Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Dung Beetle

2025-05-02T03:12:43Z

Linares4: /* Behavior */

Dung Beetles are beetles that feed on feces. They can also be known as sarabs. These are the same beetles that are found in many paintings and jewelry of the sacred scarab of Ancient Egypt. The beetle rolling its ball of dung, with the ball representing the Earth, and the beetle is the sun. They are round with short wing covers (elytra) that expose the end of the abdomen. Usually dark in color, the male's head will have a curved horn at the top in some species.[1] In some species, the ball of manure can be as large as an apple.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-right: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Dung-Beetle.jpg|400px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Coleoptera]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Scarabaeidae
|-
|}

==Habitat and Range==
They are found on every continent except Antarctica. They can inhabit a wide variety of habitats such as deserts, grasslands, savannas, farmlands, and forests. They can thrive in many environments, from hot, dry deserts to lush forests. [2]

==Behavior==
These small [[insects]] are recyclers. They can help by speeding up the [[decomposition]] of dung and cycling nutrients into the [[soil]]. As mentioned, the beetles can form manure into a ball using their scooper-like head and paddle-shaped antennae. This can help control the fly population by eating dung, which reduces fly breeding grounds. During the early part of summer, the dung buries itself in the ball and feeds on it. As time passes by, the female will eventually lay her eggs in the ball of dung, on which the larvae will feed later.

Many other ways can include improving soil hydrological [[properties]], reducing greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing soil [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]], and suppressing human and livestock pathogens. [4]

[[File:Dung_Beetle_LifeCycle.jpg|thumb|Stages of dung beetle Source: ABC Education [6]]]

==Diet==
All they eat is undigested matter in the waste of [[animals]] like cows, sheep, and camels. This is known as coprophagy (eating feces). The more fresh it is the more they like it because they can suck out the liquids from it [3]. They have sharp mouthparts that allow them to chomp through coarse droppings. [5]

Different behaviors of feeding include:
<li>Rollers </li>
 Form the pat into balls that are rolled to a suitable site and buried.
<li> Tunnelers </li>
 Consume the dung pat and burrow into the soil beneath the pat.
<li>Manure Dwellers </li>
 The manure pat and deposit their eggs either in the same place or in the soil adjacent to the pat.

== References ==
[1]The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Dung beetle | Adaptations, Behavior & Diet. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/animal/dung-beetle

[2] Dung Beetle | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants. (n.d.). https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/dung-beetle

[3] The Sacred Dung Beetles of Ancient Egypt | Kids Discover Online. (n.d.). Kids Discover Online. https://online.kidsdiscover.com/quickread/the-sacred-dung-beetles-of-ancient-egypt

[4]Dung Beetles: How to Identify and Benefit from Nature’s Pooper Scoopers | eOrganic. (n.d.). https://eorganic.org/node/23262#:~:text=of%20pest%20flies.-,Feeding%20Behavior,Debra%20Murphy%2C%20realagriculture.com

[5]UK beetles: 17 of the most spectacular and beautiful | Natural History Museum. (2020, June 10). https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/uk-beetles-british-most-spectacular-and-beautiful.html

[6] Education, A. (2022, June 1). Life cycle of dung beetles. ABC Education. https://www.abc.net.au/education/life-cycle-of-dung-beetles/13909580

Dung Beetle

2025-05-02T03:10:36Z

Linares4: /* Behavior */

Dung Beetles are beetles that feed on feces. They can also be known as sarabs. These are the same beetles that are found in many paintings and jewelry of the sacred scarab of Ancient Egypt. The beetle rolling its ball of dung, with the ball representing the Earth, and the beetle is the sun. They are round with short wing covers (elytra) that expose the end of the abdomen. Usually dark in color, the male's head will have a curved horn at the top in some species.[1] In some species, the ball of manure can be as large as an apple.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-right: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Dung-Beetle.jpg|400px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Coleoptera]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Scarabaeidae
|-
|}

==Habitat and Range==
They are found on every continent except Antarctica. They can inhabit a wide variety of habitats such as deserts, grasslands, savannas, farmlands, and forests. They can thrive in many environments, from hot, dry deserts to lush forests. [2]

==Behavior==
These small [[insects]] are recyclers. They can help by speeding up the [[decomposition]] of dung and cycling nutrients into the [[soil]]. As mentioned, the beetles can form manure into a ball using their scooper-like head and paddle-shaped antennae. This can help control the fly population by eating dung, which reduces fly breeding grounds. During the early part of summer, the dung buries itself in the ball and feeds on it. As time passes by, the female will eventually lay her eggs in the ball of dung, on which the larvae will feed later.

Many other ways can include improving soil hydrological [[properties]], reducing greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing soil [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]], and suppressing human and livestock pathogens. [4]

[[File:Dung_Beetle_LifeCycle.jpg|thumb|Stages of dung beetle]]

==Diet==
All they eat is undigested matter in the waste of [[animals]] like cows, sheep, and camels. This is known as coprophagy (eating feces). The more fresh it is the more they like it because they can suck out the liquids from it [3]. They have sharp mouthparts that allow them to chomp through coarse droppings. [5]

Different behaviors of feeding include:
<li>Rollers </li>
 Form the pat into balls that are rolled to a suitable site and buried.
<li> Tunnelers </li>
 Consume the dung pat and burrow into the soil beneath the pat.
<li>Manure Dwellers </li>
 The manure pat and deposit their eggs either in the same place or in the soil adjacent to the pat.

== References ==
[1]The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Dung beetle | Adaptations, Behavior & Diet. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/animal/dung-beetle

[2] Dung Beetle | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants. (n.d.). https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/dung-beetle

[3] The Sacred Dung Beetles of Ancient Egypt | Kids Discover Online. (n.d.). Kids Discover Online. https://online.kidsdiscover.com/quickread/the-sacred-dung-beetles-of-ancient-egypt

[4]Dung Beetles: How to Identify and Benefit from Nature’s Pooper Scoopers | eOrganic. (n.d.). https://eorganic.org/node/23262#:~:text=of%20pest%20flies.-,Feeding%20Behavior,Debra%20Murphy%2C%20realagriculture.com

[5]UK beetles: 17 of the most spectacular and beautiful | Natural History Museum. (2020, June 10). https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/uk-beetles-british-most-spectacular-and-beautiful.html

[6] Education, A. (2022, June 1). Life cycle of dung beetles. ABC Education. https://www.abc.net.au/education/life-cycle-of-dung-beetles/13909580

Sphaeriidae

2025-05-02T02:51:25Z

Linares4: /* References */

'''Sphaeriidae''' (also known as pea clams or fingernail clams) is a family of small, freshwater bivalves in the order Sphaeriida and consists of 10 genera with 154 species. They are both hermaphrodites and ovoviviparous, giving birth to young that resemble miniature versions of adults [1].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Fingernail-clams-on-hand_(1).jpg |500px|)]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Mullusca
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bivalvia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Sphaeridda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Sphaerioidea
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Goliad Farms [8]
|}

== Identification ==

Shells are usually rounded or oval, but some species have more of a trigonal or tetragonal shape. The colors range from pale yellow or white to chestnut or dark brown [2]. The size can range from <3mm in the smallest species (pisidium punctatum) to approximately 25mm for the largest (spharium simile) [2]. They can be easily missed in the field stream studies because of their small size. Juvenile shells are more yellow. Sphaeriidaes can live up to 3 years and mature at 4mm [4].

== Habitat and Range ==

Native in Eurasia [4]. In North America, native species of sphaeriids have a broad distribution, often ranging from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. They can be found in aquatic habitats, from large lakes and rivers to springs, bogs, and [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. But unlike mussels, Sphaeriidae will not burrow very deep into the sediment (<3mm). They usually occur in large numbers [5]. They are most common in the sandy or muddy sediments of lakes, slow-flowing streams, seepage, and swamp habitats [6].

== Life History ==

Shariid life history traits include their viviparous reproduction. This means they brood their young internally. The embryos develop within specialized chambers, supplied with maternal nutrients, and are released as fully formed miniature adults. Even though adult sphaeriids are the smallest of all North American freshwater bivalves, they release the largest young. The average birth shell length ranged from 0.6 to 4.15 mm. Seasonal water availability fluctuations and hypoxia associated with their habitats have also influenced the development of juveniles, as they are more susceptible to environmental stress. This can cause high adult mortality. They devote more energy to reproduction than other freshwater bivalves. The term “bet-hedging” has been used to describe the mixture of r- and K-selective traits allowing for increased fitness in environments with periodic, predictable stress [7].

[[File:Clam_on_a_blue_spotted_salamander.PNG|200px|thumb|right|A Pea Clam, ''Pisidium adamsi'', attached to the hindfoot of a [[Blue-spotted salamander]], ''Ambystoma laterale'' (Photo by [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28008062 R.E. Merrick]).]]

== Research ==

Since sphaeriids are hermaphrodites, they have an invasive dispersal pattern, as only one individual is theoretically needed to establish a population. Mechanisms for aiding in dispersal include juveniles clamping down on parts of another organism such as aquatic [[insects]], water fowl, and [[salamanders]][8]. They effectively use the other organism as transport to a new environment where they can detach.

== References ==

# Allaby, Michael. A Dictionary of Zoology, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=6230105.
# Frankiewicz, Adam. Guideline for Field Collecting and Preserving Sphaeriidae Clams, for DNA and Taxonomic Research (First Draft). 2018.
# Benson, Amy. “European Fingernail Clam (Sphaerium Corneum) - Species Profile.” USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, 2025, nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=131. Accessed 2 May 2025.
# “Identification and [[Ecology]] of Australian Freshwater [[Invertebrates]].” Mdfrc.org.au, 2025, www.mdfrc.org.au/bugguide/display.asp?class=22&subclass=&order=59&Couplet=0&Type=3. Accessed 2 May 2025.
# Kilgour, B. W., Mackie, G. L. 1988. Factors affecting the distribution of sphaeriid bivalves in Britannia Bay of the Ottawa River. Nautilus 102:73 – 77. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8276899.
# Byrne, R. A., McMahon, R. F. 1994. Behavioral and physiological responses to emersion in freshwater bivalves. American Zoologist 34:194 – 204. https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/3883685.
# Holopainen, I. J., Hanski, I. 1986. Life history variation in Pisidium . Holarctic Ecology 9:85 – 98. https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/3682082.
# Sibly, R. M., Calow, P. 1986. Physiological ecology of [[animals]]: an evolutionary approach. Blackwell, London. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2829513.
# Mackie, G. L. 1984. Bivalves. in: Tompa, A. S., Verdonk, N. H., van der Biggelaar, J. A. M. Eds. The Mollusca. Vol. 7: Reproduction. Academic Press, New York, pp. 351 – 418. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990002424480204803.
# Stearns, S. C. 1980. A new view of life-history evolution. Oikos 35:266 – 281. https://doi-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/10.2307/3544434.
# Davis, D. S., Gilhen, J. 1982. An observation of the transportation of pea clams, Pisidium adamsi, by bluespotted salamanders, Ambystoma laterale. The Canadian Naturalist 96:213 – 215. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28008061.
#“European [[Fingernail Clam]] (Sphaerium Corneum) - Species Profile.” USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=131. Accessed 6 Mar. 2025.

Sphaeriidae

2025-05-02T02:31:22Z

Linares4:

'''Sphaeriidae''' (also known as pea clams or fingernail clams) is a family of small, freshwater bivalves in the order Sphaeriida and consists of 10 genera with 154 species. They are both hermaphrodites and ovoviviparous, giving birth to young that resemble miniature versions of adults [1].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Fingernail-clams-on-hand_(1).jpg |500px|)]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Mullusca
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bivalvia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Sphaeridda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Sphaerioidea
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Goliad Farms [8]
|}

== Identification ==

Shells are usually rounded or oval, but some species have more of a trigonal or tetragonal shape. The colors range from pale yellow or white to chestnut or dark brown [2]. The size can range from <3mm in the smallest species (pisidium punctatum) to approximately 25mm for the largest (spharium simile) [2]. They can be easily missed in the field stream studies because of their small size. Juvenile shells are more yellow. Sphaeriidaes can live up to 3 years and mature at 4mm [4].

== Habitat and Range ==

Native in Eurasia [4]. In North America, native species of sphaeriids have a broad distribution, often ranging from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. They can be found in aquatic habitats, from large lakes and rivers to springs, bogs, and [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. But unlike mussels, Sphaeriidae will not burrow very deep into the sediment (<3mm). They usually occur in large numbers [5]. They are most common in the sandy or muddy sediments of lakes, slow-flowing streams, seepage, and swamp habitats [6].

== Life History ==

Shariid life history traits include their viviparous reproduction. This means they brood their young internally. The embryos develop within specialized chambers, supplied with maternal nutrients, and are released as fully formed miniature adults. Even though adult sphaeriids are the smallest of all North American freshwater bivalves, they release the largest young. The average birth shell length ranged from 0.6 to 4.15 mm. Seasonal water availability fluctuations and hypoxia associated with their habitats have also influenced the development of juveniles, as they are more susceptible to environmental stress. This can cause high adult mortality. They devote more energy to reproduction than other freshwater bivalves. The term “bet-hedging” has been used to describe the mixture of r- and K-selective traits allowing for increased fitness in environments with periodic, predictable stress [7].

[[File:Clam_on_a_blue_spotted_salamander.PNG|200px|thumb|right|A Pea Clam, ''Pisidium adamsi'', attached to the hindfoot of a [[Blue-spotted salamander]], ''Ambystoma laterale'' (Photo by [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28008062 R.E. Merrick]).]]

== Research ==

Since sphaeriids are hermaphrodites, they have an invasive dispersal pattern, as only one individual is theoretically needed to establish a population. Mechanisms for aiding in dispersal include juveniles clamping down on parts of another organism such as aquatic [[insects]], water fowl, and [[salamanders]][8]. They effectively use the other organism as transport to a new environment where they can detach.

== References ==

# Allaby, Michael. A Dictionary of Zoology, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=6230105.
# McMahon, Robert. (2000). Invasive characteristics of the freshwater bivalve Corbicula fulminea. Nonindigenous Freshwater [[Organisms]]: Vectors, Bilogy, and Impacts (2000), pp 315-343. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990020146270204803.
# Burky, A. J. 1983. Physiological [[ecology]] of freshwater bivalves. in: Russell-Hunter, W. D., Ed. The Mollusca. Vol. 6 : Ecology. Academic Press, New York, pp. 281 – 327. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990002424480204803.
# Lopez, G. R., Holopainen, I. J. 1987. Interstitial suspension-feeding by Pisidium sp. (Pisididae: Bivalvia): a new guild in the lentic benthos? American Malacological Bulletin 5:21 – 30. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/45940177.
# Kilgour, B. W., Mackie, G. L. 1988. Factors affecting the distribution of sphaeriid bivalves in Britannia Bay of the Ottawa River. Nautilus 102:73 – 77. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8276899.
# Byrne, R. A., McMahon, R. F. 1994. Behavioral and physiological responses to emersion in freshwater bivalves. American Zoologist 34:194 – 204. https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/3883685.
# Holopainen, I. J., Hanski, I. 1986. Life history variation in Pisidium . Holarctic Ecology 9:85 – 98. https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/3682082.
# Sibly, R. M., Calow, P. 1986. Physiological ecology of [[animals]]: an evolutionary approach. Blackwell, London. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2829513.
# Mackie, G. L. 1984. Bivalves. in: Tompa, A. S., Verdonk, N. H., van der Biggelaar, J. A. M. Eds. The Mollusca. Vol. 7: Reproduction. Academic Press, New York, pp. 351 – 418. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990002424480204803.
# Stearns, S. C. 1980. A new view of life-history evolution. Oikos 35:266 – 281. https://doi-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/10.2307/3544434.
# Davis, D. S., Gilhen, J. 1982. An observation of the transportation of pea clams, Pisidium adamsi, by bluespotted salamanders, Ambystoma laterale. The Canadian Naturalist 96:213 – 215. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28008061.
#“European [[Fingernail Clam]] (Sphaerium Corneum) - Species Profile.” USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=131. Accessed 6 Mar. 2025.

Sphaeriidae

2025-05-02T02:30:48Z

Linares4:

'''Sphaeriidae''' (also known as pea clams or fingernail clams) is a family of small, freshwater bivalves in the order Sphaeriida and consists of 10 genera with 154 species. They are both hermaphrodites and ovoviviparous, giving birth to young that resemble miniature versions of adults [1].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Fingernail-clams-on-hand_(1).jpg |500px|)]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Mullusca
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bivalvia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Sphaeridda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Sphaerioidea
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Goliad Farms [8]
|}

== Identification ==

Shells are usually rounded or oval, but some species have more of a trigonal or tetragonal shape. The colors range from pale yellow or white to chestnut or dark brown [2]. The size can range from <3mm in the smallest species (pisidium punctatum) to approximately 25mm for the largest (spharium simile) [2]. They can be easily missed in the field stream studies because of their small size. Juvenile shells are more yellow. Sphaeriidaes can live up to 3 years and mature at 4mm [4].

== Habitat and Range ==

Native in Eurasia [4]. In North America, native species of sphaeriids have a broad distribution, often ranging from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. They can be found in aquatic habitats, from large lakes and rivers to springs, bogs, and [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. But unlike mussels, Sphaeriidae will not burrow very deep into the sediment (<3mm). They usually occur in large numbers [5]. They are most common in the sandy or muddy sediments of lakes, slow-flowing streams, seepage, and swamp habitats [6].

== Life History ==

Shariid life history traits include their viviparous reproduction. This means they brood their young internally. The embryos develop within specialized chambers, supplied with maternal nutrients, and are released as fully formed miniature adults. Even though adult sphaeriids are the smallest of all North American freshwater bivalves, they release the largest young. The average birth shell length ranged from 0.6 to 4.15 mm. Seasonal water availability fluctuations and hypoxia associated with their habitats have also influenced the development of juveniles, as they are more susceptible to environmental stress. This can cause high adult mortality. They devote more energy to reproduction than other freshwater bivalves. The term “bet-hedging” has been used to describe the mixture of r- and K-selective traits allowing for increased fitness in environments with periodic, predictable stress [7].

[[File:Clam_on_a_blue_spotted_salamander.PNG|200px|thumb|right|A Pea Clam, ''Pisidium adamsi'', attached to the hindfoot of a [[Blue-spotted salamander]], ''Ambystoma laterale'' (Photo by [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28008062 R.E. Merrick]).]]

== Research ==

Since sphaeriids are hermaphrodites, they have an invasive dispersal pattern, as only one individual is theoretically needed to establish a population. Mechanisms for aiding in dispersal include juveniles clamping down on parts of another organism such as aquatic [[insects]], water fowl, and [[salamanders]][8]. They effectively use the other organism as transport to a new environment where they can detach.

== References ==

# Allaby, Michael. A Dictionary of Zoology, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=6230105.
# McMahon, Robert. (2000). Invasive characteristics of the freshwater bivalve Corbicula fulminea. Nonindigenous Freshwater [[Organisms]]: Vectors, Bilogy, and Impacts (2000), pp 315-343. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990020146270204803.
# Burky, A. J. 1983. Physiological [[ecology]] of freshwater bivalves. in: Russell-Hunter, W. D., Ed. The Mollusca. Vol. 6 : Ecology. Academic Press, New York, pp. 281 – 327. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990002424480204803.
# Lopez, G. R., Holopainen, I. J. 1987. Interstitial suspension-feeding by Pisidium sp. (Pisididae: Bivalvia): a new guild in the lentic benthos? American Malacological Bulletin 5:21 – 30. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/45940177.
# Kilgour, B. W., Mackie, G. L. 1988. Factors affecting the distribution of sphaeriid bivalves in Britannia Bay of the Ottawa River. Nautilus 102:73 – 77. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8276899.
# Byrne, R. A., McMahon, R. F. 1994. Behavioral and physiological responses to emersion in freshwater bivalves. American Zoologist 34:194 – 204. https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/3883685.
# Holopainen, I. J., Hanski, I. 1986. Life history variation in Pisidium . Holarctic Ecology 9:85 – 98. https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/3682082.
# Sibly, R. M., Calow, P. 1986. Physiological ecology of [[animals]]: an evolutionary approach. Blackwell, London. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2829513.
# Mackie, G. L. 1984. Bivalves. in: Tompa, A. S., Verdonk, N. H., van der Biggelaar, J. A. M. Eds. The Mollusca. Vol. 7: Reproduction. Academic Press, New York, pp. 351 – 418. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990002424480204803.
# Stearns, S. C. 1980. A new view of life-history evolution. Oikos 35:266 – 281. https://doi-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/10.2307/3544434.
# Davis, D. S., Gilhen, J. 1982. An observation of the transportation of pea clams, Pisidium adamsi, by bluespotted salamanders, Ambystoma laterale. The Canadian Naturalist 96:213 – 215. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28008061.
#“European [[Fingernail Clam]] (Sphaerium Corneum) - Species Profile.” USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=131. Accessed 6 Mar. 2025.

Sphaeriidae

2025-05-02T02:29:17Z

Linares4:

'''Sphaeriidae''' (also known as pea clams or fingernail clams) is a family of small, freshwater bivalves in the order Sphaeriida and consists of 10 genera with 154 species. They are both hermaphrodites and ovoviviparous, giving birth to young that resemble miniature versions of adults [1].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Fingernail-clams-on-hand_(1).jpg |500px|)]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Chordata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Amphibia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Urodela
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Salamandridae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Notophthalmus''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''N. viridescens''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Goliad Farms [8]
|}

== Identification ==

Shells are usually rounded or oval, but some species have more of a trigonal or tetragonal shape. The colors range from pale yellow or white to chestnut or dark brown [2]. The size can range from <3mm in the smallest species (pisidium punctatum) to approximately 25mm for the largest (spharium simile) [2]. They can be easily missed in the field stream studies because of their small size. Juvenile shells are more yellow. Sphaeriidaes can live up to 3 years and mature at 4mm [4].

== Habitat and Range ==

Native in Eurasia [4]. In North America, native species of sphaeriids have a broad distribution, often ranging from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. They can be found in aquatic habitats, from large lakes and rivers to springs, bogs, and [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. But unlike mussels, Sphaeriidae will not burrow very deep into the sediment (<3mm). They usually occur in large numbers [5]. They are most common in the sandy or muddy sediments of lakes, slow-flowing streams, seepage, and swamp habitats [6].

== Life History ==

Shariid life history traits include their viviparous reproduction. This means they brood their young internally. The embryos develop within specialized chambers, supplied with maternal nutrients, and are released as fully formed miniature adults. Even though adult sphaeriids are the smallest of all North American freshwater bivalves, they release the largest young. The average birth shell length ranged from 0.6 to 4.15 mm. Seasonal water availability fluctuations and hypoxia associated with their habitats have also influenced the development of juveniles, as they are more susceptible to environmental stress. This can cause high adult mortality. They devote more energy to reproduction than other freshwater bivalves. The term “bet-hedging” has been used to describe the mixture of r- and K-selective traits allowing for increased fitness in environments with periodic, predictable stress [7].

[[File:Clam_on_a_blue_spotted_salamander.PNG|200px|thumb|right|A Pea Clam, ''Pisidium adamsi'', attached to the hindfoot of a [[Blue-spotted salamander]], ''Ambystoma laterale'' (Photo by [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28008062 R.E. Merrick]).]]

== Research ==

Since sphaeriids are hermaphrodites, they have an invasive dispersal pattern, as only one individual is theoretically needed to establish a population. Mechanisms for aiding in dispersal include juveniles clamping down on parts of another organism such as aquatic [[insects]], water fowl, and [[salamanders]][8]. They effectively use the other organism as transport to a new environment where they can detach.

== References ==

# Allaby, Michael. A Dictionary of Zoology, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=6230105.
# McMahon, Robert. (2000). Invasive characteristics of the freshwater bivalve Corbicula fulminea. Nonindigenous Freshwater [[Organisms]]: Vectors, Bilogy, and Impacts (2000), pp 315-343. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990020146270204803.
# Burky, A. J. 1983. Physiological [[ecology]] of freshwater bivalves. in: Russell-Hunter, W. D., Ed. The Mollusca. Vol. 6 : Ecology. Academic Press, New York, pp. 281 – 327. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990002424480204803.
# Lopez, G. R., Holopainen, I. J. 1987. Interstitial suspension-feeding by Pisidium sp. (Pisididae: Bivalvia): a new guild in the lentic benthos? American Malacological Bulletin 5:21 – 30. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/45940177.
# Kilgour, B. W., Mackie, G. L. 1988. Factors affecting the distribution of sphaeriid bivalves in Britannia Bay of the Ottawa River. Nautilus 102:73 – 77. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8276899.
# Byrne, R. A., McMahon, R. F. 1994. Behavioral and physiological responses to emersion in freshwater bivalves. American Zoologist 34:194 – 204. https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/3883685.
# Holopainen, I. J., Hanski, I. 1986. Life history variation in Pisidium . Holarctic Ecology 9:85 – 98. https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/3682082.
# Sibly, R. M., Calow, P. 1986. Physiological ecology of [[animals]]: an evolutionary approach. Blackwell, London. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2829513.
# Mackie, G. L. 1984. Bivalves. in: Tompa, A. S., Verdonk, N. H., van der Biggelaar, J. A. M. Eds. The Mollusca. Vol. 7: Reproduction. Academic Press, New York, pp. 351 – 418. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990002424480204803.
# Stearns, S. C. 1980. A new view of life-history evolution. Oikos 35:266 – 281. https://doi-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/10.2307/3544434.
# Davis, D. S., Gilhen, J. 1982. An observation of the transportation of pea clams, Pisidium adamsi, by bluespotted salamanders, Ambystoma laterale. The Canadian Naturalist 96:213 – 215. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28008061.
#“European [[Fingernail Clam]] (Sphaerium Corneum) - Species Profile.” USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=131. Accessed 6 Mar. 2025.

Sphaeriidae

2025-05-02T02:28:04Z

Linares4:

'''Sphaeriidae''' (also known as pea clams or fingernail clams) is a family of small, freshwater bivalves in the order Sphaeriida and consists of 10 genera with 154 species. They are both hermaphrodites and ovoviviparous, giving birth to young that resemble miniature versions of adults [1].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Fingernail-clams-on-hand_(1).jpg |500px|)]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Chordata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Amphibia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Urodela
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Salamandridae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Notophthalmus''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''N. viridescens''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Integrated Taxonomic Information System
|}

== Identification ==

Shells are usually rounded or oval, but some species have more of a trigonal or tetragonal shape. The colors range from pale yellow or white to chestnut or dark brown [2]. The size can range from <3mm in the smallest species (pisidium punctatum) to approximately 25mm for the largest (spharium simile) [2]. They can be easily missed in the field stream studies because of their small size. Juvenile shells are more yellow. Sphaeriidaes can live up to 3 years and mature at 4mm [4].

== Habitat and Range ==

Native in Eurasia [4]. In North America, native species of sphaeriids have a broad distribution, often ranging from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. They can be found in aquatic habitats, from large lakes and rivers to springs, bogs, and [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]]. But unlike mussels, Sphaeriidae will not burrow very deep into the sediment (<3mm). They usually occur in large numbers [5]. They are most common in the sandy or muddy sediments of lakes, slow-flowing streams, seepage, and swamp habitats [6].

== Life History ==

Shariid life history traits include their viviparous reproduction. This means they brood their young internally. The embryos develop within specialized chambers, supplied with maternal nutrients, and are released as fully formed miniature adults. Even though adult sphaeriids are the smallest of all North American freshwater bivalves, they release the largest young. The average birth shell length ranged from 0.6 to 4.15 mm. Seasonal water availability fluctuations and hypoxia associated with their habitats have also influenced the development of juveniles, as they are more susceptible to environmental stress. This can cause high adult mortality. They devote more energy to reproduction than other freshwater bivalves. The term “bet-hedging” has been used to describe the mixture of r- and K-selective traits allowing for increased fitness in environments with periodic, predictable stress [7].

[[File:Clam_on_a_blue_spotted_salamander.PNG|200px|thumb|right|A Pea Clam, ''Pisidium adamsi'', attached to the hindfoot of a [[Blue-spotted salamander]], ''Ambystoma laterale'' (Photo by [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28008062 R.E. Merrick]).]]

== Research ==

Since sphaeriids are hermaphrodites, they have an invasive dispersal pattern, as only one individual is theoretically needed to establish a population. Mechanisms for aiding in dispersal include juveniles clamping down on parts of another organism such as aquatic [[insects]], water fowl, and [[salamanders]][8]. They effectively use the other organism as transport to a new environment where they can detach.

== References ==

# Allaby, Michael. A Dictionary of Zoology, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=6230105.
# McMahon, Robert. (2000). Invasive characteristics of the freshwater bivalve Corbicula fulminea. Nonindigenous Freshwater [[Organisms]]: Vectors, Bilogy, and Impacts (2000), pp 315-343. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990020146270204803.
# Burky, A. J. 1983. Physiological [[ecology]] of freshwater bivalves. in: Russell-Hunter, W. D., Ed. The Mollusca. Vol. 6 : Ecology. Academic Press, New York, pp. 281 – 327. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990002424480204803.
# Lopez, G. R., Holopainen, I. J. 1987. Interstitial suspension-feeding by Pisidium sp. (Pisididae: Bivalvia): a new guild in the lentic benthos? American Malacological Bulletin 5:21 – 30. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/45940177.
# Kilgour, B. W., Mackie, G. L. 1988. Factors affecting the distribution of sphaeriid bivalves in Britannia Bay of the Ottawa River. Nautilus 102:73 – 77. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8276899.
# Byrne, R. A., McMahon, R. F. 1994. Behavioral and physiological responses to emersion in freshwater bivalves. American Zoologist 34:194 – 204. https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/3883685.
# Holopainen, I. J., Hanski, I. 1986. Life history variation in Pisidium . Holarctic Ecology 9:85 – 98. https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/3682082.
# Sibly, R. M., Calow, P. 1986. Physiological ecology of [[animals]]: an evolutionary approach. Blackwell, London. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2829513.
# Mackie, G. L. 1984. Bivalves. in: Tompa, A. S., Verdonk, N. H., van der Biggelaar, J. A. M. Eds. The Mollusca. Vol. 7: Reproduction. Academic Press, New York, pp. 351 – 418. https://search.lib.buffalo.edu/permalink/01SUNY_BUF/r66d6a/alma990002424480204803.
# Stearns, S. C. 1980. A new view of life-history evolution. Oikos 35:266 – 281. https://doi-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/10.2307/3544434.
# Davis, D. S., Gilhen, J. 1982. An observation of the transportation of pea clams, Pisidium adamsi, by bluespotted salamanders, Ambystoma laterale. The Canadian Naturalist 96:213 – 215. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/28008061.
#“European [[Fingernail Clam]] (Sphaerium Corneum) - Species Profile.” USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=131. Accessed 6 Mar. 2025.

2025-04-30T15:37:39Z

Linares4: /* References */

If you ever wonder if there were bees near wood structures around your home, chances are those are carpenter bees. They are large, solitary bees belonging to the genus Xylocopa. They get their name from the female bee because they bore into wood to create tunnels when they lay their eggs [1]. Most of the members of this group place their nest in dead solid plant material, various kinds of wood, but some use the hollow culms of bamboo or even the pithy stems of Aloe [2].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-right: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Screenshot_2025-04-28_234322.png|400px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Arthropoda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Hymenoptera]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Apidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Xylocopa
|-
|}

== Identification ==
They can range from 0.7 to 1 inches long. The thorax is covered with fuzzy yellow, orange, or white hairs. The abdomen is shiny black, The female has an entirely black head while the male has yellow or white markings.
They closely resemble bumble bees; unlike carpenter bees, bumble bees' entire body is covered with hairs, and they are also social, living together in an underground nest [3]. Male carpenter bees do not have a stinger, but female carpenter bees can sting when they feel threatened [1].

== Life Cycle ==
In April or May, the female carpenter bee searches for a good nesting site. She will reuse and expand on existing tunnels or bore her own [3]. At times, some carpenter bees will occupy the same piece of wood with nest galleries so close to each other. However, all carpenter bees behave independently of the other bees [3]. They can live up to 3 years, and there can be one or two generations per year [4]. The females do the majority of the work. They use their strong jaws (mandibles) to excavate a clean cut, which should approximately fix the diameter of her body [3]. She will eventually lay eggs once she has chewed out these tunnels. When this is done, she places a "bee bread" (a mixture of pollen and regurgitated nectar), which serves as food for the larvae [5]. Eggs will then hatch into larvae, feeding on the pollen and then eventually becoming a pupa. Later on, new adults will emerge in the late summer, chew through, and exit the tunnel.
[[File:Carpenter Bee Tunnel.png|400px|thumb|left|Carpenter bee's tunnel]]

== Ecological Significance ==
Females are attracted to raw, unfinished, or stained wood when they are searching for a nesting site. Carpenter bees cause sawdust piles below a perfectly circular hole drilled into the wood around your home. While it may sound like they aren't causing much damage, multiple tunnels, which are caused by the females, can weaken the wood over time [3].

1. Moisture entering the woods is accelerating the rate of decay

2. Mold growth on the excrement

3. Woodpeckers cause damage due to feeding on immature bees

== Natural Predators ==
Woodpeckers can locate their favorite treat by simply keeping a sharp ear to the wind. This is due to carpenter bee larvae because they are noisy and tend to attract woodpeckers [6].

== References ==

[1] Carpenter bees. (n.d.-c). Ohioline. https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/hyg-2074

[2] Minckley, R. L. (1998). A cladistic analysis and classification of the subgenera and genera of the large carpenter bees, tribe Xylocopini (Hymenoptera: Apidae) / by Robert L. Minckley. In Scientific papers - University of Kansas. Natural History Museum. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.16168

[3] Carpenter bees. (n.d.-a). University of Maryland Extension. https://extension.umd.edu/resource/carpenter-bees/

Carpenter bee

2025-04-30T15:36:53Z

Linares4: /* References */

If you ever wonder if there were bees near wood structures around your home, chances are those are carpenter bees. They are large, solitary bees belonging to the genus Xylocopa. They get their name from the female bee because they bore into wood to create tunnels when they lay their eggs [1]. Most of the members of this group place their nest in dead solid plant material, various kinds of wood, but some use the hollow culms of bamboo or even the pithy stems of Aloe [2].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-right: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Screenshot_2025-04-28_234322.png|400px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Arthropoda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Hymenoptera]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Apidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Xylocopa
|-
|}

== Identification ==
They can range from 0.7 to 1 inches long. The thorax is covered with fuzzy yellow, orange, or white hairs. The abdomen is shiny black, The female has an entirely black head while the male has yellow or white markings.
They closely resemble bumble bees; unlike carpenter bees, bumble bees' entire body is covered with hairs, and they are also social, living together in an underground nest [3]. Male carpenter bees do not have a stinger, but female carpenter bees can sting when they feel threatened [1].

== Life Cycle ==
In April or May, the female carpenter bee searches for a good nesting site. She will reuse and expand on existing tunnels or bore her own [3]. At times, some carpenter bees will occupy the same piece of wood with nest galleries so close to each other. However, all carpenter bees behave independently of the other bees [3]. They can live up to 3 years, and there can be one or two generations per year [4]. The females do the majority of the work. They use their strong jaws (mandibles) to excavate a clean cut, which should approximately fix the diameter of her body [3]. She will eventually lay eggs once she has chewed out these tunnels. When this is done, she places a "bee bread" (a mixture of pollen and regurgitated nectar), which serves as food for the larvae [5]. Eggs will then hatch into larvae, feeding on the pollen and then eventually becoming a pupa. Later on, new adults will emerge in the late summer, chew through, and exit the tunnel.
[[File:Carpenter Bee Tunnel.png|400px|thumb|left|Carpenter bee's tunnel]]

== Ecological Significance ==
Females are attracted to raw, unfinished, or stained wood when they are searching for a nesting site. Carpenter bees cause sawdust piles below a perfectly circular hole drilled into the wood around your home. While it may sound like they aren't causing much damage, multiple tunnels, which are caused by the females, can weaken the wood over time [3].

1. Moisture entering the woods is accelerating the rate of decay

2. Mold growth on the excrement

3. Woodpeckers cause damage due to feeding on immature bees

== Natural Predators ==
Woodpeckers can locate their favorite treat by simply keeping a sharp ear to the wind. This is due to carpenter bee larvae because they are noisy and tend to attract woodpeckers [6].

== References ==

[1] Carpenter bees. (n.d.-c). Ohioline. https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/hyg-2074

[2] Minckley, R. L. (1998). A cladistic analysis and classification of the subgenera and genera of the large carpenter bees, tribe Xylocopini (Hymenoptera: Apidae) / by Robert L. Minckley. In Scientific papers - University of Kansas. Natural History Museum. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.16168

Carpenter bee

2025-04-30T15:36:14Z

Linares4: /* References */

If you ever wonder if there were bees near wood structures around your home, chances are those are carpenter bees. They are large, solitary bees belonging to the genus Xylocopa. They get their name from the female bee because they bore into wood to create tunnels when they lay their eggs [1]. Most of the members of this group place their nest in dead solid plant material, various kinds of wood, but some use the hollow culms of bamboo or even the pithy stems of Aloe [2].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-right: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Screenshot_2025-04-28_234322.png|400px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Arthropoda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Hymenoptera]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Apidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Xylocopa
|-
|}

== Identification ==
They can range from 0.7 to 1 inches long. The thorax is covered with fuzzy yellow, orange, or white hairs. The abdomen is shiny black, The female has an entirely black head while the male has yellow or white markings.
They closely resemble bumble bees; unlike carpenter bees, bumble bees' entire body is covered with hairs, and they are also social, living together in an underground nest [3]. Male carpenter bees do not have a stinger, but female carpenter bees can sting when they feel threatened [1].

== Life Cycle ==
In April or May, the female carpenter bee searches for a good nesting site. She will reuse and expand on existing tunnels or bore her own [3]. At times, some carpenter bees will occupy the same piece of wood with nest galleries so close to each other. However, all carpenter bees behave independently of the other bees [3]. They can live up to 3 years, and there can be one or two generations per year [4]. The females do the majority of the work. They use their strong jaws (mandibles) to excavate a clean cut, which should approximately fix the diameter of her body [3]. She will eventually lay eggs once she has chewed out these tunnels. When this is done, she places a "bee bread" (a mixture of pollen and regurgitated nectar), which serves as food for the larvae [5]. Eggs will then hatch into larvae, feeding on the pollen and then eventually becoming a pupa. Later on, new adults will emerge in the late summer, chew through, and exit the tunnel.
[[File:Carpenter Bee Tunnel.png|400px|thumb|left|Carpenter bee's tunnel]]

== Ecological Significance ==
Females are attracted to raw, unfinished, or stained wood when they are searching for a nesting site. Carpenter bees cause sawdust piles below a perfectly circular hole drilled into the wood around your home. While it may sound like they aren't causing much damage, multiple tunnels, which are caused by the females, can weaken the wood over time [3].

1. Moisture entering the woods is accelerating the rate of decay

2. Mold growth on the excrement

3. Woodpeckers cause damage due to feeding on immature bees

== Natural Predators ==
Woodpeckers can locate their favorite treat by simply keeping a sharp ear to the wind. This is due to carpenter bee larvae because they are noisy and tend to attract woodpeckers [6].

== References ==

[1] Carpenter bees. (n.d.-c). Ohioline. https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/hyg-2074