==Overview==
Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].

==Clades==
Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms. The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2]. To differentiate between monocots and dicots, it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].

===Monocots===
Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two. Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].

===Eudicots===
One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the "nitrogen fixing clade" which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6].

==References==
[1]Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.

[2]angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, & Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.

[3]Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.

[4]More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.

[5]Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.

[6]Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.

Prostigmata

2021-04-28T15:29:10Z

Mfantine: /* Classification */

== Definition ==

The Prostigmata (also known as "sucking mites") is a suborder of the Trombidiformes, found in the class Arachnida. These mites are one of the oldest suborders found on earth, together with the Oribatida, dating back to the Devonian Era. The prostigmatic mites contains a very diversified diet within its organisms, many are predators, but there are also families of fungal eating, plant eating, microbial eating and parasites. These mites can vary in size, from 0.1 reaching up to 10 millimeters. 

== Classification ==

'''Domain''': Eukarya

'''Kingdom''': Animalia

'''Phylum''': Arthropoda

'''Subphylum''': Chelicerata

'''Class''': Arachnida

'''Subclass''': Acari

'''Order''': Trombidiformes

'''Suborder''': Prostigmata

== Examples of organisms and their diet: ==

1) Spider mites (''Tetrachynus urticae''), which eat plants, are known for being a pest.
[[File:440px-ACAR Tetranychidae Tetranychus urticae.png|200px|thumb|right|Picture of a spider mite]]

2) ''Demodex'' mites are parasites to vertebrates, while invertebrates include ''Acarapis woodi'' that prey on honeybees.
[[File:Demodex.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of a Demodex mite]][[File:Acarapis-woodi-tracheal-mite-of-honey-bees.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of a Acarapis woodi]]

3) Prostigmatic mites from the family ''Eupodidae'' are opportunistic organisms to fungi.

4) The families ''Eupodidae'',''Tarsonemidae'', and ''Nanorchestidae'' feed on algae.
[[File:Polyphagotarsonemus latus, USDA BARC.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of an Eupodidae mite]]


== Characteristics ==

According to a study in the University of Michigan [5], these are the morphological features of the Prostigmata body:

1) Absence of the Tritosternum (Biflagellate structure in the ventral side of the body)

2) The leg joint is fused with their body

3) The stigmatic openings (used for feeding), are present but either near the chelicerae or on the dorsal side of the propodosoma

4) The empodial and lateral claws are usually present in some legs

5) The male Aedeagus (reproductive structure) can be both present or absent

6) The dispersal stage is not substantially different from the non-dispersal stage

7) The attachment organ is absent

8) The chelicerae is developed but sometimes indistinct


[[File:FIG-7 Hetero-3-BMOC 97-0808-002 Pygmephorus 40x.png]]

Detailed descriptions of each term can be found in their glossary page [6]

== Prostigmata Life Cycle ==

Life cycle’s of arthropods are very similar between different organisms of different classes. While they have the same standard stages, the duration differs between species, with a total average of 3 weeks. Mites go through 5 stages before death: egg, larvae, protonymph, deuteronymph, adult.

1) Eggs: The eggs are laid on the host or on the soil by the female, the amount varies between species

2) Larva: The eggs hatch and larva emerge from them, which feeds on skin cells. In some species, this is the only parasitic stage, which can last 3 to 4 days

3) Nymph: The larvae goes through dormancy for 24 hours, and develop into a nymph, which has 2 stages. The whole stage has a 3 to 4 day period

4)Adult: After the nymphs develop into an adult, they can live either on the surface or by making burrows
[[File:Mite lifecycle-01.png]]



== References ==

[1]Coleman, D. C., M. C. Callaham, and D. A. Crossley. 2018. FUNDAMENTALS OF SOIL ECOLOGY. 3Rd edition. Candice JancoCambridge, MA.

[2]Contributors, W. 2012, July 18. Mite Life Cycle. https://en.wikivet.net/Mite_Life_Cycle.

[3]Contributors, W. 2021, April. Mite. Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mite#Reproduction_and_life_cycle.

[4]Contributors, W. 2021, March 15. Prostigmata. Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostigmata.

[5]Klimov, P., B. OConnor, R. Ochoa, G. Bauchan, A. Redford, and J. Scher. 2016, October. Bee Mite ID. http://idtools.org/id/mites/beemites/bmites_morphology.php.

[6]Klimov, P., B. OConnor, R. Ochoa, G. Bauchan, A. Redford, and J. Scher. 2016, October. Bee Mite ID. http://idtools.org/id/mites/beemites/glossary.php#a.

[7]Murray, A. (n.d.). All about prostigmatid mites. https://www.chaosofdelight.org/all-about-mites-prostigmata.

[8]Proctor, H. 1998, August 12. Page: Tree of Life Trombidiformes. Trombidiform mites. http://tolweb.org/Trombidiformes/2568.

2021-04-25T15:27:59Z

Mfantine: /* Ecology */

== Definition ==

The Hymenoptera is a large order of organisms within the phylum Arthropoda, which contains insects like, bees, wasps, sawflies, and ants. The name is derived from the greek words "Hymen" or "membrane" and "Ptera" or "wings", which is perfectly describing the fact that their wings are connected into one point called the "Hamuli", and the membraneous tissue it is formed. Like most insects, these appeared at an early stage of earth's history, which according to a study done by D.A. Grimaldi, M.S. Engel et al, have been around since 281 million years ago (Triassic Period).
The Hymenopteran who have evolved into a societal way of living(Cretaceous Period), similar to pre-historical humans, created a very well adapted form of resilience for the succession of its offspring. However, many different species still live solitarily, requiring others only for mating. The organisms, who have a social life, live in a nest (ants) or a hive (bees, wasps), which are all descendants of one queen. When the hive or nest is established by a queen in early spring, it begins producing its offspring that will work in their pre-assigned roles, depending on their gender.

== Anatomy ==

The anatomy of hymenopterans are very similar to other insects. The ones who fly, usually have two pairs of wings. Their mouths can have two forms, just mandibles used for chewing, or with the addition of the proboscis used for drinking liquids, such as nectar. They have two larger compound eyes, used to differentiate brightness and color, and also three smaller eyes called "ocelli" that are much simpler. Flying insects have their hind wings with hooked bristles called "hamuli" that holds both the fore wings and hind wings together. The number of hamuli vary between species and their sizes, with wasps having more than the usual two to three hamuli present in smaller species. Like most insects, their bodies are divided into three sections, head, thorax and abdomen.

The hymenoptera have an ovipositor, that in older species evolved into a blade-like structure used for slicing plant tissues. However, many today use them for piercing. In some species, we see today an ovipositor that evolved into a stinger in which the tip is used to inject venom and their eggs are laid from the base of the structure. The stinger is usually used to immobilize prey, that could be used to insert their eggs inside, but we see many bees and wasps using for self defense.

The larvae of the hymenoptera have a head region, three thoracic segments, and nine or ten abdominal segments. The hymenoptera, is further divided into the Symphyta and Apocrita. The former includes sawflies, whose larvae feed on leaves, have large mandibles for chewing; six thoracic limbs, and six to eight abdominal prolegs. However, their prolegs do not have spines, and their antennae are reduced to just stubs. Furthermore, the larvae that lives on wood or stem borers have no abdominal prolegs and the thoracic legs are smaller than the non-borers.

In the Apocrita, whose species are wasps and bees, however, cannot live freely. The lack of legs, and their shape resembling a maggot, requires them to be taken care either by the solitary wasp who laid them, or by the workers and queen in a beehive. If the larvae was laid by a wasp, it will most likely be living inside of the immobilized insect it captured, where the offspring can feed off of the prey. The larvae laid in the insect have some morphological differences, the head is reduced into the prothorax, the compound eyes are poorly developed, with no ocelli; very small or absent antennae and toothlike mandibles. It also lacks the ability to defecate, since their digestive system is not completed, to avoid contamination in the environment they live. The larvae that has a stinger, generally has ten spiracles, for breathing, while the parasitic form usually has nine.

PHOTOS

== Reproduction ==

In the order Hymenoptera, reproduction uses the Haplodiploid sex-determination system, in which the number of chromosomes determines their gender. If the eggs are fertilized by both parent's gametes, the individual is diploid and develops into a female. [[File:1920px-Haplodiploid Sex Determination in Honey Bees.svg.png|200px|thumb|right|Haplodiploid system diagram]] However, if the egg is not fertilized by two sets of gametes, the zygote is haploid, and develops into a male. The important factor in this system is that the female is under total control of which gender her offspring will be, depending on what the nest or hive needs in the moment.

Although this system seems very simple to understand, it actually is much more complex than only the number os chromosomes present. In many hymenopterans, the gender is determined in a single gene locus with many alleles. In these organisms, males are haploid and females are diploid heterozygous at the sex locus. However, a diploid organism could be homozygous which develops into a male. This is more likely to happen when we have parents who were siblings reproducing. Diploid males are known for being produced by inbreeding, in many ant, bee, and wasp species. These males organisms, usually are infertile but you can find some species with fertile diploid males.

A problem that appears due to this reproduction system is that females on average have more genes in common with their sisters than with their daughters. Therefore, cooperation among kindred females may be unusually advantageous, which contributed to the multiple origins of eusociality within this order. In many colonies, we see the removal of eggs laid by other workers due to the increase in relatedness to direct siblings, a behavior called worker policing.

'''Thelytoky'''

Some hymenopterans also use a type of parthenogenesis, which is the production of an embryo without fertilization, to produce other females. Through the process of thelytoky, a female is produced from the fusion of two haploid proto-eggs in the same meiosis, producing a diploid zygote. This method of reproduction tends to maintain heterozygosity of the genome of the mother to the daughter. Many ant species use this method, some of them are: desert ant ''Cataglyphis cursor'', the clonal raider ant ''Cerapachys biroi'', the predaceous ant ''Platythyrea punctata'', and the electric ant (little fire ant) ''Wasmannia auropunctata''. It also occurs in the Cape honey bee ''Apis mellifera capensis''.

== Major Families ==

(According to the NCSU Department of Entomology)

'''Sawflies''': Larvae feed on leaves, or burrow into plant tissues

1)''Diprionidae'': Conifer sawflies

2)''Tenthredinidae'': Common sawflies

3)''Cephidae'': Stem sawflies

'''Horntails''': Larvae are wood borers

1)''Siricidae'': Wood or Horntail wasp

'''Parasitic Wasps''': Larvae are parasitoid of other insects

1)''Ichneumonidae'': Largest family, parasitoids of spiders

2)''Braconidae'': mostly parasitoid of ''lepidopterous'' larvae

3)''Encyrtidae'': mostly parasitoid of ''aphids'' and scale insects

4)''Eulophidae'': parasitoid of beetles, moths, and other insects

5)''Trichogrammatidae'': egg parasites

'''Gall Wasps''': Larvae are herbivores which induce the formation of plant galls and live in or on these tissues

1)''Cynipidae'': most species live on oak trees

'''Predatory Wasps''': Adults provision nest sites with prey that they catch and paralyze by stinging

1)''Sphecidae'': prey on caterpillars and spiders

2)''Pompilidae'': prey on spiders

3)''Tiphiidae'': prey on beetle larvae

4)''Scoliidae'': prey on beetle larvae

5)''Vespidae'': prey on caterpillars

'''Social Wasps''': The nests are tended by sterile female workers

1)''Vespidae'': yellowjackets, hornets, paper wasps

'''Ants''': True social insects. Wingless workers forage for resources

1)''Formicidae'': Ants

'''Solitary Bees''': Adults build their individual nests and provision them with plant material (nectar or pollen)

1)''Halictidae'': Sweat bees

2)''Megachilidae'': Leafcutting bees

3)''Anthophoridae'': Carpenter bees

'''Social Bees''': True social insects. Communities are found in nests in the soil (Bumble Bees) or in cavities (Honey Bees). Sterile female workers forage for resources such as nectar or pollen

1)''Apidae'': Bumble bees and Honey bees

== Ecology ==

'''Eusociality''':

According to C.J.A. Bradshaw, C.R. McMahon(#), is an advanced social system where colonies of organisms are created for the succession of its offspring. This system exists when the adults belong to two or more overlapping generations, they take care cooperatively for the offspring, and are divided into reproductive and non-reproductive castes. This division of labor means that some females give up the ability to have offspring to facilitate reproduction by other individuals in the same colony.

According to Norman F. Johnson(#), the beginning of such society is after a virgin queen from a colony mates with one or several males. Then, the queen builds her nest, which could be in the soil, a natural cavity, or out in the open. The colony founding can be sometimes cooperative, and determining which individual will become the primary reproducer is established through behavioral interactions among the founders. Males are only needed for insemination of the new queens, which soon after will die. The eggs produced by the new queen, will develop into the first female worker generation, which usually cannot reproduce. These workers have many functions, they take care of the offspring, forage for resources, defend the nest and the queen. These functions are sometimes divided by workers, and sometimes by morphological differences in their bodies. Once well established, more males and females are produced to continue the growth of the colony.

''Pollination'':

Pollination is the transfer of pollen, which can be via wind, water, insects, from the male structure (Anthers) of a flower to the female structure (Stigma) of either the same flower (Monoecious) or another (Dioecious) of the same species. This phenomena is what makes hymenopterans so important for the ecosystem they are present, since most plants rely on them for fertilization. [[File:Melissodes desponsa, f, face, Maine, Du Clos 2015-12-01-17.37 (24469964305).jpg|200px|thumb|right|Melissodes desponsa bee body covered in pollen]]Therefore, plants have evolved a mutualistic relationship with them, in which the plants produce the sweet nectar these insects require in their diet, and the hymenopterans while in search of the nectar carry particles of pollen in their bodies and pollinate other flowers.

File:Melissodes desponsa, f, face, Maine, Du Clos 2015-12-01-17.37 (24469964305).jpg

2021-04-25T15:25:18Z

Mfantine: Picture taken from the wikipedia page about pollination, credits go to the owner of the photo found here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Melissodes_desponsa,_f,_face,_Maine,_Du_Clos_2015-12-01-17.37_(24469964305).jpg

Picture taken from the wikipedia page about pollination, credits go to the owner of the photo found here:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Melissodes_desponsa,_f,_face,_Maine,_Du_Clos_2015-12-01-17.37_(24469964305).jpg