Lydiamul:

Hammerhead Worm

2025-04-17T20:59:34Z

Lydiamul:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Hammerhead-worm-1.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Platyhelminthes]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Turbellaria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Tricladida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Geoplanidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Bipalium''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: County of Brant [4]
|}

== Description ==
''Bipalium'', also known as the hammerhead worm, land planarian, or shovel-head garden worm, is a genus of invasive flatworm found in moist terrestrial environments in the northeastern United States [2]. The hammerhead worm is native to southeast Asia, and was introduced in 1891 [1]. This is easily identifiable by its distinct flattened body and oblong hammerhead. The worms are most often yellow, orange, or light brown, with a varying number of darker brown stripes running the length of the body [2]. Hammerhead worms pose a threat to natural ecosystems, as there are at least three species that have been found to feed exclusively on earthworms. They also pose a potential threat to agricultural operations, especially those operating in warm, moist environments [3].

[[File:Hammer-earthworm.jpg|left|300px|thumb|''Bipalium'' preying upon an earthworm [5]]]

== Behaviors ==

=== Habitat and Range ===
''R. cathartica'' contains a number of secondary compounds, present in both the fruit, leaves, root exudates, and other tissue of the plant<ref name="Seltzner"></ref> A specifically noted compound is that of emodin, which can impact germination of other plant seeds.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Emodin is present both in the root exudate of ''R. cathartica'' and in the fruit; due to the fact that the drupes often fall beneath the parent tree, both have a significant impact on germination. The presence of emodin also may contribute to the purgative effects of ''R. cathartica'' fruit, meaning that those unripe fruits which any animal may ingest will cause either regurgitation or very quick passing of the fruit.<ref name="Knight"></ref> This is significant as birds readily eat the fruit available.

=== Life Cycle ===

== Impact as an Invasive Species ==

[[File:invasionmap.jpg|right|600px|thumb|A map of where ''Bipalium'' has been found in the United States [6]]]
Since its introduction to the United States in the 1800s, ''R. cathartica'' has established itself in much of the lower 48 states.<ref name="Map"></ref> It has significant impact as an invasive species due to its allelopathic compounds, as discussed. In addition to this, buckthorn has an advantage when it comes phenology: extended leaf phenology. Buckthorn tends to flush out much earlier than native plants in its introduced range, allowing it to have photosynthetic advantage and to shade out native understory plants in the process, encouraging the establishment of a monoculture.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Additionally, the drupes on the shrub remain long past other native berries, providing a singular food source for birds which disperse the seeds as a result.<ref name="Knight"></ref>

Another advantage is the preference that [[insects]] and mammalian herbivores have for native plants over ''R. cathartica'' in North America.<ref name="Knight"></ref> White-tailed deer, a significant herbivorous population, preferentially eat native plants due to the fact that ''R. cathartica'' causes them some illness, resulting in increased herbivorous pressure on those native plants. This also applies to small mammals which forage in the relevant environments. The presence of thick monospecific thickets which ''R. cathartica'' form tends to encourage small mammal [[foraging]], due to an increase in available refuge; this limits the germination of native trees or other highly foraged plants.<ref name="Utz">Ryan M. Utz, Alysha Slater, Hannah R. Rosche, Walter P. Carson. "Do dense layers of invasive plants elevate the foragingintensity of small mammals in temperate deciduous forests? A case study from Pennsylvania, USA". ''NeoBiota 56: 73–88 (2020)'' doi: 10.3897/neobiota.56.4958. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

The result of the success of ''R. cathartica'' as a competitor means that when introduced in an area, buckthorn tends to form dense monospecific thickets which exclude any native competitors and often reducing understory plants to a minimum.<ref name="Knight"></ref> With monospecific thickets such as these, there is also the alteration of [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]], as the leaves of buckthorn are extremely high in Nitrogen. The change in litter types has significant impact on the [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]] as it will rapidly increase high-N litter pools and then rapidly decrease them as longer lasting leaf litter is eradicated.<ref name="Knight"></ref> When this is combined with invasive earthworms such as ''L. terrestris'' the alteration of [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]] in an area is notable, where quickly [[decomposing]] leaves and the high loss of detritus in the presence of invasive earthworms intersect and create rapidly cycling nutrient pools.

The allelopathic nature of ''R. cathartica'' also falls under the hypothesis of the ''novel weapons hypothesis''; the hypothesis that non-native plants have competitive traits which native plants in the introduced range do not have a defense against.<ref name="Pinzone">Pinzone, P., Potts, D., Pettibone, G. et al. "Do novel weapons that degrade mycorrhizal mutualisms promote species invasion?". ''Plant Ecol 219, 539–548 (2018)''. https://doi-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/10.1007/s11258-018-0816-4. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref> The root exudates and secondary compounds of ''R. cathartica'' are hypothesized to inhibit not only the growth and germination of competitor plants, but also possibly the mutualist fungi which other plants form symbiosis with. As has been established, buckthorn contains emodin, a powerful allelochemical; in some cases this has been found to impact the mutualisms of other plants. The root exudates of ''R. cathartica'' were found to reduce arbuscular and vesicular colinization in ''Ulmus'' sp. despite both plants employing [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi|arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi]] in their mutualist relationships.<ref name="Pinzone"></ref> It is possible that there are other native competitors with fungal mutualisms which ''R. cathartica'' may indirectly degrade due to its [[allelopathy]].

== References ==

[6] EDDMapS. 2025. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System. The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Available online at http://www.eddmaps.org/; last accessed April 17, 2025.

Hammerhead Worm

2025-04-17T20:50:55Z

Lydiamul:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Hammerhead-worm-1.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Platyhelminthes]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Turbellaria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Tricladida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Geoplanidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Bipalium''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: County of Brant [4]
|}

== Description ==
''Bipalium'', also known as the hammerhead worm, land planarian, or shovel-head garden worm, is a genus of invasive flatworm found in moist terrestrial environments in the northeastern United States [2]. The hammerhead worm is native to southeast Asia, and was introduced in 1891 [1]. This is easily identifiable by its distinct flattened body and oblong hammerhead. The worms are most often yellow, orange, or light brown, with a varying number of darker brown stripes running the length of the body [2]. Hammerhead worms pose a threat to natural ecosystems, as there are at least three species that have been found to feed exclusively on earthworms. They also pose a potential threat to agricultural operations, especially those operating in warm, moist environments [3].

[[File:Hammer-earthworm.jpg|left|300px|thumb|''Bipalium'' preying upon an earthworm [5]]]

== Behaviors ==

=== Habitat and Range ===
''R. cathartica'' contains a number of secondary compounds, present in both the fruit, leaves, root exudates, and other tissue of the plant<ref name="Seltzner"></ref> A specifically noted compound is that of emodin, which can impact germination of other plant seeds.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Emodin is present both in the root exudate of ''R. cathartica'' and in the fruit; due to the fact that the drupes often fall beneath the parent tree, both have a significant impact on germination. The presence of emodin also may contribute to the purgative effects of ''R. cathartica'' fruit, meaning that those unripe fruits which any animal may ingest will cause either regurgitation or very quick passing of the fruit.<ref name="Knight"></ref> This is significant as birds readily eat the fruit available.

=== Life Cycle ===

== Impact as an Invasive Species ==

[[File:invasionmap.jpg|right|600px|thumb|A map of where ''Bipalium'' has been found in the United States.<ref name="Map>EDDMapS. 2022. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System. The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Available online at http://www.eddmaps.org/; last accessed May 16, 2022.</ref>]]
Since its introduction to the United States in the 1800s, ''R. cathartica'' has established itself in much of the lower 48 states.<ref name="Map"></ref> It has significant impact as an invasive species due to its allelopathic compounds, as discussed. In addition to this, buckthorn has an advantage when it comes phenology: extended leaf phenology. Buckthorn tends to flush out much earlier than native plants in its introduced range, allowing it to have photosynthetic advantage and to shade out native understory plants in the process, encouraging the establishment of a monoculture.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Additionally, the drupes on the shrub remain long past other native berries, providing a singular food source for birds which disperse the seeds as a result.<ref name="Knight"></ref>

Another advantage is the preference that [[insects]] and mammalian herbivores have for native plants over ''R. cathartica'' in North America.<ref name="Knight"></ref> White-tailed deer, a significant herbivorous population, preferentially eat native plants due to the fact that ''R. cathartica'' causes them some illness, resulting in increased herbivorous pressure on those native plants. This also applies to small mammals which forage in the relevant environments. The presence of thick monospecific thickets which ''R. cathartica'' form tends to encourage small mammal [[foraging]], due to an increase in available refuge; this limits the germination of native trees or other highly foraged plants.<ref name="Utz">Ryan M. Utz, Alysha Slater, Hannah R. Rosche, Walter P. Carson. "Do dense layers of invasive plants elevate the foragingintensity of small mammals in temperate deciduous forests? A case study from Pennsylvania, USA". ''NeoBiota 56: 73–88 (2020)'' doi: 10.3897/neobiota.56.4958. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

The result of the success of ''R. cathartica'' as a competitor means that when introduced in an area, buckthorn tends to form dense monospecific thickets which exclude any native competitors and often reducing understory plants to a minimum.<ref name="Knight"></ref> With monospecific thickets such as these, there is also the alteration of [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]], as the leaves of buckthorn are extremely high in Nitrogen. The change in litter types has significant impact on the [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]] as it will rapidly increase high-N litter pools and then rapidly decrease them as longer lasting leaf litter is eradicated.<ref name="Knight"></ref> When this is combined with invasive earthworms such as ''L. terrestris'' the alteration of [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]] in an area is notable, where quickly [[decomposing]] leaves and the high loss of detritus in the presence of invasive earthworms intersect and create rapidly cycling nutrient pools.

The allelopathic nature of ''R. cathartica'' also falls under the hypothesis of the ''novel weapons hypothesis''; the hypothesis that non-native plants have competitive traits which native plants in the introduced range do not have a defense against.<ref name="Pinzone">Pinzone, P., Potts, D., Pettibone, G. et al. "Do novel weapons that degrade mycorrhizal mutualisms promote species invasion?". ''Plant Ecol 219, 539–548 (2018)''. https://doi-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/10.1007/s11258-018-0816-4. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref> The root exudates and secondary compounds of ''R. cathartica'' are hypothesized to inhibit not only the growth and germination of competitor plants, but also possibly the mutualist fungi which other plants form symbiosis with. As has been established, buckthorn contains emodin, a powerful allelochemical; in some cases this has been found to impact the mutualisms of other plants. The root exudates of ''R. cathartica'' were found to reduce arbuscular and vesicular colinization in ''Ulmus'' sp. despite both plants employing [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi|arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi]] in their mutualist relationships.<ref name="Pinzone"></ref> It is possible that there are other native competitors with fungal mutualisms which ''R. cathartica'' may indirectly degrade due to its [[allelopathy]].

== References ==

File:Invasionmap.jpg

2025-04-17T20:50:40Z

Lydiamul: Lydiamul uploaded a new version of File:Invasionmap.jpg

File:Invasionmap.jpg

2025-04-17T20:48:13Z

Lydiamul: Lydiamul uploaded a new version of File:Invasionmap.jpg

File:Invasionmap.jpg

2025-04-17T20:42:31Z

Lydiamul:

Hammerhead Worm

2025-04-17T20:34:24Z

Lydiamul:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Hammerhead-worm-1.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Platyhelminthes]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Turbellaria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Tricladida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Geoplanidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Bipalium''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: County of Brant [4]
|}

== Description ==
''Bipalium'', also known as the hammerhead worm, land planarian, or shovel-head garden worm, is a genus of invasive flatworm found in moist terrestrial environments in the northeastern United States [2]. The hammerhead worm is native to southeast Asia, and was introduced in 1891 [1]. This is easily identifiable by its distinct flattened body and oblong hammerhead. The worms are most often yellow, orange, or light brown, with a varying number of darker brown stripes running the length of the body [2]. Hammerhead worms pose a threat to natural ecosystems, as there are at least three species that have been found to feed exclusively on earthworms. They also pose a potential threat to agricultural operations, especially those operating in warm, moist environments [3].

[[File:Hammer-earthworm.jpg|left|300px|thumb|''Bipalium'' preying upon an earthworm [5]]]

== Behaviors ==

=== Habitat and Range ===
''R. cathartica'' contains a number of secondary compounds, present in both the fruit, leaves, root exudates, and other tissue of the plant<ref name="Seltzner"></ref> A specifically noted compound is that of emodin, which can impact germination of other plant seeds.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Emodin is present both in the root exudate of ''R. cathartica'' and in the fruit; due to the fact that the drupes often fall beneath the parent tree, both have a significant impact on germination. The presence of emodin also may contribute to the purgative effects of ''R. cathartica'' fruit, meaning that those unripe fruits which any animal may ingest will cause either regurgitation or very quick passing of the fruit.<ref name="Knight"></ref> This is significant as birds readily eat the fruit available.

=== Life Cycle ===

== Impact as an Invasive Species ==

[[File:R_Cathartica_EDDS_Map.png|right|500px|thumb|A map of where ''R. cathartica'' has been found in the United States.<ref name="Map>EDDMapS. 2022. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System. The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Available online at http://www.eddmaps.org/; last accessed May 16, 2022.</ref>]]
Since its introduction to the United States in the 1800s, ''R. cathartica'' has established itself in much of the lower 48 states.<ref name="Map"></ref> It has significant impact as an invasive species due to its allelopathic compounds, as discussed. In addition to this, buckthorn has an advantage when it comes phenology: extended leaf phenology. Buckthorn tends to flush out much earlier than native plants in its introduced range, allowing it to have photosynthetic advantage and to shade out native understory plants in the process, encouraging the establishment of a monoculture.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Additionally, the drupes on the shrub remain long past other native berries, providing a singular food source for birds which disperse the seeds as a result.<ref name="Knight"></ref>

Another advantage is the preference that [[insects]] and mammalian herbivores have for native plants over ''R. cathartica'' in North America.<ref name="Knight"></ref> White-tailed deer, a significant herbivorous population, preferentially eat native plants due to the fact that ''R. cathartica'' causes them some illness, resulting in increased herbivorous pressure on those native plants. This also applies to small mammals which forage in the relevant environments. The presence of thick monospecific thickets which ''R. cathartica'' form tends to encourage small mammal [[foraging]], due to an increase in available refuge; this limits the germination of native trees or other highly foraged plants.<ref name="Utz">Ryan M. Utz, Alysha Slater, Hannah R. Rosche, Walter P. Carson. "Do dense layers of invasive plants elevate the foragingintensity of small mammals in temperate deciduous forests? A case study from Pennsylvania, USA". ''NeoBiota 56: 73–88 (2020)'' doi: 10.3897/neobiota.56.4958. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

The result of the success of ''R. cathartica'' as a competitor means that when introduced in an area, buckthorn tends to form dense monospecific thickets which exclude any native competitors and often reducing understory plants to a minimum.<ref name="Knight"></ref> With monospecific thickets such as these, there is also the alteration of [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]], as the leaves of buckthorn are extremely high in Nitrogen. The change in litter types has significant impact on the [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]] as it will rapidly increase high-N litter pools and then rapidly decrease them as longer lasting leaf litter is eradicated.<ref name="Knight"></ref> When this is combined with invasive earthworms such as ''L. terrestris'' the alteration of [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]] in an area is notable, where quickly [[decomposing]] leaves and the high loss of detritus in the presence of invasive earthworms intersect and create rapidly cycling nutrient pools.

The allelopathic nature of ''R. cathartica'' also falls under the hypothesis of the ''novel weapons hypothesis''; the hypothesis that non-native plants have competitive traits which native plants in the introduced range do not have a defense against.<ref name="Pinzone">Pinzone, P., Potts, D., Pettibone, G. et al. "Do novel weapons that degrade mycorrhizal mutualisms promote species invasion?". ''Plant Ecol 219, 539–548 (2018)''. https://doi-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/10.1007/s11258-018-0816-4. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref> The root exudates and secondary compounds of ''R. cathartica'' are hypothesized to inhibit not only the growth and germination of competitor plants, but also possibly the mutualist fungi which other plants form symbiosis with. As has been established, buckthorn contains emodin, a powerful allelochemical; in some cases this has been found to impact the mutualisms of other plants. The root exudates of ''R. cathartica'' were found to reduce arbuscular and vesicular colinization in ''Ulmus'' sp. despite both plants employing [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi|arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi]] in their mutualist relationships.<ref name="Pinzone"></ref> It is possible that there are other native competitors with fungal mutualisms which ''R. cathartica'' may indirectly degrade due to its [[allelopathy]].

== References ==

2025-04-17T20:02:44Z

Lydiamul:

Hammerhead Worm

2025-04-17T19:56:07Z

Lydiamul: Created page with "{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px; |+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification''' |- |colspan="2" |caption |- !style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom: |style="min-width:6em; |Plantae |- !style="min-width:6em; |Phylum: |style="min-width:6em; |Magnoliophyta |- !style="min-width:6em; |Class: |style="min-width:6em; |Magnoliopsid..."

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:R_Cathartica_1.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Plantae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Magnoliophyta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Magnoliopsida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rosales
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rhamnaceae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Rhamnus L''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''R. cathartica L.''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: United States Department of [[Agriculture]]<ref name="USDA">[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=RHCA3 "Rhamnus Cathartica Plant Profile"], ''USDA'' "USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service", ''USDA'', n.d.. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>
|}

''Bipalium'', also known as the hammerhead worm, land planarian, or shovel-head garden worm, is a genus of invasive flatworm found in moist terrestrial environments in the northeastern United States [2]. The hammerhead worm is native to southeast Asia, and was introduced in 1891 [1]. This is easily identifiable by its distinct flattened body and oblong hammerhead. The worms are most often yellow, orange, or light brown, with a varying number of darker brown stripes running the length of the body [2]. Hammerhead worms pose a threat to natural ecosystems, as there are at least three species that have been found to feed exclusively on earthworms. They also pose a potential threat to agricultural operations, especially those operating in warm, moist environments [3].

== Description ==
[[File:r_cathartica_2.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Buckthorn gradually forming a dense thicket in the understory of a forest.]]

== Ecology ==
Buckthorn is a relatively fast-growing species, able to grow both in shady and open conditions.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Germination occurs in the autumn and spring in Great Britain, and mid- to late summer in some areas of the US, such as Minnesota.<ref name="Knight"></ref> ''R. cathartica'' produces fruit, at a rate which is often called aggressive, aiding in a high reproduction rate.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Buckthorn can grow in a range of [[soil]] types, from wetlands to drier oak forests.<ref name="Knight"></ref> It is a perennial plant and persists for many growing seasons, and it has extremely vigorous vegetative regeneration, able to regrow from very little material.<ref name="Seltzner">Scott Seltzner, Thomas L. Eddy. "[[Allelopathy]] in ''Rhamnus cathartica'', European Buckthorn". ''The Michigan Botanist''. 2003. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

''R. cathartica'' is also a possible host for oat crown rust, a disease which affects oat seed farming, making it of interest for United States agriculture.<ref name="Archie"></ref>

Extremely similar to the relationship between monarch butterflies and plants of the Asclepiadaceae (milkweed) family, common buckthorn acts as an important host plant to the brimstone butterfly (''Gonepteryx rhamni'') in its native ranges in Europe.<ref name="Brimstone">David Gutiérrez, Chris D. Thomas, "Marginal range expansion in a host-limited butterfly species Gonepteryx rhamni" ''Ecological Entomology (2000) 25, 165-170''. 25 December 2001. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

=== Allelopathy ===
''R. cathartica'' contains a number of secondary compounds, present in both the fruit, leaves, root exudates, and other tissue of the plant<ref name="Seltzner"></ref> A specifically noted compound is that of emodin, which can impact germination of other plant seeds.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Emodin is present both in the root exudate of ''R. cathartica'' and in the fruit; due to the fact that the drupes often fall beneath the parent tree, both have a significant impact on germination. The presence of emodin also may contribute to the purgative effects of ''R. cathartica'' fruit, meaning that those unripe fruits which any animal may ingest will cause either regurgitation or very quick passing of the fruit.<ref name="Knight"></ref> This is significant as birds readily eat the fruit available.

=== Impact as an Invasive Species ===

[[File:R_Cathartica_EDDS_Map.png|right|500px|thumb|A map of where ''R. cathartica'' has been found in the United States.<ref name="Map>EDDMapS. 2022. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System. The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Available online at http://www.eddmaps.org/; last accessed May 16, 2022.</ref>]]
Since its introduction to the United States in the 1800s, ''R. cathartica'' has established itself in much of the lower 48 states.<ref name="Map"></ref> It has significant impact as an invasive species due to its allelopathic compounds, as discussed. In addition to this, buckthorn has an advantage when it comes phenology: extended leaf phenology. Buckthorn tends to flush out much earlier than native plants in its introduced range, allowing it to have photosynthetic advantage and to shade out native understory plants in the process, encouraging the establishment of a monoculture.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Additionally, the drupes on the shrub remain long past other native berries, providing a singular food source for birds which disperse the seeds as a result.<ref name="Knight"></ref>

Another advantage is the preference that [[insects]] and mammalian herbivores have for native plants over ''R. cathartica'' in North America.<ref name="Knight"></ref> White-tailed deer, a significant herbivorous population, preferentially eat native plants due to the fact that ''R. cathartica'' causes them some illness, resulting in increased herbivorous pressure on those native plants. This also applies to small mammals which forage in the relevant environments. The presence of thick monospecific thickets which ''R. cathartica'' form tends to encourage small mammal [[foraging]], due to an increase in available refuge; this limits the germination of native trees or other highly foraged plants.<ref name="Utz">Ryan M. Utz, Alysha Slater, Hannah R. Rosche, Walter P. Carson. "Do dense layers of invasive plants elevate the foragingintensity of small mammals in temperate deciduous forests? A case study from Pennsylvania, USA". ''NeoBiota 56: 73–88 (2020)'' doi: 10.3897/neobiota.56.4958. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

The result of the success of ''R. cathartica'' as a competitor means that when introduced in an area, buckthorn tends to form dense monospecific thickets which exclude any native competitors and often reducing understory plants to a minimum.<ref name="Knight"></ref> With monospecific thickets such as these, there is also the alteration of [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]], as the leaves of buckthorn are extremely high in Nitrogen. The change in litter types has significant impact on the [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]] as it will rapidly increase high-N litter pools and then rapidly decrease them as longer lasting leaf litter is eradicated.<ref name="Knight"></ref> When this is combined with invasive earthworms such as ''L. terrestris'' the alteration of [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]] in an area is notable, where quickly [[decomposing]] leaves and the high loss of detritus in the presence of invasive earthworms intersect and create rapidly cycling nutrient pools.

The allelopathic nature of ''R. cathartica'' also falls under the hypothesis of the ''novel weapons hypothesis''; the hypothesis that non-native plants have competitive traits which native plants in the introduced range do not have a defense against.<ref name="Pinzone">Pinzone, P., Potts, D., Pettibone, G. et al. "Do novel weapons that degrade mycorrhizal mutualisms promote species invasion?". ''Plant Ecol 219, 539–548 (2018)''. https://doi-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/10.1007/s11258-018-0816-4. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref> The root exudates and secondary compounds of ''R. cathartica'' are hypothesized to inhibit not only the growth and germination of competitor plants, but also possibly the mutualist fungi which other plants form symbiosis with. As has been established, buckthorn contains emodin, a powerful allelochemical; in some cases this has been found to impact the mutualisms of other plants. The root exudates of ''R. cathartica'' were found to reduce arbuscular and vesicular colinization in ''Ulmus'' sp. despite both plants employing [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi|arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi]] in their mutualist relationships.<ref name="Pinzone"></ref> It is possible that there are other native competitors with fungal mutualisms which ''R. cathartica'' may indirectly degrade due to its allelopathy.

== References ==

Bombardier Beetle

2025-04-15T21:15:09Z

Lydiamul:

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"
|+ [[Bombardier Beetle|Bombardier Beetle]] Taxonomy
|-
|
! scope="row" | Kingdom
! scope="row" | Phylum
! scope="row" | Class
! scope="row" | Order
! scope="row" | Family
! scope="row" | Subfamily
! scope="row" | Genus
|-
! scope="col" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Insecta
| [[Coleoptera]]
| Carabidae
| Brachininae
| Brachinus
|}

The Genus Brachinus is home to over 500 different species of Bombardier Beetles. [1]

[[File: Beetle_small.jpg|500px|thumb|left| [2]]]

== Body Structure ==

[[File:Beetle_Bomb_Diagram_small.jpg|500px|thumb|right| This shows the "Bomb" that is inside the Bombardier Beetles [3]]]

Bombardier Beetles are small beetles that don't grow over an inch in size. They have orange arms, thorax, and limbs with blue wing coverings. Their body shape and looks are common, and not much different from many other beetles, having six legs and two antennas [2]. Bombardier Beetles get their name from their special ability or "bomb," which is inside their abdomen. Inside their body, they have two chambers, one containing hydrogen peroxide and one with hydroquinone. When the beetle feels it is being threatened, it excretes some of both, creating a chemical reaction in their reaction chamber [3]. This reaction can be shot out of the beetle's anus like a machine gun shooting rapid bursts of oxygen, quinone, and water. These bursts can be up to 20 MPH and 212 degrees Fahrenheit; it shoots in bursts, allowing for the beetle to cool down. This allows the beetle to fend off prey from consuming it such as a frog or a bigger insect. Even when consumed, it is often regurgitated and escapes due to its "bomb" making them unenjoyable prey [4]. These beetle's defense system is so successful that other beetles that aren't Bombardier have started to look like these beetles using Batesian mimicry so that predators will choose a different prey [6].

== Habitat and Diet ==

[[File:bomb.jpeg|500px|thumb|right| This shows the "Bomb" in action. [6]]]

Bombardier Beetles prefer temperate woodlands and grasslands due to their reliance on hiding under logs and leaf litter. Bombardier beetles are found in North America, South America, Europe, Africa, and Australia [2]. These beetles eat both young [[insects]] and detritus, which plays an important role in the [[decomposition]] and recycling of nutrients. These beetles rely heavily on their antennae for vibrations as well as eye eyesight and feel to help maneuver and find their food, they usually hunt at night. These beetles prefer moist environments where the [[soil]] would have a lot of nutrients on its top layers where these beetles roam [2].

== Reproduction & Effect on Environment and Humans ==

[[File: Life_cycle_small.jpg|500px|thumb|left|This shows the life cycle of a Bombardier Beetle [7] ]]

Bombardier beetles produce sexually, producing eggs that the female beetle will often place in tunnels of soil or cracks in wood that have nutrients and water for the eggs when they hatch into larvae. The larvae will then rely on the nutrients in the area and sometimes through molting. The larvae will then shed its skin and develop into a pupa. It will then continue to grow and consume nutrients until it is ready to shed its skin one final time, becoming an adult bombardier beetle. The adult beetle's life span will be 2-3 weeks, in which the beetle will try to find a mate and reproduce. These beetles are not in any danger of extinction currently. The [[ecology]] of the Bombardier beetles is said to positively impact soil. Their "bomb" is ineffective on humans but their diet and ability to fend off some predators all make for improvements in their microenvironment. Their diet also consists of many pests that harm the soil and microenvironment they are in [6].

== References ==

:[1] National Geographic. “Bombardier Beetle.” National Geographic, [[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/bombardier-beetle#:~:text=In%20fact%2C%20there%20are%20over,in%20the%20United%20States%20alone.}]].
:[2] National Wildlife Federation. “Bombardier Beetles.” National Wildlife Federation, [[https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Bombardier-Beetles]].
:[3] “Featured Creature: Bombardier Beetle.” Shape of Life, 3 Oct. 2023,[[https://www.shapeoflife.org/news/featured-creature/2023/10/03/bombardier-beetle]].
:[4] Pappas, Stephanie. “The Machine-Gun Bug.” Smithsonian Magazine, 11 Mar. 2019, [[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/machine-gun-bug-180955150/]].
:[5] K. R. “Beetle Bomb.” The Scientist, May, 2015 [[https://www.the-scientist.com/beetle-bomb-35532]].
:[6] Poetker, E. 2003. "Brachinus fumans", Animal [[Diversity]] Web.[[https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Brachinus_fumans/#:~:text=When%20the%20egg%20hatches%2C%20it,which%20it%20will%20eventually%20become.]].
:[7]Gabrielle's Insect Biology. “Morphology & Life Cycle of the Bombardier Beetle.” Gabrielle's Insect Biology,[[https://gabriellesinsectbiology.weebly.com/morphology--life-cycle.html]].

Pinedrop

2025-04-15T21:12:09Z

Lydiamul:

=='''Classification'''==

Kingdom: ''Plantae''

Phylum: ''Magnoliophyta''

Class: ''Magnoliopsida''

[[File: Pinedrop.jpg|522px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Pinedrop in natural habitat on forest floor.]]

=='''Introduction'''==
Pterospora andromedea, commonly known as Pinedrops, is a parasitic plant of the heath family. This plant relies on mycoheterotrophy, the plant nutrition tactic that involves getting its carbon and other nutrients from fungi rather than photosynthesis [1]. They have a red stalk with bell-shaped flowers that hang upside down.

=='''Range & Habitat'''==
Pinedrops are native to coniferous forests of North America, and commonly growing from the [[soil]] below pine trees. Populations can be found in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, though it is most commonly found in mountainous regions such as the Northern Appalachians or Rockies. Pinedrop grows well in acidic, well-drained soils that are nutrient-poor [3]. They also need coniferous forests with ectomycorrhizal growth, which they rely on for nutrients. Pinedrops are more likely to be found in older forests with less disturbance because these conditions promote the growth of the fungi systems they prey on.

=='''Mycroheterotrophy and Role in Soil Ecology'''==
The mutualistic relationship between pines and mycorrhizal fungi allows Pinedrops to survive. The trees provide the fungi with the glucose created through photosynthesis in exchange the fungus provides nutrients the tree is not capable of retreaving on its own like nitrogen the fungus can also make it easier for the tree to collect water [2]. Pinedrops are parasites and take advantage of this mutualism. They take the nutrients glucose and water from the fungi while it is exchanging with the tree. These specific relationships and circumstances make the Pinedrop uncommon. They can also be used as an indicator to tell if a forest is thriving.

==Refrences==
[1]Mycoheterotrophy - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). . https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/mycoheterotrophy.

[2]Mycorrhizal fungi / RHS. (n.d.). . https://www.rhs.org.uk/biodiversity/mycorrhizal-fungi.

[3]Woodland Pinedrops. (n.d.). . https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/plant-of-the-week/pterospora_andromedea.shtml.

Carbon-14

2025-03-30T18:27:39Z

Lydiamul: /* References */

[[File:C-14.png|350px|thumb|right|Carbon-14 atom containing 6 protons, 8 neutrons, and 6 electrons]]

==''' Overview '''==

Carbon-14, also referred to as 14C or radiocarbon, is one of the three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon in nature. 14C is unstable, and has a half-life of 5700 +/- 30 years [1]. The other two forms of carbon are 12C, which is what makes up 98% of all carbon in the atmosphere, and 13C, which makes up around 1% of atmospheric carbon. Both 12C and 13C are stable isotopes, while 14C is unstable. It only occurs in trace amounts naturally, around 1 14C atom for every 7.54 x 1011 atoms of 12C in the atmosphere. Within the context of [[ecology]], 14C is used in two main processes: dating organic materials and tracing carbon pathways within ecosystems [2].

== Uses ==
[[File:TreeDating.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Cross dating tree rings [3]]]
===Tree Ring Dating===
14C is found in the atmosphere, and although it occurs in trace amounts, it will be absorbed by trees like any other form of carbon.
The science of dendochronology heavily relies on 14C. Scientists are able to compare the tree rings of similar species growing in similar environments and match up their ages based on their rings [4]. From there, the 14C content in each tree ring can be matched to the tree's age and year it was growing. Since the amount of 14C in the atmosphere changes over time, scientists are also able to use the 14C content in each tree ring to relate it to the atmospheric conditions at the time the tree was growing. Because of all of this data, it is possible to know the tree-ring chronologies for the past 12,400 years [5].

===Carbon-14 Tracing===
14C forms naturally in the atmosphere as a result of cosmic radiation. As it moves through the atmosphere, 14C reacts with oxygen and forms CO2. That CO2 will then be absorbed by trees to be converted into sugars that the tree uses for energy [6]. The 14C becomes a part of the tree's tissue as it is absorbed. It may also be shunted to other trees via mycorrhizal fungi. In her book ''Finding The Mother Tree'', Suzanne Simard used this method to track the path of carbon through the trees' root systems, and prove that trees exchange 14C through micorrhizal pathways [7]. This discovery of the vast networks of mycorrhizal has contributed greatly to forestry as a whole.

[[File:HowTreesTalk.jpg|376px|thumb|right|Suzanne Simard's drawing of carbon tracking through tree root systems [8]]]

==Analysis methods==
The majority of 14C analysis is used in determining ages of organic materials. 14C can also tell information on [[soil]] carbon cycles find in soil trophic relationships. Analysis of 14C in atmospheric and terrestrial environments is essential for understanding climate and soil environments. Through this analysis and the use of 14C, we can predict possible future environmental impacts and global climate change in ecosystems [9].

==References==
[1] Stark, A. M. (n.d.). Atmospheric carbon-14 measurements reveal natural production rate by cosmic rays | Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory. https://www.llnl.gov/article/42086/atmospheric-carbon-14-measurements-reveal-natural-production-rate-cosmic-rays.

[2] Cain, W. F., and H. E. Suess. 1976. Carbon 14 in tree rings. Journal of Geophysical Research (1896-1977) 81:3688–3694.

 [3] NPR/TED, and 2020 10:13am. 1969, December 31. Suzanne Simard: How Do Trees Collaborate? https://www.northcountrypublicradio.org/news/npr/882828756/suzanne-simard-how-do-trees-collaborate.

[4] Douglass, A. E. 1941. Crossdating in Dendrochronology. Journal of Forestry.

[5] Guibal, F., and J. Guiot. 2021. Dendrochronology. Pages 117–122 Paleoclimatology. Springer, Cham.

[6] When trees “talk:” Researchers probe ancient wood for clues about massive solar storms | Arizona International. 2024, December 2. . https://international.arizona.edu/news/when-trees-talk-researchers-probe-ancient-wood-clues-about-massive-solar-storms.

[7] Simard, S. 2021, May 4. Finding the Mother Tree : Discovering the Wisdom of the Forest. https://web-p-ebscohost-
com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook?sid=3722a8f8-2b62-4b46-a151-54e5a387ffd8%40redis&vid=0&format=EK.

[8] Quaternary paleoenvironments - methods. (n.d.). . https://microsite.geo.uzh.ch/alpecole/static/course/lessons/28/28c.htm.

[9] Staddon, P. L. 2004. Carbon isotopes in functional [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]]. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 19:148–154.

Carbon-14

2025-03-30T18:09:01Z

Lydiamul:

Carbon-14

2025-03-30T18:03:28Z

Lydiamul: /* Analysis methods */

Carbon-14

2025-03-30T17:51:55Z

Carbon-14

2025-03-29T19:17:09Z

Lydiamul:

[[File:C-14.png|350px|thumb|right|Carbon-14 atom with 6 protons, 8 neutrons, and 6 electrons [1]]]

==''' Overview '''==

Carbon-14, also referred to as 14C or radiocarbon, is one of the three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon in nature. 14C is unstable, and has a half-life of 5700 +/- 30 years [1]. The other two forms of carbon are 12C, which is what makes up 98% of all carbon in the atmosphere, and 13C, which makes up around 1% of atmospheric carbon. Both 12C and 13C are stable isotopes, while 14C is unstable. Within the context of [[ecology]], 14C is used in two main processes: dating organic materials and tracing carbon pathways within ecosystems.

== Uses ==
[[File:TreeDating.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Cross dating tree rings]]
===Tree Ring Dating===
The suspected primary role of EPS is to create stable habitat bound to a desired substrate<ref name=Flemming_2016 />. EPS is the matrix structure of biofilms. Biofilms are very effective at retaining water in soils even with very negative water potentials.<ref name=Or_2007 /> This allows microbes to resist desiccation during drought periods. EPS can also stabilize pH and reduce the amount of nutrients lost to runoff by binding to them.

===Carbon-14 Tracing===
EPS provides a stable interface for [[soil]] microbes to chemically work on attached substrate and suspended materials. In addition EPS can act as a store of carbon and other nutrients. The binding nature of EPS also helps reduce nutrient loss in soils from runoff.<ref>Lin, D., Ma, W., Jin, Z., Wang, Y., Huang, Q., Cai, P., 2016. Interactions of EPS with soil minerals: A combination study by ITC and CLSM. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 138, 10–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.11.026</ref>

[[File:HowTreesTalk.jpg|376px|thumb|right|Theoretical functions of soil EPS<ref name=Costa_2018 />]]
===Hydrology===
EPS affects evaporation and flow of water directly and through alterations to the functional soil structure. EPS resists evaporation and slows flow by absorbing and binding water tightly. Also, the biofilm structures formed with EPS can cause bioclogging of pores which blocks evaporation and mass flow of water by reducing the hydraulic conductivity<ref name=Deng_2015 /><ref name=Or_2007 />. This slows the overall rate of change in soil moisture content making for a more stable environment.

===[[Soil Structures]]===
EPS production fills pore space which reduces the effective [[porosity]] of the soil. Also, the swelling shrinking actions of EPS water intake and loss can alter the pore space but there remains a lack of literature differentiating this effect in bulk soil<ref name=Deng_2015 />.
EPS plays a key role in soil [[aggregate formation]] by working as a cementing agent. This has the added effect of reducing soil slaking and increasing overall stability. This added stability can lower erosion rates and decrease nutrient runoff.

===Plants===
EPS play a role in holding microbes to roots or in the [[rhizosphere]] and act as the medium for symbiotic microbes to exchange nutrients in exchange for root exudates<ref name=Costa_2018 />. The microbes, through the effects of EPS and release of nutrients, stimulate the the exudate release by the roots which introduces fresh carbon sources to the rhizosphere. There is also evidence to suggest EPS assists in salinity tolerance for some plants.<ref name=Ashraf_2004>Ashraf, M., Hasnain, S., Berge, O., Mahmood, T., 2004. Inoculating wheat seedlings with exopolysaccharide-producing bacteria restricts sodium uptake and stimulates plant growth under salt stress. Biol Fertil Soils 40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-004-0766-y</ref>

===Agriculture===
There is growing interest in using EPS producing bacteria in agricultural settings. EPS improves soil particle aggregation which is an issue common to traditional agricultural practices in may parts of the world. Also, EPS producing bacteria improve nutrient availability to plants, increase water stability, and stimulate root growth.<ref name=Costa_2018 />

==Analysis methods==
Cation exchange resin (CER) extraction is currently considered the best method for accurately extracting EPS from soils.<ref name=Redmile-Gordon_2014>Redmile-Gordon, M.A., Brookes, P.C., Evershed, R.P., Goulding, K.W.T., Hirsch, P.R., 2014. Measuring the soil-microbial interface: Extraction of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) from soil biofilms. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 72, 163–171.</ref>This method shows the highest efficency with the least amount of modification to the original EPS composition when compared to other methods. This method works by replacing cations in the material being sampled. This destabilizes the structure and allows for separation through filtration and/or centrifuge.

==References==
{{reflist}}

File:TreeDating.jpg

2025-03-29T19:16:03Z

Lydiamul: Lydiamul uploaded a new version of File:TreeDating.jpg

2025-03-29T19:11:00Z

Lydiamul: Lydiamul uploaded a new version of File:C-14.png

Carbon-14

2025-03-29T17:52:41Z

Lydiamul:

[[File:C-14.png|502px|thumb|right|Carbon-14 atom with 6 protons, 8 neutrons, and 6 electrons]]

==''' Overview '''==

Carbon-14, also referred to as 14C or radiocarbon, is one of the three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon in nature. 14C is unstable, and has a half-life of 5700 +/- 30 years [1]. The other two forms of carbon are 12C, which is what makes up 98% of all carbon in the atmosphere, and 13C, which makes up around 1% of atmospheric carbon. Both 12C and 13C are stable isotopes, while 14C is unstable. Within the context of [[ecology]], 14C is used in two main processes: dating organic materials and tracing carbon pathways within ecosystems.

== Uses ==
[[File:fmicb-09-01636-g002.jpg|thumb|left|EPS works at the smallest levels of soil aggregate formation[Costa et al. 2018]]]
===Tree Ring Dating===
The suspected primary role of EPS is to create stable habitat bound to a desired substrate<ref name=Flemming_2016 />. EPS is the matrix structure of biofilms. Biofilms are very effective at retaining water in soils even with very negative water potentials.<ref name=Or_2007 /> This allows microbes to resist desiccation during drought periods. EPS can also stabilize pH and reduce the amount of nutrients lost to runoff by binding to them.

===Carbon-14 Tracing===
EPS provides a stable interface for [[soil]] microbes to chemically work on attached substrate and suspended materials. In addition EPS can act as a store of carbon and other nutrients. The binding nature of EPS also helps reduce nutrient loss in soils from runoff.<ref>Lin, D., Ma, W., Jin, Z., Wang, Y., Huang, Q., Cai, P., 2016. Interactions of EPS with soil minerals: A combination study by ITC and CLSM. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 138, 10–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.11.026</ref>

[[File:HowTreesTalk.jpg|376px|thumb|right|Theoretical functions of soil EPS<ref name=Costa_2018 />]]
===Hydrology===
EPS affects evaporation and flow of water directly and through alterations to the functional soil structure. EPS resists evaporation and slows flow by absorbing and binding water tightly. Also, the biofilm structures formed with EPS can cause bioclogging of pores which blocks evaporation and mass flow of water by reducing the hydraulic conductivity<ref name=Deng_2015 /><ref name=Or_2007 />. This slows the overall rate of change in soil moisture content making for a more stable environment.

===[[Soil Structures]]===
EPS production fills pore space which reduces the effective [[porosity]] of the soil. Also, the swelling shrinking actions of EPS water intake and loss can alter the pore space but there remains a lack of literature differentiating this effect in bulk soil<ref name=Deng_2015 />.
EPS plays a key role in soil [[aggregate formation]] by working as a cementing agent. This has the added effect of reducing soil slaking and increasing overall stability. This added stability can lower erosion rates and decrease nutrient runoff.

===Plants===
EPS play a role in holding microbes to roots or in the [[rhizosphere]] and act as the medium for symbiotic microbes to exchange nutrients in exchange for root exudates<ref name=Costa_2018 />. The microbes, through the effects of EPS and release of nutrients, stimulate the the exudate release by the roots which introduces fresh carbon sources to the rhizosphere. There is also evidence to suggest EPS assists in salinity tolerance for some plants.<ref name=Ashraf_2004>Ashraf, M., Hasnain, S., Berge, O., Mahmood, T., 2004. Inoculating wheat seedlings with exopolysaccharide-producing bacteria restricts sodium uptake and stimulates plant growth under salt stress. Biol Fertil Soils 40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-004-0766-y</ref>

===Agriculture===
There is growing interest in using EPS producing bacteria in agricultural settings. EPS improves soil particle aggregation which is an issue common to traditional agricultural practices in may parts of the world. Also, EPS producing bacteria improve nutrient availability to plants, increase water stability, and stimulate root growth.<ref name=Costa_2018 />

==Analysis methods==
Cation exchange resin (CER) extraction is currently considered the best method for accurately extracting EPS from soils.<ref name=Redmile-Gordon_2014>Redmile-Gordon, M.A., Brookes, P.C., Evershed, R.P., Goulding, K.W.T., Hirsch, P.R., 2014. Measuring the soil-microbial interface: Extraction of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) from soil biofilms. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 72, 163–171.</ref>This method shows the highest efficency with the least amount of modification to the original EPS composition when compared to other methods. This method works by replacing cations in the material being sampled. This destabilizes the structure and allows for separation through filtration and/or centrifuge.

==References==
{{reflist}}

File:HowTreesTalk.jpg

2025-03-29T17:52:09Z

Lydiamul: Lydiamul uploaded a new version of File:HowTreesTalk.jpg

Carbon-14

2025-03-29T17:43:59Z

Lydiamul:

[[File:C-14.png|502px|thumb|right|EPS binding soil particles taken by an election scanning microscope.<ref>Aalexopo, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Biofilm_Formation.jpg.CC BY-SA 3.0</ref> The spherical and tube shapes are soil micorbes and the connecting structure is made out of EPS]]

==''' Overview '''==

Carbon-14, also referred to as 14C or radiocarbon, is one of the three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon in nature. 14C is unstable, and has a half-life of 5700 +/- 30 years [1]. The other two forms of carbon are 12C, which is what makes up 98% of all carbon in the atmosphere, and 13C, which makes up around 1% of atmospheric carbon. Both 12C and 13C are stable isotopes, while 14C is unstable. Within the context of [[ecology]], 14C is used in two main processes: dating organic materials and tracing carbon pathways within ecosystems.

== Uses ==
[[File:fmicb-09-01636-g002.jpg|thumb|left|EPS works at the smallest levels of soil aggregate formation[Costa et al. 2018]]]
===Tree Ring Dating===
The suspected primary role of EPS is to create stable habitat bound to a desired substrate<ref name=Flemming_2016 />. EPS is the matrix structure of biofilms. Biofilms are very effective at retaining water in soils even with very negative water potentials.<ref name=Or_2007 /> This allows microbes to resist desiccation during drought periods. EPS can also stabilize pH and reduce the amount of nutrients lost to runoff by binding to them.

===Carbon-14 Tracing===
EPS provides a stable interface for [[soil]] microbes to chemically work on attached substrate and suspended materials. In addition EPS can act as a store of carbon and other nutrients. The binding nature of EPS also helps reduce nutrient loss in soils from runoff.<ref>Lin, D., Ma, W., Jin, Z., Wang, Y., Huang, Q., Cai, P., 2016. Interactions of EPS with soil minerals: A combination study by ITC and CLSM. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 138, 10–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.11.026</ref>

[[File:fmicb-09-01636-g001.jpg|thumb|right|Theoretical functions of soil EPS<ref name=Costa_2018 />]]
===Hydrology===
EPS affects evaporation and flow of water directly and through alterations to the functional soil structure. EPS resists evaporation and slows flow by absorbing and binding water tightly. Also, the biofilm structures formed with EPS can cause bioclogging of pores which blocks evaporation and mass flow of water by reducing the hydraulic conductivity<ref name=Deng_2015 /><ref name=Or_2007 />. This slows the overall rate of change in soil moisture content making for a more stable environment.

===[[Soil Structures]]===
EPS production fills pore space which reduces the effective [[porosity]] of the soil. Also, the swelling shrinking actions of EPS water intake and loss can alter the pore space but there remains a lack of literature differentiating this effect in bulk soil<ref name=Deng_2015 />.
EPS plays a key role in soil [[aggregate formation]] by working as a cementing agent. This has the added effect of reducing soil slaking and increasing overall stability. This added stability can lower erosion rates and decrease nutrient runoff.

===Plants===
EPS play a role in holding microbes to roots or in the [[rhizosphere]] and act as the medium for symbiotic microbes to exchange nutrients in exchange for root exudates<ref name=Costa_2018 />. The microbes, through the effects of EPS and release of nutrients, stimulate the the exudate release by the roots which introduces fresh carbon sources to the rhizosphere. There is also evidence to suggest EPS assists in salinity tolerance for some plants.<ref name=Ashraf_2004>Ashraf, M., Hasnain, S., Berge, O., Mahmood, T., 2004. Inoculating wheat seedlings with exopolysaccharide-producing bacteria restricts sodium uptake and stimulates plant growth under salt stress. Biol Fertil Soils 40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-004-0766-y</ref>

===Agriculture===
There is growing interest in using EPS producing bacteria in agricultural settings. EPS improves soil particle aggregation which is an issue common to traditional agricultural practices in may parts of the world. Also, EPS producing bacteria improve nutrient availability to plants, increase water stability, and stimulate root growth.<ref name=Costa_2018 />

==Analysis methods==
Cation exchange resin (CER) extraction is currently considered the best method for accurately extracting EPS from soils.<ref name=Redmile-Gordon_2014>Redmile-Gordon, M.A., Brookes, P.C., Evershed, R.P., Goulding, K.W.T., Hirsch, P.R., 2014. Measuring the soil-microbial interface: Extraction of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) from soil biofilms. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 72, 163–171.</ref>This method shows the highest efficency with the least amount of modification to the original EPS composition when compared to other methods. This method works by replacing cations in the material being sampled. This destabilizes the structure and allows for separation through filtration and/or centrifuge.

==References==
{{reflist}}

File:C-14.png

2025-03-29T17:40:14Z

Lydiamul: