short to long stalks), 1-2 pairs of tentacles, and a concentration of nervous tissue (ganglion) [6]. The mantle edge in some taxa is extended anteriorly to form an inhalant siphon and this is sometimes associated with an elongation of the shell opening (aperture) [5]. The nervous and circulatory systems are well developed with the concentration of nerve ganglia being a common evolutionary theme. Many snails have an operculum, a horny plate that seals the opening when the snail's body is drawn into the shell. Externally, gastropods appear to be bilaterally symmetrical, however, they are one of the most successful clades of asymmetric organisms known [5].

[[File:Shell morph.jpg|caption]] ''Variation in shell morphology in some marine gastropods.[3]

==Ecological Importance==

They are abundant and diverse and play important roles in ecosystem function by serving as prey for many other species and promoting the [[decomposition]] of dead plant matter and the subsequent recycling of nutrients [7].Gastropods play an important role in the break down of dead animal and vegetable matter.They eat very low on the food web, as most land snails will consume rotting vegetation like moist leaf litter, and also fungi and sometimes eat [[soil]] directly. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF GASTROPODS Snails are not of direct economic importance Indirectly they are of great importance as furnishing food for many fish and other animals.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

*[1] Holthuis, B.V. (1995): ''Evolution between marine and freshwater habitats: a case study of the gastropod suborder Neritopsina.'' Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington
*[2] Allaby, M. 2020. A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press, Incorporated, Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM.
*[3] “The Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, 1999, ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php.
*[4] “Gastropoda.” Wikipedia, 29 Nov. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropoda.
*[5] “Mollusca: Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, ucmp.berkeley.edu/mollusca/mollusca/gastropoda/gastropoda.html.
*[6] Myers, P., and J. B. Burch. 2001. Gastropoda. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Gastropoda/.
*[7] P. Bloch, C. 2012. Why Snails? How Gastropods Improve Our Understanding of Ecological Disturbance. Bridgewater Review Vol. 31.

Gastropoda

2021-05-04T15:03:20Z

Mmlemere: /* Morphology */

[[File:Partula.jpg|thumb|''Partula taeniata, a tree snail from Moorea, French Polynesia.''[https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php]]
== Background & Life History ==
Gastropods are one of the most diverse animal groups, both in form and habitat. They are the largest group of mollusks with more than 62,000 described living species, and they comprise about 80% of all living mollusks. Estimates of total extant species range from 40,000 to over 100,000, but there may be as many as 150,000 species [5]. They have a long and rich fossil record from the Early Cambrian that shows periodic extinctions of subclades, followed by diversification of new groups. The Class Gastropoda includes the snails, slugs, limpets, and sea hares. Gastropods have figured prominently in paleobiologic and biological studies, and have served as study [[organisms]] in numerous evolutionary, biomechanical, ecological, physiological, and behavioral investigations [5].

Gastropods are mainly dioecious while some forms are hermaphroditic. Hermaphroditic forms exchange bundles of sperm to avoid self-fertilization; copulation may be complex and in some species ends with each individual sending a sperm-containing dart into the tissues of the other [6]. Marine species have veliger larvae. Most aquatic gastropods are benthic and mainly epifaunal but some are planktonic [5].

== Ecology & Habitat ==
Gastropods live in every conceivable habitat on Earth, having a worldwide distribution. They have adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly every available medium. They occupy all marine habitats ranging from the deepest ocean basins to the supralittoral, as well as freshwater habitats, and other inland aquatic habitats including salt lakes [3]. They are also the only terrestrial mollusks, being found in virtually all habitats ranging from high mountains to deserts and rainforest, and from the tropics to high latitudes. Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails and slugs). Some live in freshwater, but the majority of all named species of gastropods live in a marine environment. In habitats where there is not enough calcium carbonate to build a really solid shell, such as on some acidic soils on land, there are still various species of slugs, and also some snails with a thin translucent shell, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin [4].

Their feeding habits are extremely varied, although most species make use of a radula in some aspect of their feeding behavior. They include grazers, browsers, suspension feeders, scavengers, [[detritivores]], and carnivores. Carnivory in some taxa may simply involve grazing on colonial [[animals]], while others engage in hunting their prey. Some gastropod carnivores drill holes in their shelled prey. This method of entry has been acquired independently in several groups, as is also the case with carnivory itself. Some gastropods feed suctorially and have lost the radula [5].

== Morphology ==
Gastropods are characterized by having a true head, an unsegmented body, a broad, flat foot and the possession of a single, often coiled shell, although this is lost in some slug groups. When present, the shell is in one piece and spirally coiled. The uppermost part of the shell is formed from the larval shell (the protoconch). The shell is partly or entirely lost in the juveniles or adults of some groups, with total loss occurring in several groups of land slugs and sea slugs. All fossil gastropods and most modern ones have a coiled shell, which is all that remains for the identification of fossil forms, while the identification of modern species is based largely on soft body parts [2]. The mantle cavity and visceral mass undergo torsion. Torsion takes place during the veliger stage, usually very rapidly. Veligers are at first bilaterally symmetric, but torsion destroys this pattern and results in an asymmetric adult. Some species reverse torsion ("detorsion"), but evidence of having passed through a twisted phase can be seen in the anatomy of these forms [6]. Torsion in gastropods has the unfortunate result of waste being expelled from the gut and nephridia near the gills. A variety of morphological and physiological adaptations have arisen to separate water used for respiration from water bearing waste products [6]. There is also usually a well-developed radula. They also have a muscular foot which is used for "creeping" locomotion in most species, while in some it is modified for swimming or burrowing. The foot is usually rather large and typically bears an operculum that seals the shell opening (aperture) when the head-foot is retracted into the shell. They move by producing a mucus lubricant under the flat ventral surface of the foot and a series of muscular contractions allow them to “slide” across the substrate. Most gastropods have a well-developed head that includes eyes (short to long stalks), 1-2 pairs of tentacles, and a concentration of nervous tissue (ganglion) [6]. The mantle edge in some taxa is extended anteriorly to form an inhalant siphon and this is sometimes associated with an elongation of the shell opening (aperture) [5]. The nervous and circulatory systems are well developed with the concentration of nerve ganglia being a common evolutionary theme. Many snails have an operculum, a horny plate that seals the opening when the snail's body is drawn into the shell. Externally, gastropods appear to be bilaterally symmetrical, however, they are one of the most successful clades of asymmetric organisms known [5].

[[File:Shell morph.jpg|caption]] ''Variation in shell morphology in some marine gastropods.[3]

==Ecological Importance==

They are abundant and diverse and play important roles in ecosystem function by serving as prey for many other species and promoting the [[decomposition]] of dead plant matter and the subsequent recycling of nutrients [7].Gastropods play an important role in the break down of dead animal and vegetable matter.They eat very low on the food web, as most land snails will consume rotting vegetation like moist leaf litter, and also fungi and sometimes eat [[soil]] directly. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF GASTROPODS Snails are not of direct economic importance Indirectly they are of great importance as furnishing food for many fish and other animals.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

*[1] Holthuis, B.V. (1995): ''Evolution between marine and freshwater habitats: a case study of the gastropod suborder Neritopsina.'' Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington
*[2] Allaby, M. 2020. A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press, Incorporated, Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM.
*[3] “The Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, 1999, ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php.
*[4] “Gastropoda.” Wikipedia, 29 Nov. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropoda.
*[5] “Mollusca: Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, ucmp.berkeley.edu/mollusca/mollusca/gastropoda/gastropoda.html.
*[6] Myers, P., and J. B. Burch. 2001. Gastropoda. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Gastropoda/.
*[7] P. Bloch, C. 2012. Why Snails? How Gastropods Improve Our Understanding of Ecological Disturbance. Bridgewater Review Vol. 31.

Gastropoda

2021-05-04T15:03:12Z

Mmlemere: /* Morphology */

[[File:Partula.jpg|thumb|''Partula taeniata, a tree snail from Moorea, French Polynesia.''[https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php]]
== Background & Life History ==
Gastropods are one of the most diverse animal groups, both in form and habitat. They are the largest group of mollusks with more than 62,000 described living species, and they comprise about 80% of all living mollusks. Estimates of total extant species range from 40,000 to over 100,000, but there may be as many as 150,000 species [5]. They have a long and rich fossil record from the Early Cambrian that shows periodic extinctions of subclades, followed by diversification of new groups. The Class Gastropoda includes the snails, slugs, limpets, and sea hares. Gastropods have figured prominently in paleobiologic and biological studies, and have served as study [[organisms]] in numerous evolutionary, biomechanical, ecological, physiological, and behavioral investigations [5].

Gastropods are mainly dioecious while some forms are hermaphroditic. Hermaphroditic forms exchange bundles of sperm to avoid self-fertilization; copulation may be complex and in some species ends with each individual sending a sperm-containing dart into the tissues of the other [6]. Marine species have veliger larvae. Most aquatic gastropods are benthic and mainly epifaunal but some are planktonic [5].

== Ecology & Habitat ==
Gastropods live in every conceivable habitat on Earth, having a worldwide distribution. They have adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly every available medium. They occupy all marine habitats ranging from the deepest ocean basins to the supralittoral, as well as freshwater habitats, and other inland aquatic habitats including salt lakes [3]. They are also the only terrestrial mollusks, being found in virtually all habitats ranging from high mountains to deserts and rainforest, and from the tropics to high latitudes. Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails and slugs). Some live in freshwater, but the majority of all named species of gastropods live in a marine environment. In habitats where there is not enough calcium carbonate to build a really solid shell, such as on some acidic soils on land, there are still various species of slugs, and also some snails with a thin translucent shell, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin [4].

Their feeding habits are extremely varied, although most species make use of a radula in some aspect of their feeding behavior. They include grazers, browsers, suspension feeders, scavengers, [[detritivores]], and carnivores. Carnivory in some taxa may simply involve grazing on colonial [[animals]], while others engage in hunting their prey. Some gastropod carnivores drill holes in their shelled prey. This method of entry has been acquired independently in several groups, as is also the case with carnivory itself. Some gastropods feed suctorially and have lost the radula [5].

== Morphology ==
Gastropods are characterized by having a true head, an unsegmented body, a broad, flat foot and the possession of a single, often coiled shell, although this is lost in some slug groups. When present, the shell is in one piece and spirally coiled. The uppermost part of the shell is formed from the larval shell (the protoconch). The shell is partly or entirely lost in the juveniles or adults of some groups, with total loss occurring in several groups of land slugs and sea slugs. All fossil gastropods and most modern ones have a coiled shell, which is all that remains for the identification of fossil forms, while the identification of modern species is based largely on soft body parts [2]. The mantle cavity and visceral mass undergo torsion. Torsion takes place during the veliger stage, usually very rapidly. Veligers are at first bilaterally symmetric, but torsion destroys this pattern and results in an asymmetric adult. Some species reverse torsion ("detorsion"), but evidence of having passed through a twisted phase can be seen in the anatomy of these forms [6]. Torsion in gastropods has the unfortunate result of waste being expelled from the gut and nephridia near the gills. A variety of morphological and physiological adaptations have arisen to separate water used for respiration from water bearing waste products [6]. There is also usually a well-developed radula. They also have a muscular foot which is used for "creeping" locomotion in most species, while in some it is modified for swimming or burrowing. The foot is usually rather large and typically bears an operculum that seals the shell opening (aperture) when the head-foot is retracted into the shell. They move by producing a mucus lubricant under the flat ventral surface of the foot and a series of muscular contractions allow them to “slide” across the substrate. Most gastropods have a well-developed head that includes eyes (short to long stalks), 1-2 pairs of tentacles, and a concentration of nervous tissue (ganglion) [6]. The mantle edge in some taxa is extended anteriorly to form an inhalant siphon and this is sometimes associated with an elongation of the shell opening (aperture) [5]. The nervous and circulatory systems are well developed with the concentration of nerve ganglia being a common evolutionary theme. Many snails have an operculum, a horny plate that seals the opening when the snail's body is drawn into the shell. Externally, gastropods appear to be bilaterally symmetrical, however, they are one of the most successful clades of asymmetric organisms known [5].
[[File:Shell morph.jpg|caption]] ''Variation in shell morphology in some marine gastropods.[3]

==Ecological Importance==

They are abundant and diverse and play important roles in ecosystem function by serving as prey for many other species and promoting the [[decomposition]] of dead plant matter and the subsequent recycling of nutrients [7].Gastropods play an important role in the break down of dead animal and vegetable matter.They eat very low on the food web, as most land snails will consume rotting vegetation like moist leaf litter, and also fungi and sometimes eat [[soil]] directly. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF GASTROPODS Snails are not of direct economic importance Indirectly they are of great importance as furnishing food for many fish and other animals.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

*[1] Holthuis, B.V. (1995): ''Evolution between marine and freshwater habitats: a case study of the gastropod suborder Neritopsina.'' Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington
*[2] Allaby, M. 2020. A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press, Incorporated, Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM.
*[3] “The Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, 1999, ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php.
*[4] “Gastropoda.” Wikipedia, 29 Nov. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropoda.
*[5] “Mollusca: Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, ucmp.berkeley.edu/mollusca/mollusca/gastropoda/gastropoda.html.
*[6] Myers, P., and J. B. Burch. 2001. Gastropoda. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Gastropoda/.
*[7] P. Bloch, C. 2012. Why Snails? How Gastropods Improve Our Understanding of Ecological Disturbance. Bridgewater Review Vol. 31.

Gastropoda

2021-05-04T15:01:44Z

Mmlemere: /* Ecological Importance */

[[File:Partula.jpg|thumb|''Partula taeniata, a tree snail from Moorea, French Polynesia.''[https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php]]
== Background & Life History ==
Gastropods are one of the most diverse animal groups, both in form and habitat. They are the largest group of mollusks with more than 62,000 described living species, and they comprise about 80% of all living mollusks. Estimates of total extant species range from 40,000 to over 100,000, but there may be as many as 150,000 species [5]. They have a long and rich fossil record from the Early Cambrian that shows periodic extinctions of subclades, followed by diversification of new groups. The Class Gastropoda includes the snails, slugs, limpets, and sea hares. Gastropods have figured prominently in paleobiologic and biological studies, and have served as study [[organisms]] in numerous evolutionary, biomechanical, ecological, physiological, and behavioral investigations [5].

Gastropods are mainly dioecious while some forms are hermaphroditic. Hermaphroditic forms exchange bundles of sperm to avoid self-fertilization; copulation may be complex and in some species ends with each individual sending a sperm-containing dart into the tissues of the other [6]. Marine species have veliger larvae. Most aquatic gastropods are benthic and mainly epifaunal but some are planktonic [5].

== Ecology & Habitat ==
Gastropods live in every conceivable habitat on Earth, having a worldwide distribution. They have adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly every available medium. They occupy all marine habitats ranging from the deepest ocean basins to the supralittoral, as well as freshwater habitats, and other inland aquatic habitats including salt lakes [3]. They are also the only terrestrial mollusks, being found in virtually all habitats ranging from high mountains to deserts and rainforest, and from the tropics to high latitudes. Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails and slugs). Some live in freshwater, but the majority of all named species of gastropods live in a marine environment. In habitats where there is not enough calcium carbonate to build a really solid shell, such as on some acidic soils on land, there are still various species of slugs, and also some snails with a thin translucent shell, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin [4].

Their feeding habits are extremely varied, although most species make use of a radula in some aspect of their feeding behavior. They include grazers, browsers, suspension feeders, scavengers, [[detritivores]], and carnivores. Carnivory in some taxa may simply involve grazing on colonial [[animals]], while others engage in hunting their prey. Some gastropod carnivores drill holes in their shelled prey. This method of entry has been acquired independently in several groups, as is also the case with carnivory itself. Some gastropods feed suctorially and have lost the radula [5].

== Morphology ==
Gastropods are characterized by having a true head, an unsegmented body, a broad, flat foot and the possession of a single, often coiled shell, although this is lost in some slug groups. When present, the shell is in one piece and spirally coiled. The uppermost part of the shell is formed from the larval shell (the protoconch). The shell is partly or entirely lost in the juveniles or adults of some groups, with total loss occurring in several groups of land slugs and sea slugs. All fossil gastropods and most modern ones have a coiled shell, which is all that remains for the identification of fossil forms, while the identification of modern species is based largely on soft body parts [2]. The mantle cavity and visceral mass undergo torsion. Torsion takes place during the veliger stage, usually very rapidly. Veligers are at first bilaterally symmetric, but torsion destroys this pattern and results in an asymmetric adult. Some species reverse torsion ("detorsion"), but evidence of having passed through a twisted phase can be seen in the anatomy of these forms [6]. Torsion in gastropods has the unfortunate result of waste being expelled from the gut and nephridia near the gills. A variety of morphological and physiological adaptations have arisen to separate water used for respiration from water bearing waste products [6]. There is also usually a well-developed radula. They also have a muscular foot which is used for "creeping" locomotion in most species, while in some it is modified for swimming or burrowing. The foot is usually rather large and typically bears an operculum that seals the shell opening (aperture) when the head-foot is retracted into the shell. Most gastropods have a well-developed head that includes eyes (short to long stalks), 1-2 pairs of tentacles, and a concentration of nervous tissue (ganglion) [6]. The mantle edge in some taxa is extended anteriorly to form an inhalant siphon and this is sometimes associated with an elongation of the shell opening (aperture) [5]. The nervous and circulatory systems are well developed with the concentration of nerve ganglia being a common evolutionary theme. Many snails have an operculum, a horny plate that seals the opening when the snail's body is drawn into the shell. Externally, gastropods appear to be bilaterally symmetrical, however, they are one of the most successful clades of asymmetric organisms known [5].
[[File:Shell morph.jpg|caption]] ''Variation in shell morphology in some marine gastropods.[3]

==Ecological Importance==

They are abundant and diverse and play important roles in ecosystem function by serving as prey for many other species and promoting the [[decomposition]] of dead plant matter and the subsequent recycling of nutrients [7].Gastropods play an important role in the break down of dead animal and vegetable matter.They eat very low on the food web, as most land snails will consume rotting vegetation like moist leaf litter, and also fungi and sometimes eat [[soil]] directly. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF GASTROPODS Snails are not of direct economic importance Indirectly they are of great importance as furnishing food for many fish and other animals.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

*[1] Holthuis, B.V. (1995): ''Evolution between marine and freshwater habitats: a case study of the gastropod suborder Neritopsina.'' Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington
*[2] Allaby, M. 2020. A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press, Incorporated, Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM.
*[3] “The Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, 1999, ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php.
*[4] “Gastropoda.” Wikipedia, 29 Nov. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropoda.
*[5] “Mollusca: Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, ucmp.berkeley.edu/mollusca/mollusca/gastropoda/gastropoda.html.
*[6] Myers, P., and J. B. Burch. 2001. Gastropoda. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Gastropoda/.
*[7] P. Bloch, C. 2012. Why Snails? How Gastropods Improve Our Understanding of Ecological Disturbance. Bridgewater Review Vol. 31.

Gastropoda

2021-05-04T14:56:01Z

Mmlemere:

[[File:Partula.jpg|thumb|''Partula taeniata, a tree snail from Moorea, French Polynesia.''[https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php]]
== Background & Life History ==
Gastropods are one of the most diverse animal groups, both in form and habitat. They are the largest group of mollusks with more than 62,000 described living species, and they comprise about 80% of all living mollusks. Estimates of total extant species range from 40,000 to over 100,000, but there may be as many as 150,000 species [5]. They have a long and rich fossil record from the Early Cambrian that shows periodic extinctions of subclades, followed by diversification of new groups. The Class Gastropoda includes the snails, slugs, limpets, and sea hares. Gastropods have figured prominently in paleobiologic and biological studies, and have served as study [[organisms]] in numerous evolutionary, biomechanical, ecological, physiological, and behavioral investigations [5].

Gastropods are mainly dioecious while some forms are hermaphroditic. Hermaphroditic forms exchange bundles of sperm to avoid self-fertilization; copulation may be complex and in some species ends with each individual sending a sperm-containing dart into the tissues of the other [6]. Marine species have veliger larvae. Most aquatic gastropods are benthic and mainly epifaunal but some are planktonic [5].

== Ecology & Habitat ==
Gastropods live in every conceivable habitat on Earth, having a worldwide distribution. They have adapted to almost every kind of existence on earth, having colonized nearly every available medium. They occupy all marine habitats ranging from the deepest ocean basins to the supralittoral, as well as freshwater habitats, and other inland aquatic habitats including salt lakes [3]. They are also the only terrestrial mollusks, being found in virtually all habitats ranging from high mountains to deserts and rainforest, and from the tropics to high latitudes. Some of the more familiar and better-known gastropods are terrestrial gastropods (the land snails and slugs). Some live in freshwater, but the majority of all named species of gastropods live in a marine environment. In habitats where there is not enough calcium carbonate to build a really solid shell, such as on some acidic soils on land, there are still various species of slugs, and also some snails with a thin translucent shell, mostly or entirely composed of the protein conchiolin [4].

Their feeding habits are extremely varied, although most species make use of a radula in some aspect of their feeding behavior. They include grazers, browsers, suspension feeders, scavengers, [[detritivores]], and carnivores. Carnivory in some taxa may simply involve grazing on colonial [[animals]], while others engage in hunting their prey. Some gastropod carnivores drill holes in their shelled prey. This method of entry has been acquired independently in several groups, as is also the case with carnivory itself. Some gastropods feed suctorially and have lost the radula [5].

== Morphology ==
Gastropods are characterized by having a true head, an unsegmented body, a broad, flat foot and the possession of a single, often coiled shell, although this is lost in some slug groups. When present, the shell is in one piece and spirally coiled. The uppermost part of the shell is formed from the larval shell (the protoconch). The shell is partly or entirely lost in the juveniles or adults of some groups, with total loss occurring in several groups of land slugs and sea slugs. All fossil gastropods and most modern ones have a coiled shell, which is all that remains for the identification of fossil forms, while the identification of modern species is based largely on soft body parts [2]. The mantle cavity and visceral mass undergo torsion. Torsion takes place during the veliger stage, usually very rapidly. Veligers are at first bilaterally symmetric, but torsion destroys this pattern and results in an asymmetric adult. Some species reverse torsion ("detorsion"), but evidence of having passed through a twisted phase can be seen in the anatomy of these forms [6]. Torsion in gastropods has the unfortunate result of waste being expelled from the gut and nephridia near the gills. A variety of morphological and physiological adaptations have arisen to separate water used for respiration from water bearing waste products [6]. There is also usually a well-developed radula. They also have a muscular foot which is used for "creeping" locomotion in most species, while in some it is modified for swimming or burrowing. The foot is usually rather large and typically bears an operculum that seals the shell opening (aperture) when the head-foot is retracted into the shell. Most gastropods have a well-developed head that includes eyes (short to long stalks), 1-2 pairs of tentacles, and a concentration of nervous tissue (ganglion) [6]. The mantle edge in some taxa is extended anteriorly to form an inhalant siphon and this is sometimes associated with an elongation of the shell opening (aperture) [5]. The nervous and circulatory systems are well developed with the concentration of nerve ganglia being a common evolutionary theme. Many snails have an operculum, a horny plate that seals the opening when the snail's body is drawn into the shell. Externally, gastropods appear to be bilaterally symmetrical, however, they are one of the most successful clades of asymmetric organisms known [5].
[[File:Shell morph.jpg|caption]] ''Variation in shell morphology in some marine gastropods.[3]

==Ecological Importance==

They are abundant and diverse and play important roles in ecosystem function by serving as prey for many other species and promoting the [[decomposition]] of dead plant matter and the subsequent recycling of nutrients.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

*[1] Holthuis, B.V. (1995): ''Evolution between marine and freshwater habitats: a case study of the gastropod suborder Neritopsina.'' Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington
*[2] Allaby, M. 2020. A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press, Incorporated, Oxford, UNITED KINGDOM.
*[3] “The Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, 1999, ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/gastropoda.php.
*[4] “Gastropoda.” Wikipedia, 29 Nov. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropoda.
*[5] “Mollusca: Gastropoda.” Ucmp.berkeley.edu, ucmp.berkeley.edu/mollusca/mollusca/gastropoda/gastropoda.html.
*[6] Myers, P., and J. B. Burch. 2001. Gastropoda. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Gastropoda/.
*[7] P. Bloch, C. 2012. Why Snails? How Gastropods Improve Our Understanding of Ecological Disturbance. Bridgewater Review Vol. 31.

Microarthropods

2021-05-03T15:19:52Z

Mmlemere: /* Overview */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes. The diet of microarthropods is varied as some microarthropods function as decomposers and many others are predators of other small organisms.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin. The thin layer where soil and litter meet is the most biologically active; many species of microarthropods thrive only in the interface between soil and litter. Others are found in deeper layers; these are often thinner, wormlike in form, with shorter legs than their counterparts in leaf litter [8].

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6]. Many microarthropods, especially springtails and soil mites, are responsible for breaking down organic material into a form that bacteria can consume, and are fundamental to the creation of [[humus]] and the formation of soil [8].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Microarthropods

2021-05-03T15:19:27Z

Mmlemere: /* Overview */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7]. Microarthropods contribute to a healthy soil [[ecology]], especially to decomposition of organic matter in soils and mulches; many control populations of injurious organisms [8].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes. The diet of microarthropods is varied as some microarthropods function as decomposers and many others are predators of other small organisms.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin. The thin layer where soil and litter meet is the most biologically active; many species of microarthropods thrive only in the interface between soil and litter. Others are found in deeper layers; these are often thinner, wormlike in form, with shorter legs than their counterparts in leaf litter [8].

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6]. Many microarthropods, especially springtails and soil mites, are responsible for breaking down organic material into a form that bacteria can consume, and are fundamental to the creation of [[humus]] and the formation of soil [8].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Microarthropods

2021-05-03T15:16:35Z

Mmlemere: /* Biodiversity */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin. The thin layer where soil and litter meet is the most biologically active; many species of microarthropods thrive only in the interface between soil and litter. Others are found in deeper layers; these are often thinner, wormlike in form, with shorter legs than their counterparts in leaf litter [8].

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6]. Many microarthropods, especially springtails and soil mites, are responsible for breaking down organic material into a form that bacteria can consume, and are fundamental to the creation of [[humus]] and the formation of soil [8].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Microarthropods

2021-05-03T15:14:56Z

Mmlemere: /* Role in Soil Ecology */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6]. Many microarthropods, especially springtails and soil mites, are responsible for breaking down organic material into a form that bacteria can consume, and are fundamental to the creation of [[humus]] and the formation of soil [8].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Microarthropods

2021-05-03T15:14:17Z

Mmlemere: /* Overview */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Microarthropods

2021-05-03T15:14:01Z

Mmlemere: /* Overview */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].
Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Microarthropods

2021-05-03T15:13:20Z

Mmlemere: /* Role in Soil Ecology */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Microarthropods

2021-05-03T15:12:04Z

Mmlemere: /* Role in Soil Ecology */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms. Many microarthropods, especially springtails and soil mites, are responsible for breaking down organic material into a form that bacteria can consume, and are fundamental to the creation of [[humus]] and the formation of soil [8].

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Microarthropods

2021-05-03T15:10:43Z

Mmlemere: /* References */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Microarthropods

2021-05-03T15:10:36Z

Mmlemere: /* References */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

* [8] Bibliography Lavoipierre, F. 2011. Pacific Horticulture Society | Garden Allies: Soil Microarthropods. https://www.pacifichorticulture.org/articles/soil-microarthropods/.

Microarthropods

2021-05-03T15:10:17Z

Mmlemere: /* Overview */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects. Microarthropods and other small soil animals are visible (sometimes barely so) but miniscule; most require some level of magnification for identification [8].

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

Actinomycetes

2021-05-03T14:59:38Z

Mmlemere: /* Background */

=Background=

[[File:Actinomycetes bacteria .jpg|200px|right|thumb|Actinomycetes bacteria by Oregon Caves from Cave Junction, USA / CC BY (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)]]

Actinomycetes is a nontaxonomic term for a group of common [[soil]] [[microorganisms]] sometimes called "thread or ray bacteria." They are a versatile group of Gram-positive, rod shaped and spore forming bacteria widely distributed in the terrestrial and aquatic environments [6]. These are prokaryotic [[organisms]] that are classified as bacteria, but are unique enough to be discussed as an individual group [7]. The specialty of the actinomycetes is that they have a mycelial appearance unlike most bacteria [2]. These bacteria are rather unexplored because the cultivation and maintenance of actinobacteria are not that easy as in the case of other bacteria. They are an important component of the bacterial communities, especially under conditions of high pH, high temperature or water stress. Although they were originally recognized as soil microorganisms, it is now being recognized that marine actinomycetes are also important. Actinomycetes are heterotrophic in nature. Most of them are strict saprophytes, while some from parasitic or mutualistic associations with plants and [[animals]] [1]. One distinguishing feature of this group of bacteria is that they are able to utilize a great variety of substrates found in soil, especially some of the less degradable insect and plant polymers such as chitin, cellulose and hemicellulose [7].

=Distribution & Ecology=

Actinomycetes can be found in a wide range soil and marine habitats in different parts of the world. Because they can live in different environments and exhibit high versatility in their nutrition, this allows them to spread and thrive in different regions across the globe and compete with other organisms in their surroundings. While Actinomycetes can be found in a variety of habitats, they constitute a huge extent of the microbial population in many soils. Thus making them some of the most common micro-organisms in different types of soil (about 1 million cells per gram of soil). However, a variety of factors like pH, oxygen, and temperature influence the species that inhabit different types of soil [3]. It has been found that the pH is a major environmental factor determining the distribution and activity of soil actinomycetes as Neutrophils' occur in less number in acidic soils below pH 5.0, whereas acdophilic and acidoduric streptomycetes are more numerous in acidic soils [1]. The biggest groupings of actinomycetes in the soil can be found in the organic horizon. Actinomycetes may assume a part in advancing plant development, through control of root pathogens or in some aberrant route, since a few species can produce antifungal compounds [4]. It is also important to note that there is evidence that actinomycetes usually form a small fraction of the bacterial flora in marine habitats, but population numbers are lower compared with those from terrestrial and freshwater sites. Apart from their wide distribution, Actinomycetes are also nutritionally versatile and capable of producing different kinds of spores, allowing them to successfully compete with other organisms in their surroundings.

=Significance=

Actinomycetes have several key roles in their ecosystems. Scientists have long known that actinomycetes keep soil bacteria populations in balance. They have the ability to break down various organic materials in soil as well as their ability to produce a range of bioactive molecules, including antibiotics and various kinds of enzymes. With this, about 15% of the world's nitrogen fixed naturally is from symbiotic relationships between various species of the Frankia family of actinobacteria and their host plants. Their role in the [[decomposition]] of plant and other material especially in the degradation of complex and relatively recalcitrant polymers is hugely important [3]. Lignin, cellulose and lignocellulose are all examples of what they degrade. There is evidence that actinomycetes are involved in the degradation of many other naturally occurring polymers in soil such as hemicellulose, pectin, keratin, chitin and fungal cell wall material [1]. Given that they help recycle materials that can be used by plants, it is beneficial in agriculture practices. They also produce a variety of enzymes that are useful in various industries, such as the medical industry. As they are known for their ability to produce various antibiotics, the actinomycetes are widely explored by various research groups in search of novel drug molecules. Another significance of these bacteria is that from the [[rhizosphere]], they suppress the growth of pathogens. Since they produce various bioactive metabolites that are used to produce various drugs (antifungal, anti-parasitic and antibiotics etc). Actinomycetes are an ecologically important group, which play a crucial role in several biological processes such as biogeochemical cycles, bioremediation, bio-weathering and plant growth improvement [5].

[[File:Actinomyces israelii.jpg|300px|thumb|Actinomyces israelii| Scanning electron micrograph of Actinomyces israelii By GrahamColm at English Wikipedia, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4197579]]

=References=

{{Reflist}}

* [1] C. Dilip V., Mulaje S. S., Mohalkar R.Y. 2013, May. A REVIEW ON ACTINOMYCETES AND THEIR BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION | International Journal Of Pharmaceutical Sciences And Research.

* [2] A Closer Look at Actinomycetes – Nova Science Publishers. 2020, April. . https://novapublishers.com/shop/a-closer-look-at-actinomycetes/.

* [3] Actinomycetes - Definition, Classification/Characteristics and Culture. (n.d.). https://www.microscopemaster.com/actinomycetes.html.

* [4] Ali Mohammed Abdullah Bawazir, Manjula Shantaram. (n.d.). [[Ecology]] and distribution of actinomycetes in nature– A review. http://journalcra.com/article/ecology-and-distribution-actinomycetes-nature%E2%80%93-review.

* [5] Bawazir, A. M. A., M. Shantaram. 2018. ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ACTINOMYCETES IN NATURE– A REVIEW. International Journal of Current Research 10:5.

* [6] Loynachan, T. 2008, June 4. Soil Actinomycetes. Text. https://www.asmscience.org/content/education/imagegallery/image.3180.

* [7] Pepper, I. L., and T. J. Gentry. 2015, December. Actinomycete - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/actinomycete.

Actinomycetes

2021-05-03T14:59:28Z

Mmlemere: /* Background */

=Background=

[[File:Actinomycetes bacteria .jpg|200px|right|thumb|Actinomycetes bacteria by Oregon Caves from Cave Junction, USA / CC BY (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)]]

Actinomycetes is a nontaxonomic term for a group of common [[soil]] [[microorganisms]] sometimes called "thread or ray bacteria." They are a versatile group of Gram-positive, rod shaped and spore forming bacteria widely distributed in the terrestrial and aquatic environments [6]. These are prokaryotic [[organisms]] that are classified as bacteria, but are unique enough to be discussed as an individual group [7]. The specialty of the actinomycetes is that they have a mycelial appearance unlike most bacteria [2]. These bacteria are rather unexplored because the cultivation and maintenance of actinobacteria are not that easy as in the case of other bacteria. They are an important component of the bacterial communities, especially under conditions of high pH, high temperature or water stress. Although they were originally recognized as soil microorganisms, it is now being recognized that marine actinomycetes are also important. Actinomycetes are heterotrophic in nature. Most of them are strict saprophytes, while some from parasitic or mutualistic associations with plants and [[animals]] [[Media:https://ijpsr.com/bft-article/a-review-on-actinomycetes-and-their-biotechnological-application/?view=fulltext]]. One distinguishing feature of this group of bacteria is that they are able to utilize a great variety of substrates found in soil, especially some of the less degradable insect and plant polymers such as chitin, cellulose and hemicellulose [7].

=Distribution & Ecology=

Actinomycetes can be found in a wide range soil and marine habitats in different parts of the world. Because they can live in different environments and exhibit high versatility in their nutrition, this allows them to spread and thrive in different regions across the globe and compete with other organisms in their surroundings. While Actinomycetes can be found in a variety of habitats, they constitute a huge extent of the microbial population in many soils. Thus making them some of the most common micro-organisms in different types of soil (about 1 million cells per gram of soil). However, a variety of factors like pH, oxygen, and temperature influence the species that inhabit different types of soil [3]. It has been found that the pH is a major environmental factor determining the distribution and activity of soil actinomycetes as Neutrophils' occur in less number in acidic soils below pH 5.0, whereas acdophilic and acidoduric streptomycetes are more numerous in acidic soils [1]. The biggest groupings of actinomycetes in the soil can be found in the organic horizon. Actinomycetes may assume a part in advancing plant development, through control of root pathogens or in some aberrant route, since a few species can produce antifungal compounds [4]. It is also important to note that there is evidence that actinomycetes usually form a small fraction of the bacterial flora in marine habitats, but population numbers are lower compared with those from terrestrial and freshwater sites. Apart from their wide distribution, Actinomycetes are also nutritionally versatile and capable of producing different kinds of spores, allowing them to successfully compete with other organisms in their surroundings.

=Significance=

Actinomycetes have several key roles in their ecosystems. Scientists have long known that actinomycetes keep soil bacteria populations in balance. They have the ability to break down various organic materials in soil as well as their ability to produce a range of bioactive molecules, including antibiotics and various kinds of enzymes. With this, about 15% of the world's nitrogen fixed naturally is from symbiotic relationships between various species of the Frankia family of actinobacteria and their host plants. Their role in the [[decomposition]] of plant and other material especially in the degradation of complex and relatively recalcitrant polymers is hugely important [3]. Lignin, cellulose and lignocellulose are all examples of what they degrade. There is evidence that actinomycetes are involved in the degradation of many other naturally occurring polymers in soil such as hemicellulose, pectin, keratin, chitin and fungal cell wall material [1]. Given that they help recycle materials that can be used by plants, it is beneficial in agriculture practices. They also produce a variety of enzymes that are useful in various industries, such as the medical industry. As they are known for their ability to produce various antibiotics, the actinomycetes are widely explored by various research groups in search of novel drug molecules. Another significance of these bacteria is that from the [[rhizosphere]], they suppress the growth of pathogens. Since they produce various bioactive metabolites that are used to produce various drugs (antifungal, anti-parasitic and antibiotics etc). Actinomycetes are an ecologically important group, which play a crucial role in several biological processes such as biogeochemical cycles, bioremediation, bio-weathering and plant growth improvement [5].

[[File:Actinomyces israelii.jpg|300px|thumb|Actinomyces israelii| Scanning electron micrograph of Actinomyces israelii By GrahamColm at English Wikipedia, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4197579]]

=References=

{{Reflist}}

* [1] C. Dilip V., Mulaje S. S., Mohalkar R.Y. 2013, May. A REVIEW ON ACTINOMYCETES AND THEIR BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION | International Journal Of Pharmaceutical Sciences And Research.

* [2] A Closer Look at Actinomycetes – Nova Science Publishers. 2020, April. . https://novapublishers.com/shop/a-closer-look-at-actinomycetes/.

* [3] Actinomycetes - Definition, Classification/Characteristics and Culture. (n.d.). https://www.microscopemaster.com/actinomycetes.html.

* [4] Ali Mohammed Abdullah Bawazir, Manjula Shantaram. (n.d.). [[Ecology]] and distribution of actinomycetes in nature– A review. http://journalcra.com/article/ecology-and-distribution-actinomycetes-nature%E2%80%93-review.

* [5] Bawazir, A. M. A., M. Shantaram. 2018. ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ACTINOMYCETES IN NATURE– A REVIEW. International Journal of Current Research 10:5.

* [6] Loynachan, T. 2008, June 4. Soil Actinomycetes. Text. https://www.asmscience.org/content/education/imagegallery/image.3180.

* [7] Pepper, I. L., and T. J. Gentry. 2015, December. Actinomycete - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/actinomycete.

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:56:32Z

Mmlemere: /* Role in Soil Ecology */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects.

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

In soils where fungi dominate, there are six mechanisms of interaction with microarthropods. Two control fungal distribution and abundance, namely selective grazing of fungi by microarthropods and dispersal of fungal inoculum by microarthropods. Four additional mechanisms stimulate microbial activity: (1) direct supply of mineral nutrients in urine and feces, (2) stimulation of bacterial activity by microarthropod activity, (3) compensatory fungal growth due to periodic microarthropod grazing, and (4) release of fungi from competitive stasis due to microarthropod disruption of competing mycelial networks [7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:46:49Z

Mmlemere: /* Overview */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects.

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems. They also control the distribution and abundance of fungi in soil, and they stimulate microbial metabolic activity, thereby amplifying microbial immobilization or mineralization of nutrients [7].

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:45:21Z

Mmlemere: /* References */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects.

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems.

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

* [7] Lussenhop, J. 1992. Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial Interactions in Soil. Advances in ecological research. Vol. 23.

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:40:47Z

Mmlemere: /* Extraction Methods */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects.

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems.

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [5]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:40:37Z

Mmlemere: /* Role in Soil Ecology */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects.

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems.

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [6]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation [6].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:40:28Z

Mmlemere: /* References */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects.

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems.

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [6]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation[7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

* [6] Maaß, S., T. Caruso, and M. C. Rillig. 2015. Functional role of microarthropods in soil aggregation. Pedobiologia 58:59–63.

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:39:45Z

Mmlemere: /* Role in Soil Ecology */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects.

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems.

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [6]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation[7].

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] "The incredible shrinking springtail". Science. 341 (6149): 945. 30 August 2013. doi:10.1126/science.341.6149.945-a.

* [6] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:32:16Z

Mmlemere: /* Extraction Methods */

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

[[Soil]] microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and [[insects]]. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil [[arthropods]] related to insects.

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly [[mites]] and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the [[decomposition]] process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems.

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and [[nematodes]] and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

In practice, soil microarthropod sampling involves the collection of soil which is taken back to the laboratory for extraction. Since microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals, pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from the collected samples via a technique of choosing. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration. For qualitative and quantitative studies of living soil microarthropods; one of the most popular method is Berlese-Tullgren extraction method [6]. The Berlese-Tullgren extraction method is the simplest one as it efficiently and rapidly extracts the microarthropods from soil samples in which soil animals are forced by a temperature gradient move down from the soil sample to the collection vessels. Once in the collection vessel, the [[organisms]] will remain in either water or alcohol to prevent them from escaping.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the [[diversity]] and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the [[Prostigmata]] may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these [[animals]] can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms.

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and [[protozoa]], microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation.

=References=

* [1] “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

* [2] “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

* [3] Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

* [4] Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

* [5] "The incredible shrinking springtail". Science. 341 (6149): 945. 30 August 2013. doi:10.1126/science.341.6149.945-a.

* [6] Bano, R., and S. Roy. 2016. Extraction of Soil Microarthropods: A low cost Berlese- Tullgren funnels extractor. ~ 14 ~ International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3:14–17.

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:28:00Z

Mmlemere: /* Extraction Methods */

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:26:35Z

Mmlemere: /* References */

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:25:15Z

Mmlemere: /* Extraction Methods */

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:21:33Z

Mmlemere: /* Overview */

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:19:44Z

Mmlemere: /* Role in Soil Ecology */

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:19:22Z

Mmlemere: /* Extraction Methods */

Microarthropods

2021-04-30T14:09:36Z

Mmlemere: /* Extraction Methods */

Microarthropods

2021-04-29T16:15:46Z

Mmlemere: /* References */

Clay

2021-04-29T16:09:04Z

Mmlemere: /* Origins of Clay */

== Origins of Clay ==
[[File:Soil erosion .gif|thumb|Weathering and Erosion of Rocks]]
Clay is formed from the erosion of a limited variety of environments. Some of these environments include:

1. Continental, which is the weathering and erosion on Earth's surface

2. Marine, which occurs on the floor of a body of water or within the Earth when it is near a heat source.

On the surface of the Earth, erosion by rain, wind, or [[animals]] leads to the continuous breakdown of particles. Most often, clays are formed due to chemical weathering, by low concentration carbonic acids or other solvents. These solvents leach through parent rock material and chemically break them down. Eventually, enough weathering occurs to form clays, which are less than .002mm in diameter. Some clays may form due to hydrothermal activity, where hot water circulates material over enough time to break them down to fine grained particles.

== Properties of Clay ==
[[File:Clay size.jpg|thumb|Clay Size Relative to silt and Sand]]
Clays can be found in a multitude of colors based on the minerals present, including red, brown, and even white. Clays deform plastically due to their structure and water content, meaning the physical changes are permanent. They become non-plastic when exposed to high heat or are dehydrated. Depending on the discipline, clays are classified based on their particle size, water content, or plasticity, which can distinguish them from similar particles such as [[silt]]. Atterburg limits can be tested which are a measure of the shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit.

In order to be classified as a clay, the particles must meet certain criteria. The grain size must be less than .002mm, resulting in a very high surface area. Clays have the ability to bond with water from the [[soil]] due to their molecular structures. Clays are made up of various minerals which are classified as hydrous aluminum phyllosilicates. These minerals may be iron, alkali metals, alkaline earths or other cations that may be found in the surrounding soil. The basic structure of the phyllosilicates is based on interconnected six member rings of SiO4-4 tetrahedra that extend outward in infinite sheets. Phyllosilicates may contain additional molecules such as hydroxyl ions and cations. This results in two basic groups of sheet silicates:

1. The trioctahedral sheet silicates where each O or OH ion is surrounded by 3 divalent cations, like Mg+2 or Fe+2.

2. The dioctahedral sheet silicates where each O or OH ion is surrounded by 2 trivalent cations, usually Al+3.

These molecular structures and build upon themselves, resulting in sheet minerals such as talcs and micas. These minerals can be found in parent rocks and serve as the structural basis of clays, which allow them the ability to bond with water. However, in addition to these essential minerals which allow water to bond, clays can be made up of metal oxides, quartz, and organic material. These characteristic are essential to plant and animal life in soils, and these porous spaces between clay grains facilitate the creation of microhabitats and communities that contribute to the complexity and heterogeneity of [[soil]].

== Residual Clay ==
Residual clay is what is left behind after the erosion processes of the parent rock material. This type of clay is most often formed from weathering on the earths surface, which can happen in a few different ways. One way is chemical weathering through solvents. Another example is when rocks such as limestone containing insoluble impurities are weathered and left behind as clay deposits. Once this happens residual clay is formed and can then be harvested for different uses. Residual clay is considered to have low plasticity and will not stick together very easily, limiting its uses.

== Sedimentary Clay ==
Sedimentary clay consists of minerals broken down from the original parent material through weathering and erosion. They are then transported by wind, water, ice, or any other mode of transport away from the parent rock. As these particles are being transported the are suspended in the water because they are so small. They will only be deposited when the clay particles bump into each other causing them to stick together and sink down to the bottom of the river. Due to the water-clay bonds, clays can often act as larger particles such as silt of [[sand]], and require higher forces to be moved or changed. When they get moved there are eroded further causing them to decrease in there size. This type of clay is considered to have more plasticity this means it will form a stickier [[soil|soil]].

== Organisms That Live in Clay ==
Clay is not very suitable for many plants to live in, as air has a hard time getting through the [[soil|soil]] to the roots because the [[soil|soil]] is packed so tightly. There is also a drainage problem with clay dominate soils. Some plants that can tolerate these conditions are coniferous trees such as pine trees, spruce, balsam fir, and tamarack trees. Some deciduous trees also can grow in clay dominate soils like willows, crabapple trees, and some maples. There are also some [[organisms|organisms]] that live within the predominantly clay soil as well. Macro-fauna like earthworms and [[insects|insects]], and microfauna like bacteria, [[nematodes|nematodes]], and other microscopic [[organisms|organisms]] can live within clay soil. To increase the ability for animals and plants to thrive in clay dominated soils, peat [[moss]] can be tilled in. Peat moss will increase the carbon content in the soil, thus allowing them to absorb more nutrients and thrive.
<gallery mode=packed-hover>
File:Macrofauna.jpg|MacroFauna
File:Mesofauna.jpg|Mesofauna
File:Microfauna.jpg|Microfauna
</gallery>

----

== References ==

* [1] "Clay Types, Geology, [[Properties]] and Color Chart (GcCeramics) - Meeneecat." Google Sites. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [2] "Earth Sciences: London's Geology." Clays and Clay Minerals. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [3] "How Is Clay Formed? Is It Inorganic or Organic?" The Clay Ground Collective. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [4] "Trees and Shrubs for Clay Soil." Trees and Shrubs for Clay Soil : UMN Extension. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [5] Environmental Characteristics of Clays and Clay Mineral Deposits. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [6] Kodama, Hideomi, and Ralph E. Grim. "Clay Mineral." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 20 Feb. 2014. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

Clay

2021-04-29T16:07:40Z

Mmlemere: /* References */

== Origins of Clay ==
[[File:Soil erosion .gif|thumb|Weathering and Erosion of Rocks]]
Clay is formed from the erosion of a limited variety of environments. Some of these environments include:

1. Continental, which is the weathering and erosion on Earth's surface
2. Marine, which occurs on the floor of a body of water or within the Earth when it is near a heat source.

On the surface of the Earth, erosion by rain, wind, or [[animals]] leads to the continuous breakdown of particles. Most often, clays are formed due to chemical weathering, by low concentration carbonic acids or other solvents. These solvents leach through parent rock material and chemically break them down. Eventually, enough weathering occurs to form clays, which are less than .002mm in diameter. Some clays may form due to hydrothermal activity, where hot water circulates material over enough time to break them down to fine grained particles.

== Properties of Clay ==
[[File:Clay size.jpg|thumb|Clay Size Relative to silt and Sand]]
Clays can be found in a multitude of colors based on the minerals present, including red, brown, and even white. Clays deform plastically due to their structure and water content, meaning the physical changes are permanent. They become non-plastic when exposed to high heat or are dehydrated. Depending on the discipline, clays are classified based on their particle size, water content, or plasticity, which can distinguish them from similar particles such as [[silt]]. Atterburg limits can be tested which are a measure of the shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit.

In order to be classified as a clay, the particles must meet certain criteria. The grain size must be less than .002mm, resulting in a very high surface area. Clays have the ability to bond with water from the [[soil]] due to their molecular structures. Clays are made up of various minerals which are classified as hydrous aluminum phyllosilicates. These minerals may be iron, alkali metals, alkaline earths or other cations that may be found in the surrounding soil. The basic structure of the phyllosilicates is based on interconnected six member rings of SiO4-4 tetrahedra that extend outward in infinite sheets. Phyllosilicates may contain additional molecules such as hydroxyl ions and cations. This results in two basic groups of sheet silicates:

1. The trioctahedral sheet silicates where each O or OH ion is surrounded by 3 divalent cations, like Mg+2 or Fe+2.

2. The dioctahedral sheet silicates where each O or OH ion is surrounded by 2 trivalent cations, usually Al+3.

These molecular structures and build upon themselves, resulting in sheet minerals such as talcs and micas. These minerals can be found in parent rocks and serve as the structural basis of clays, which allow them the ability to bond with water. However, in addition to these essential minerals which allow water to bond, clays can be made up of metal oxides, quartz, and organic material. These characteristic are essential to plant and animal life in soils, and these porous spaces between clay grains facilitate the creation of microhabitats and communities that contribute to the complexity and heterogeneity of [[soil]].

== Residual Clay ==
Residual clay is what is left behind after the erosion processes of the parent rock material. This type of clay is most often formed from weathering on the earths surface, which can happen in a few different ways. One way is chemical weathering through solvents. Another example is when rocks such as limestone containing insoluble impurities are weathered and left behind as clay deposits. Once this happens residual clay is formed and can then be harvested for different uses. Residual clay is considered to have low plasticity and will not stick together very easily, limiting its uses.

== Sedimentary Clay ==
Sedimentary clay consists of minerals broken down from the original parent material through weathering and erosion. They are then transported by wind, water, ice, or any other mode of transport away from the parent rock. As these particles are being transported the are suspended in the water because they are so small. They will only be deposited when the clay particles bump into each other causing them to stick together and sink down to the bottom of the river. Due to the water-clay bonds, clays can often act as larger particles such as silt of [[sand]], and require higher forces to be moved or changed. When they get moved there are eroded further causing them to decrease in there size. This type of clay is considered to have more plasticity this means it will form a stickier [[soil|soil]].

== Organisms That Live in Clay ==
Clay is not very suitable for many plants to live in, as air has a hard time getting through the [[soil|soil]] to the roots because the [[soil|soil]] is packed so tightly. There is also a drainage problem with clay dominate soils. Some plants that can tolerate these conditions are coniferous trees such as pine trees, spruce, balsam fir, and tamarack trees. Some deciduous trees also can grow in clay dominate soils like willows, crabapple trees, and some maples. There are also some [[organisms|organisms]] that live within the predominantly clay soil as well. Macro-fauna like earthworms and [[insects|insects]], and microfauna like bacteria, [[nematodes|nematodes]], and other microscopic [[organisms|organisms]] can live within clay soil. To increase the ability for animals and plants to thrive in clay dominated soils, peat [[moss]] can be tilled in. Peat moss will increase the carbon content in the soil, thus allowing them to absorb more nutrients and thrive.
<gallery mode=packed-hover>
File:Macrofauna.jpg|MacroFauna
File:Mesofauna.jpg|Mesofauna
File:Microfauna.jpg|Microfauna
</gallery>

----

== References ==

* [1] "Clay Types, Geology, [[Properties]] and Color Chart (GcCeramics) - Meeneecat." Google Sites. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [2] "Earth Sciences: London's Geology." Clays and Clay Minerals. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [3] "How Is Clay Formed? Is It Inorganic or Organic?" The Clay Ground Collective. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [4] "Trees and Shrubs for Clay Soil." Trees and Shrubs for Clay Soil : UMN Extension. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [5] Environmental Characteristics of Clays and Clay Mineral Deposits. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [6] Kodama, Hideomi, and Ralph E. Grim. "Clay Mineral." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 20 Feb. 2014. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

Clay

2021-04-29T16:07:25Z

Mmlemere: /* References */

== Origins of Clay ==
[[File:Soil erosion .gif|thumb|Weathering and Erosion of Rocks]]
Clay is formed from the erosion of a limited variety of environments. Some of these environments include:

1. Continental, which is the weathering and erosion on Earth's surface
2. Marine, which occurs on the floor of a body of water or within the Earth when it is near a heat source.

On the surface of the Earth, erosion by rain, wind, or [[animals]] leads to the continuous breakdown of particles. Most often, clays are formed due to chemical weathering, by low concentration carbonic acids or other solvents. These solvents leach through parent rock material and chemically break them down. Eventually, enough weathering occurs to form clays, which are less than .002mm in diameter. Some clays may form due to hydrothermal activity, where hot water circulates material over enough time to break them down to fine grained particles.

== Properties of Clay ==
[[File:Clay size.jpg|thumb|Clay Size Relative to silt and Sand]]
Clays can be found in a multitude of colors based on the minerals present, including red, brown, and even white. Clays deform plastically due to their structure and water content, meaning the physical changes are permanent. They become non-plastic when exposed to high heat or are dehydrated. Depending on the discipline, clays are classified based on their particle size, water content, or plasticity, which can distinguish them from similar particles such as [[silt]]. Atterburg limits can be tested which are a measure of the shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit.

In order to be classified as a clay, the particles must meet certain criteria. The grain size must be less than .002mm, resulting in a very high surface area. Clays have the ability to bond with water from the [[soil]] due to their molecular structures. Clays are made up of various minerals which are classified as hydrous aluminum phyllosilicates. These minerals may be iron, alkali metals, alkaline earths or other cations that may be found in the surrounding soil. The basic structure of the phyllosilicates is based on interconnected six member rings of SiO4-4 tetrahedra that extend outward in infinite sheets. Phyllosilicates may contain additional molecules such as hydroxyl ions and cations. This results in two basic groups of sheet silicates:

1. The trioctahedral sheet silicates where each O or OH ion is surrounded by 3 divalent cations, like Mg+2 or Fe+2.

2. The dioctahedral sheet silicates where each O or OH ion is surrounded by 2 trivalent cations, usually Al+3.

These molecular structures and build upon themselves, resulting in sheet minerals such as talcs and micas. These minerals can be found in parent rocks and serve as the structural basis of clays, which allow them the ability to bond with water. However, in addition to these essential minerals which allow water to bond, clays can be made up of metal oxides, quartz, and organic material. These characteristic are essential to plant and animal life in soils, and these porous spaces between clay grains facilitate the creation of microhabitats and communities that contribute to the complexity and heterogeneity of [[soil]].

== Residual Clay ==
Residual clay is what is left behind after the erosion processes of the parent rock material. This type of clay is most often formed from weathering on the earths surface, which can happen in a few different ways. One way is chemical weathering through solvents. Another example is when rocks such as limestone containing insoluble impurities are weathered and left behind as clay deposits. Once this happens residual clay is formed and can then be harvested for different uses. Residual clay is considered to have low plasticity and will not stick together very easily, limiting its uses.

== Sedimentary Clay ==
Sedimentary clay consists of minerals broken down from the original parent material through weathering and erosion. They are then transported by wind, water, ice, or any other mode of transport away from the parent rock. As these particles are being transported the are suspended in the water because they are so small. They will only be deposited when the clay particles bump into each other causing them to stick together and sink down to the bottom of the river. Due to the water-clay bonds, clays can often act as larger particles such as silt of [[sand]], and require higher forces to be moved or changed. When they get moved there are eroded further causing them to decrease in there size. This type of clay is considered to have more plasticity this means it will form a stickier [[soil|soil]].

== Organisms That Live in Clay ==
Clay is not very suitable for many plants to live in, as air has a hard time getting through the [[soil|soil]] to the roots because the [[soil|soil]] is packed so tightly. There is also a drainage problem with clay dominate soils. Some plants that can tolerate these conditions are coniferous trees such as pine trees, spruce, balsam fir, and tamarack trees. Some deciduous trees also can grow in clay dominate soils like willows, crabapple trees, and some maples. There are also some [[organisms|organisms]] that live within the predominantly clay soil as well. Macro-fauna like earthworms and [[insects|insects]], and microfauna like bacteria, [[nematodes|nematodes]], and other microscopic [[organisms|organisms]] can live within clay soil. To increase the ability for animals and plants to thrive in clay dominated soils, peat [[moss]] can be tilled in. Peat moss will increase the carbon content in the soil, thus allowing them to absorb more nutrients and thrive.
<gallery mode=packed-hover>
File:Macrofauna.jpg|MacroFauna
File:Mesofauna.jpg|Mesofauna
File:Microfauna.jpg|Microfauna
</gallery>

----

== References ==

* [1] "Clay Types, Geology, [[Properties]] and Color Chart (GcCeramics) - Meeneecat." Google Sites. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [2] "Earth Sciences: London's Geology." Clays and Clay Minerals. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [3] "How Is Clay Formed? Is It Inorganic or Organic?" The Clay Ground Collective. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [4] "Trees and Shrubs for Clay Soil." Trees and Shrubs for Clay Soil : UMN Extension. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [5] Environmental Characteristics of Clays and Clay Mineral Deposits. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

* [6] Kodama, Hideomi, and Ralph E. Grim. "Clay Mineral." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 20 Feb. 2014. Web. 14 Apr. 2018.

Allelopathy

2021-04-28T14:18:15Z

Mmlemere:

Allelopathy (Gr: allelon (of each other) and pathos (to suffer)) is broadly defined as any chemical-mediated interaction among plants, though it is typically thought of as a mechanism of inhibition. [1] The term allelopathy was coined in 1937 by Hans Molisch to refer to any biological interactions between all types of plants, but was refined by Rice in 1974 as “any direct or indirect harmful effect by one plant (including microorganisms) on another through production of chemical compounds that escape into the environment.” [2]

== Mechanism ==
Allelopathy is caused by the release of secondary compounds into the soil. Secondary compounds allow plants to behave plastically in numerous ways.[3] The effect of allelopathy depends on a chemical being added to the environment, distinguishing this form of interference from competition1.

== Evolution ==
Generally, the secondary metabolites that act as allelochemicals serve other purposes in the plants function; natural selection should favor secondary metabolites with multiple functions because they protect the plants against a variety of unpredictable biotic and abiotic environments.[4]
Allelopathy may also drive evolution in the neighbors of allelopathic plants as well: one study found that individuals grown from seeds of parents that have survived exposure to allelochemicals in ''Centaurea stoebe'' have exhibited much higher resistance to the general competitive effects of Centaurea, the root exudates from Centaurea, and to a chemical speciﬁc to the root exudates of ''Centaurea'' ( ± )-catechin relative to other native species that have not previously encountered ''Centaurea maculosa''[5].

== Ecology ==
Chemicals produced by plants have strong effects on ecosystem properties, altering rhizosphere chemistry, chelating metals, altering soil community interactions, and shifting plant community interactions [6].

=== Role in Biological Invasion ===
A comparison of exotic plant species that are highly invasive in North America with exotics that are widespread, but non-invasive revealed that the invasive plants were more likely to have secondary compounds that have not been reported from North American native plants.[7]
According to the Novel Weapons Hypothesis, invasive species possess novel weapons in the form of chemicals that suppress the growth of neighboring plants in an alien environment, allowing them to spread and form their own monocultures. In the native range, such species grow normally in association with other plants. Seemingly, the native plants’ tolerance evolves toward chemicals or the so-called novel weapons on account of their long association. [8]

== References ==
1. Rice, E. L. ALLELOPATHY - AN OVERVIEW. 2.

2. Amb, M. K. & Ahluwalia, A. S. Allelopathy: Potential Role to Achieve New Milestones in Rice Cultivation. Rice Science 23, 165–183 (2016).

3. Metlen, K. L., Aschehoug, E. T. & Callaway, R. M. Plant behavioural ecology: dynamic plasticity in secondary metabolites. Plant, Cell & Environment 32, 641–653 (2009).

4. Izhaki, I. Emodin - a secondary metabolite with multiple ecological functions in higher plants. New Phytol 155, 205–217 (2002).

5. Callaway, R. M. Natural selection for resistance to the allelopathic effects of invasive plants. natural selection 8 (2005).

6. Inderjit, Wardle, D. A., Karban, R. & Callaway, R. M. The ecosystem and evolutionary contexts of allelopathy. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 26, 655–662 (2011).

7. Cappuccino, N. & Arnason, J. T. Novel chemistry of invasive exotic plants. Biol. Lett. 2, 189–193 (2006).

8. Batish, D., Singh, H., Kaur, S. & Kohli, R. Novel weapon hypothesis for the successful establishment of invasive plants in alien environments: A critical appraisal. in Invasive Plant Ecology 19–28 (CRC Press, 2013). doi:10.1201/b13865-4.

Allelopathy

2021-04-28T14:17:02Z

Mmlemere: /* Role in Biological Invasion */

Allelopathy (Gr: allelon (of each other) and pathos (to suffer) is broadly defined as any chemical-mediated interaction among plants, though it is typically thought of as a mechanism of inhibition. [1] The term allelopathy was coined in 1937 by Hans Molisch to refer to any biological interactions between all types of plants, but was refined by Rice in 1974 as “any direct or indirect harmful effect by one plant (including microorganisms) on another through production of chemical compounds that escape into the environment.” [2]

== Mechanism ==
Allelopathy is caused by the release of secondary compounds into the soil. Secondary compounds allow plants to behave plastically in numerous ways.[3] The effect of allelopathy depends on a chemical being added to the environment, distinguishing this form of interference from competition1.

== Evolution ==
Generally, the secondary metabolites that act as allelochemicals serve other purposes in the plants function; natural selection should favor secondary metabolites with multiple functions because they protect the plants against a variety of unpredictable biotic and abiotic environments.[4]
Allelopathy may also drive evolution in the neighbors of allelopathic plants as well: one study found that individuals grown from seeds of parents that have survived exposure to allelochemicals in ''Centaurea stoebe'' have exhibited much higher resistance to the general competitive effects of Centaurea, the root exudates from Centaurea, and to a chemical speciﬁc to the root exudates of ''Centaurea'' ( ± )-catechin relative to other native species that have not previously encountered ''Centaurea maculosa''[5].

== Ecology ==
Chemicals produced by plants have strong effects on ecosystem properties, altering rhizosphere chemistry, chelating metals, altering soil community interactions, and shifting plant community interactions [6].

=== Role in Biological Invasion ===
A comparison of exotic plant species that are highly invasive in North America with exotics that are widespread, but non-invasive revealed that the invasive plants were more likely to have secondary compounds that have not been reported from North American native plants.[7]
According to the Novel Weapons Hypothesis, invasive species possess novel weapons in the form of chemicals that suppress the growth of neighboring plants in an alien environment, allowing them to spread and form their own monocultures. In the native range, such species grow normally in association with other plants. Seemingly, the native plants’ tolerance evolves toward chemicals or the so-called novel weapons on account of their long association. [8]

== References ==
1. Rice, E. L. ALLELOPATHY - AN OVERVIEW. 2.

2. Amb, M. K. & Ahluwalia, A. S. Allelopathy: Potential Role to Achieve New Milestones in Rice Cultivation. Rice Science 23, 165–183 (2016).

3. Metlen, K. L., Aschehoug, E. T. & Callaway, R. M. Plant behavioural ecology: dynamic plasticity in secondary metabolites. Plant, Cell & Environment 32, 641–653 (2009).

4. Izhaki, I. Emodin - a secondary metabolite with multiple ecological functions in higher plants. New Phytol 155, 205–217 (2002).

5. Callaway, R. M. Natural selection for resistance to the allelopathic effects of invasive plants. natural selection 8 (2005).

6. Inderjit, Wardle, D. A., Karban, R. & Callaway, R. M. The ecosystem and evolutionary contexts of allelopathy. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 26, 655–662 (2011).

7. Cappuccino, N. & Arnason, J. T. Novel chemistry of invasive exotic plants. Biol. Lett. 2, 189–193 (2006).

8. Batish, D., Singh, H., Kaur, S. & Kohli, R. Novel weapon hypothesis for the successful establishment of invasive plants in alien environments: A critical appraisal. in Invasive Plant Ecology 19–28 (CRC Press, 2013). doi:10.1201/b13865-4.

Allelopathy

2021-04-28T14:16:21Z

Mmlemere: /* Mechanism */

Allelopathy (Gr: allelon (of each other) and pathos (to suffer) is broadly defined as any chemical-mediated interaction among plants, though it is typically thought of as a mechanism of inhibition. [1] The term allelopathy was coined in 1937 by Hans Molisch to refer to any biological interactions between all types of plants, but was refined by Rice in 1974 as “any direct or indirect harmful effect by one plant (including microorganisms) on another through production of chemical compounds that escape into the environment.” [2]

== Mechanism ==
Allelopathy is caused by the release of secondary compounds into the soil. Secondary compounds allow plants to behave plastically in numerous ways.[3] The effect of allelopathy depends on a chemical being added to the environment, distinguishing this form of interference from competition1.

== Evolution ==
Generally, the secondary metabolites that act as allelochemicals serve other purposes in the plants function; natural selection should favor secondary metabolites with multiple functions because they protect the plants against a variety of unpredictable biotic and abiotic environments.[4]
Allelopathy may also drive evolution in the neighbors of allelopathic plants as well: one study found that individuals grown from seeds of parents that have survived exposure to allelochemicals in ''Centaurea stoebe'' have exhibited much higher resistance to the general competitive effects of Centaurea, the root exudates from Centaurea, and to a chemical speciﬁc to the root exudates of ''Centaurea'' ( ± )-catechin relative to other native species that have not previously encountered ''Centaurea maculosa''[5].

== Ecology ==
Chemicals produced by plants have strong effects on ecosystem properties, altering rhizosphere chemistry, chelating metals, altering soil community interactions, and shifting plant community interactions [6].

=== Role in Biological Invasion ===
A comparison of exotic plant species that are highly invasive in North America with exotics that are widespread, but non-invasive revealed that the invasive plants were more likely to have secondary compounds that have not been reported from North American native plants.7
According to the Novel Weapons Hypothesis, invasive species possess novel weapons in the form of chemicals that suppress the growth of neighboring plants in an alien environment, allowing them to spread and form their own monocultures. In the native range, such species grow normally in association with other plants. Seemingly, the native plants’ tolerance evolves toward chemicals or the so-called novel weapons on account of their long association. [8]

== References ==
1. Rice, E. L. ALLELOPATHY - AN OVERVIEW. 2.

2. Amb, M. K. & Ahluwalia, A. S. Allelopathy: Potential Role to Achieve New Milestones in Rice Cultivation. Rice Science 23, 165–183 (2016).

3. Metlen, K. L., Aschehoug, E. T. & Callaway, R. M. Plant behavioural ecology: dynamic plasticity in secondary metabolites. Plant, Cell & Environment 32, 641–653 (2009).

4. Izhaki, I. Emodin - a secondary metabolite with multiple ecological functions in higher plants. New Phytol 155, 205–217 (2002).

5. Callaway, R. M. Natural selection for resistance to the allelopathic effects of invasive plants. natural selection 8 (2005).

6. Inderjit, Wardle, D. A., Karban, R. & Callaway, R. M. The ecosystem and evolutionary contexts of allelopathy. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 26, 655–662 (2011).

7. Cappuccino, N. & Arnason, J. T. Novel chemistry of invasive exotic plants. Biol. Lett. 2, 189–193 (2006).

8. Batish, D., Singh, H., Kaur, S. & Kohli, R. Novel weapon hypothesis for the successful establishment of invasive plants in alien environments: A critical appraisal. in Invasive Plant Ecology 19–28 (CRC Press, 2013). doi:10.1201/b13865-4.

Allelopathy

2021-04-28T14:16:09Z

Mmlemere:

Allelopathy (Gr: allelon (of each other) and pathos (to suffer) is broadly defined as any chemical-mediated interaction among plants, though it is typically thought of as a mechanism of inhibition. [1] The term allelopathy was coined in 1937 by Hans Molisch to refer to any biological interactions between all types of plants, but was refined by Rice in 1974 as “any direct or indirect harmful effect by one plant (including microorganisms) on another through production of chemical compounds that escape into the environment.” [2]

== Mechanism ==
Allelopathy is caused by the release of secondary compounds into the soil. Secondary compounds allow plants to behave plastically in numerous ways.[3] The effect of allelopathy depends on a chemical being added to the environment, distinguishing this form of interference from competition1

== Evolution ==
Generally, the secondary metabolites that act as allelochemicals serve other purposes in the plants function; natural selection should favor secondary metabolites with multiple functions because they protect the plants against a variety of unpredictable biotic and abiotic environments.[4]
Allelopathy may also drive evolution in the neighbors of allelopathic plants as well: one study found that individuals grown from seeds of parents that have survived exposure to allelochemicals in ''Centaurea stoebe'' have exhibited much higher resistance to the general competitive effects of Centaurea, the root exudates from Centaurea, and to a chemical speciﬁc to the root exudates of ''Centaurea'' ( ± )-catechin relative to other native species that have not previously encountered ''Centaurea maculosa''[5].

== Ecology ==
Chemicals produced by plants have strong effects on ecosystem properties, altering rhizosphere chemistry, chelating metals, altering soil community interactions, and shifting plant community interactions [6].

=== Role in Biological Invasion ===
A comparison of exotic plant species that are highly invasive in North America with exotics that are widespread, but non-invasive revealed that the invasive plants were more likely to have secondary compounds that have not been reported from North American native plants.7
According to the Novel Weapons Hypothesis, invasive species possess novel weapons in the form of chemicals that suppress the growth of neighboring plants in an alien environment, allowing them to spread and form their own monocultures. In the native range, such species grow normally in association with other plants. Seemingly, the native plants’ tolerance evolves toward chemicals or the so-called novel weapons on account of their long association. [8]

== References ==
1. Rice, E. L. ALLELOPATHY - AN OVERVIEW. 2.

2. Amb, M. K. & Ahluwalia, A. S. Allelopathy: Potential Role to Achieve New Milestones in Rice Cultivation. Rice Science 23, 165–183 (2016).

3. Metlen, K. L., Aschehoug, E. T. & Callaway, R. M. Plant behavioural ecology: dynamic plasticity in secondary metabolites. Plant, Cell & Environment 32, 641–653 (2009).

4. Izhaki, I. Emodin - a secondary metabolite with multiple ecological functions in higher plants. New Phytol 155, 205–217 (2002).

5. Callaway, R. M. Natural selection for resistance to the allelopathic effects of invasive plants. natural selection 8 (2005).

6. Inderjit, Wardle, D. A., Karban, R. & Callaway, R. M. The ecosystem and evolutionary contexts of allelopathy. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 26, 655–662 (2011).

7. Cappuccino, N. & Arnason, J. T. Novel chemistry of invasive exotic plants. Biol. Lett. 2, 189–193 (2006).

8. Batish, D., Singh, H., Kaur, S. & Kohli, R. Novel weapon hypothesis for the successful establishment of invasive plants in alien environments: A critical appraisal. in Invasive Plant Ecology 19–28 (CRC Press, 2013). doi:10.1201/b13865-4.