Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Permafrost

2022-05-09T22:19:32Z

Leannesc:

Permafrost is a permanently frozen layer below Earth’s surface. It consists of [[soil]], gravel, and [[sand]], usually bound together by ice and can be found on land and below the ocean floor. Permafrost usually remains at or below 0°C (32ºF) for two or more years. It is found in areas where temperatures rarely rise above freezing [2]. Permafrost occurs in many different forms with various amounts of ice and is mainly found in areas near the Arctic. In Alaska, about 80 percent of the ground has permafrost underneath it. In the Northern Hemisphere, regions in which permafrost occurs occupy approximately 25% of the land. The upper surface of permafrost is called the permafrost table. In permafrost areas, the surface layer of ground that freezes in the winter and thaws in summer is called the active layer [4].

[[File:Circum-Arctic Map of Permafrost and Ground Ice Conditions.png|thumb|Circum-Arctic_Map_of_Permafrost_and_Ground_Ice_Conditions]]

==Permafrost Zones==
Permafrost is widespread in the northern part of the Northern Hemisphere, where it occurs in 85 percent of Alaska and 55 percent of Russia and Canada, and covers almost all of Antarctica. In addition to its widespread occurrence in the Arctic and subarctic areas of Earth, permafrost also exists at lower latitudes in areas of high elevation. This type of perennially frozen ground is called alpine permafrost. The largest area of alpine permafrost is in western China, where 1,500,000 square km (580,000 square miles) of permafrost are known to exist [4].

==Continuety of Coverage==
The permafrost ranges in all different sizes and thicknesses. The average thickness can range from one meter to over 1500 meters [4]. The thickness of the active layer depends mainly on the moisture content, varying from less than a foot in thickness in wet, organic sediments to several feet in well-drained gravels. Permafrost is more widespread and extends to greater depths in the north than in the south. It is 1,500 meters (5,000 feet) thick in northern Siberia and 740 meters (about 2,430 feet) thick in northern Alaska, and it thins progressively toward the south [4].
[[File:Permafrost in Herschel Island 007.jpg|thumb|Permafrost_in_Herschel_Island_007]]

===Continuous Permafrost===
Continuous permafrost is a continuous sheet of frozen material, usually underlying 90-100% of the landscape. Continuous permafrost extends under all surfaces except large bodies of water in the area. Siberia has continuous permafrost [2].

===Discontinuous Permafrost===
Discontinuous permafrost is broken up into separate areas, usually covering 50-90% of the landscape. This includes numerous permafrost-free areas that increase progressively in size and number from north to south. Near the southern boundary, only rare patches of permafrost have been found to exist [4]. Some permafrost, in the shadow of a mountain or thick vegetation, stays all year. In other areas of discontinuous permafrost, the summer sun thaws the permafrost for several weeks or months. The land near the southern shore of Hudson Bay, Canada, has discontinuous permafrost [2].

==Effects of Climate Change==
Warming since the late 1960s has been observed in permafrost temperature profiles from many locations. Over the past several decades, permafrost temperatures have generally warmed in lowlands and mountains. While the impacts of climate change on permafrost vary at regional and local scales, permafrost thawing has been observed in many locations around the world [1]. Thawing is an effect of climate change caused by the positive feedback loop from the overall warming. Erosion happens when permafrost thaws because soil and sediment are easily washed away without ice-binding them together. When the temperature of permafrost rises above 0ºC, it starts to thaw. Generally, the mineral and organic components of the former permafrost will remain solid. Therefore, in regions with more ground ice, thawing permafrost may result in more of a change to the land surface, and vice versa [2]. As the permafrost thaws, it can turn into a mud slurry that cannot support the weight of the soil and vegetation above it. This leads to infrastructures such as roads, buildings, and pipes being damaged. Additionally, [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] currently frozen in the permafrost will start to decompose when the ground thaws, resulting in many years worth of methane and carbon dioxide being emitted into the atmosphere [1]

==References==
[1] Climate Change Indicators: Permafrost. 2022, March 31. . Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-permafrost.

[2] National Geographic Society. 2012, October 9. Permafrost. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/permafrost/.

[3] Pewe, T. L. (n.d.). Climatic change. Encyclopedia Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/science/permafrost/Climatic-change.

[4] What is permafrost? 2021, June 4. . https://www.permafrost.org/what-is-permafrost/.

Permafrost

2022-05-09T22:18:21Z

Leannesc: /* References */

Permafrost is a permanently frozen layer below Earth’s surface. It consists of [[soil]], gravel, and [[sand]], usually bound together by ice and can be found on land and below the ocean floor. Permafrost usually remains at or below 0°C (32ºF) for two or more years. It is found in areas where temperatures rarely rise above freezing [2]. Permafrost occurs in many different forms with various amounts of ice and is mainly found in areas near the Arctic. In Alaska, about 80 percent of the ground has permafrost underneath it. In the Northern Hemisphere, regions in which permafrost occurs occupy approximately 25% of the land. The upper surface of permafrost is called the permafrost table. In permafrost areas, the surface layer of ground that freezes in the winter and thaws in summer is called the active layer [4].

[[File:Circum-Arctic Map of Permafrost and Ground Ice Conditions.png|Circum-Arctic_Map_of_Permafrost_and_Ground_Ice_Conditions]]

==Permafrost Zones==
Permafrost is widespread in the northern part of the Northern Hemisphere, where it occurs in 85 percent of Alaska and 55 percent of Russia and Canada, and covers almost all of Antarctica. In addition to its widespread occurrence in the Arctic and subarctic areas of Earth, permafrost also exists at lower latitudes in areas of high elevation. This type of perennially frozen ground is called alpine permafrost. The largest area of alpine permafrost is in western China, where 1,500,000 square km (580,000 square miles) of permafrost are known to exist [4].

==Continuety of Coverage==
The permafrost ranges in all different sizes and thicknesses. The average thickness can range from one meter to over 1500 meters [4]. The thickness of the active layer depends mainly on the moisture content, varying from less than a foot in thickness in wet, organic sediments to several feet in well-drained gravels. Permafrost is more widespread and extends to greater depths in the north than in the south. It is 1,500 meters (5,000 feet) thick in northern Siberia and 740 meters (about 2,430 feet) thick in northern Alaska, and it thins progressively toward the south [4].
[[File:Permafrost in Herschel Island 007.jpg|Permafrost_in_Herschel_Island_007]]

===Continuous Permafrost===
Continuous permafrost is a continuous sheet of frozen material, usually underlying 90-100% of the landscape. Continuous permafrost extends under all surfaces except large bodies of water in the area. Siberia has continuous permafrost [2].

===Discontinuous Permafrost===
Discontinuous permafrost is broken up into separate areas, usually covering 50-90% of the landscape. This includes numerous permafrost-free areas that increase progressively in size and number from north to south. Near the southern boundary, only rare patches of permafrost have been found to exist [4]. Some permafrost, in the shadow of a mountain or thick vegetation, stays all year. In other areas of discontinuous permafrost, the summer sun thaws the permafrost for several weeks or months. The land near the southern shore of Hudson Bay, Canada, has discontinuous permafrost [2].

==Effects of Climate Change==
Warming since the late 1960s has been observed in permafrost temperature profiles from many locations. Over the past several decades, permafrost temperatures have generally warmed in lowlands and mountains. While the impacts of climate change on permafrost vary at regional and local scales, permafrost thawing has been observed in many locations around the world [1]. Thawing is an effect of climate change caused by the positive feedback loop from the overall warming. Erosion happens when permafrost thaws because soil and sediment are easily washed away without ice-binding them together. When the temperature of permafrost rises above 0ºC, it starts to thaw. Generally, the mineral and organic components of the former permafrost will remain solid. Therefore, in regions with more ground ice, thawing permafrost may result in more of a change to the land surface, and vice versa [2]. As the permafrost thaws, it can turn into a mud slurry that cannot support the weight of the soil and vegetation above it. This leads to infrastructures such as roads, buildings, and pipes being damaged. Additionally, [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] currently frozen in the permafrost will start to decompose when the ground thaws, resulting in many years worth of methane and carbon dioxide being emitted into the atmosphere [1]

==References==
[1] Climate Change Indicators: Permafrost. 2022, March 31. . Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-permafrost.

[2] National Geographic Society. 2012, October 9. Permafrost. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/permafrost/.

[3] Pewe, T. L. (n.d.). Climatic change. Encyclopedia Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/science/permafrost/Climatic-change.

[4] What is permafrost? 2021, June 4. . https://www.permafrost.org/what-is-permafrost/.

File:Circum-Arctic Map of Permafrost and Ground Ice Conditions.png

2022-05-09T22:16:36Z

Leannesc:

File:Permafrost in Herschel Island 007.jpg

2022-05-09T22:16:10Z

Leannesc:

Permafrost

2022-05-09T22:15:54Z

Leannesc: Created page with "Permafrost is a permanently frozen layer below Earth’s surface. It consists of soil, gravel, and sand, usually bound together by ice and can be found on land and bel..."

Permafrost is a permanently frozen layer below Earth’s surface. It consists of [[soil]], gravel, and [[sand]], usually bound together by ice and can be found on land and below the ocean floor. Permafrost usually remains at or below 0°C (32ºF) for two or more years. It is found in areas where temperatures rarely rise above freezing [2]. Permafrost occurs in many different forms with various amounts of ice and is mainly found in areas near the Arctic. In Alaska, about 80 percent of the ground has permafrost underneath it. In the Northern Hemisphere, regions in which permafrost occurs occupy approximately 25% of the land. The upper surface of permafrost is called the permafrost table. In permafrost areas, the surface layer of ground that freezes in the winter and thaws in summer is called the active layer [4].

[[File:Circum-Arctic Map of Permafrost and Ground Ice Conditions.png|Circum-Arctic_Map_of_Permafrost_and_Ground_Ice_Conditions]]

==Permafrost Zones==
Permafrost is widespread in the northern part of the Northern Hemisphere, where it occurs in 85 percent of Alaska and 55 percent of Russia and Canada, and covers almost all of Antarctica. In addition to its widespread occurrence in the Arctic and subarctic areas of Earth, permafrost also exists at lower latitudes in areas of high elevation. This type of perennially frozen ground is called alpine permafrost. The largest area of alpine permafrost is in western China, where 1,500,000 square km (580,000 square miles) of permafrost are known to exist [4].

==Continuety of Coverage==
The permafrost ranges in all different sizes and thicknesses. The average thickness can range from one meter to over 1500 meters [4]. The thickness of the active layer depends mainly on the moisture content, varying from less than a foot in thickness in wet, organic sediments to several feet in well-drained gravels. Permafrost is more widespread and extends to greater depths in the north than in the south. It is 1,500 meters (5,000 feet) thick in northern Siberia and 740 meters (about 2,430 feet) thick in northern Alaska, and it thins progressively toward the south [4].
[[File:Permafrost in Herschel Island 007.jpg|Permafrost_in_Herschel_Island_007]]

===Continuous Permafrost===
Continuous permafrost is a continuous sheet of frozen material, usually underlying 90-100% of the landscape. Continuous permafrost extends under all surfaces except large bodies of water in the area. Siberia has continuous permafrost [2].

===Discontinuous Permafrost===
Discontinuous permafrost is broken up into separate areas, usually covering 50-90% of the landscape. This includes numerous permafrost-free areas that increase progressively in size and number from north to south. Near the southern boundary, only rare patches of permafrost have been found to exist [4]. Some permafrost, in the shadow of a mountain or thick vegetation, stays all year. In other areas of discontinuous permafrost, the summer sun thaws the permafrost for several weeks or months. The land near the southern shore of Hudson Bay, Canada, has discontinuous permafrost [2].

==Effects of Climate Change==
Warming since the late 1960s has been observed in permafrost temperature profiles from many locations. Over the past several decades, permafrost temperatures have generally warmed in lowlands and mountains. While the impacts of climate change on permafrost vary at regional and local scales, permafrost thawing has been observed in many locations around the world [1]. Thawing is an effect of climate change caused by the positive feedback loop from the overall warming. Erosion happens when permafrost thaws because soil and sediment are easily washed away without ice-binding them together. When the temperature of permafrost rises above 0ºC, it starts to thaw. Generally, the mineral and organic components of the former permafrost will remain solid. Therefore, in regions with more ground ice, thawing permafrost may result in more of a change to the land surface, and vice versa [2]. As the permafrost thaws, it can turn into a mud slurry that cannot support the weight of the soil and vegetation above it. This leads to infrastructures such as roads, buildings, and pipes being damaged. Additionally, [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] currently frozen in the permafrost will start to decompose when the ground thaws, resulting in many years worth of methane and carbon dioxide being emitted into the atmosphere [1]

==References==
[1] Climate Change Indicators: Permafrost. 2022, March 31. . Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-permafrost.

[2] National Geographic Society. 2012, October 9. Permafrost. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/permafrost/.

[3] What is permafrost? 2021, June 4. . https://www.permafrost.org/what-is-permafrost/.

Wolf Spider

2022-04-28T01:19:25Z

Leannesc:

Wolf spiders are members of the family Lycosidae. This family belongs to the order of Araneae, which includes all known spiders. There are more than 100 genera and about 2,300 species of wolf spiders; 200 species live in the United States [1]. The wolf spider mainly feeds on [[insects]], has a lifespan of up to a year (making them annuals), and ranges in size from 0.24 to 1.2 inches [2].

[[File:Wolf spider white bg.jpg|thumb|Wolf Spider Full Body View]]

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Order
! scope="col" | Family
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Arachnida
| Araneae
| Lycosidae
|}

==Description==
The size of the wolf spider can be as small as a 1/4 inch but can grow as large as 2 inches, with females being much larger than males. Their eyes are separated into 3 rows with the bottom row containing 4 small eyes, the middle row containing 2 large eyes, and then the top row containing 2 medium-sized eyes. This gives them the powerful vision to detect their prey, even at night. Their bodies are also covered in hairs that help them detect their surroundings with touch. Wolf spiders have a wide range of colorations including black, orange, brown, and grey [3].

==Habitats==
Wolf spiders are found all throughout the United States. Their common habitats include woods, grasslands, and shrubbery (any area that has a close source of running water). Because there is such a variety in species and size, their habitats are broad. Instead of living on spun webs, the wolf spiders create shallow burrows in the dirt for resting and overwintering [4].

==Mating and Reproduction==
Male wolf spiders only come in contact with female wolf spiders during their mating seasons. Mating takes place outside of the female's burrow at night. The male is attracted to the female through the pheromones from the silk they produce. Males perform a complex mating dance that includes complex leg movements and palp signaling to the female. After mating is completed, the female constructs an egg sac that she carries around to protect. Females are very defensive over their egg sacs and show aggressive behaviors when they are lost or to protect them [1].

[[File:Wolf Spider with egg sac (31663965492).jpg|thumb|Wolf spider with egg sac]]

==Hunting Habits==
Wolf spiders get their name from the way that they hunt and stalk their prey. They are usually lone hunters, which does not hinder their chances of catching their prey. Just like regular wolves, the wolf spider leaps at its prey after stalking them and uses its strong jaws to bite and consume them. Common prey of this species includes crickets, earwigs, grasshoppers, flies, and ants [3]. They have even been found to prey upon small reptiles or amphibians in some cases. Unlike other Arachnid species, wolf spiders will hunt in a set territory and return prey to their nest to consume it [1].

==References==
[1] Wolf Spiders - Great Facts, Venom & Habitat Information. (n.d.). .

[2] Wolf Spider Facts. 2018, December 14. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/wolf-spider.

[3]Wolf Spider - Size, Appearance, Bite, Facts and Pictures. 2018, November 15. . https://badpests.com/wolf-spider/.

[4] Wolf Spider Habitat | Terminix. (n.d.). . https://www.terminix.com/spiders/wolf/where-do-wolf-spiders-live/.

Template:Automatic taxobox

2022-04-27T20:40:39Z

Leannesc: Created page with "{{Taxobox | name = Wolf Spider | image = | image_upright = | image_alt = | image_caption = | image2 = | image2_up..."

{{Taxobox
| name = Wolf Spider
| image =
| image_upright =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image2 =
| image2_upright =
| image2_alt =
| image2_caption =
| regnum = [[Animalia]]
| divisio = [[Arthropoda]]
| classis = [[Arachnida]]
| ordo = [[Araneae]]
| familia = [[Lycosoidea]]
| genus =
| species = [[Lycosidae]]
| binomial =
| binomial_authority =
| range_map =
| range_map_upright =
| range map_alt =
| range_map_caption =
| 
}}

Wolf Spider

2022-04-27T20:11:18Z

Leannesc:

Wolf spiders are members of the family Lycosidae. This family belongs to the order of Araneae, which includes all known spiders. There are more than 100 genera and about 2,300 species of wolf spiders; 200 species live in the United States [1]. The wolf spider mainly feeds on [[insects]], has a lifespan of up to a year (making them annuals), and ranges in size from 0.24 to 1.2 inches [2].

[[File:Wolf spider white bg.jpg|thumb|Wolf Spider Full Body View]]

{{Automatic taxobox
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Paleogene|present}}
| name = Wolf spiders
| image = Wolf Spider rpp.jpg
| image_caption = Wolf Spider
| taxon = Lycosidae
| authority = [[Carl Jakob Sundevall|Sundevall]], 1833
| range_map = Distribution.lycosidae.1.png
| subdivision_ranks =
| subdivision =
| diversity = [[#Genera|124 genera]], [[List of Lycosidae species|2888 species]]
}}

==Description==
The size of the wolf spider can be as small as a 1/4 inch but can grow as large as 2 inches, with females being much larger than males. Their eyes are separated into 3 rows with the bottom row containing 4 small eyes, the middle row containing 2 large eyes, and then the top row containing 2 medium-sized eyes. This gives them the powerful vision to detect their prey, even at night. Their bodies are also covered in hairs that help them detect their surroundings with touch. Wolf spiders have a wide range of colorations including black, orange, brown, and grey [3].

==Habitats==
Wolf spiders are found all throughout the United States. Their common habitats include woods, grasslands, and shrubbery (any area that has a close source of running water). Because there is such a variety in species and size, their habitats are broad. Instead of living on spun webs, the wolf spiders create shallow burrows in the dirt for resting and overwintering [4].

==Mating and Reproduction==
Male wolf spiders only come in contact with female wolf spiders during their mating seasons. Mating takes place outside of the female's burrow at night. The male is attracted to the female through the pheromones from the silk they produce. Males perform a complex mating dance that includes complex leg movements and palp signaling to the female. After mating is completed, the female constructs an egg sac that she carries around to protect. Females are very defensive over their egg sacs and show aggressive behaviors when they are lost or to protect them [1].

[[File:Wolf Spider with egg sac (31663965492).jpg|thumb|Wolf spider with egg sac]]

==Hunting Habits==
Wolf spiders get their name from the way that they hunt and stalk their prey. They are usually lone hunters, which does not hinder their chances of catching their prey. Just like regular wolves, the wolf spider leaps at its prey after stalking them and uses its strong jaws to bite and consume them. Common prey of this species includes crickets, earwigs, grasshoppers, flies, and ants [3]. They have even been found to prey upon small reptiles or amphibians in some cases. Unlike other Arachnid species, wolf spiders will hunt in a set territory and return prey to their nest to consume it [1].

==References==
[1] Wolf Spiders - Great Facts, Venom & Habitat Information. (n.d.). .

[2] Wolf Spider Facts. 2018, December 14. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/wolf-spider.

[3]Wolf Spider - Size, Appearance, Bite, Facts and Pictures. 2018, November 15. . https://badpests.com/wolf-spider/.

[4] Wolf Spider Habitat | Terminix. (n.d.). . https://www.terminix.com/spiders/wolf/where-do-wolf-spiders-live/.

File:Wolf Spider with egg sac (31663965492).jpg

2022-04-25T21:25:17Z

Leannesc:

File:Wolf spider white bg.jpg

2022-04-25T21:03:52Z

Leannesc:

Stinkwort (Dittrichia graveolens)

2022-04-11T15:12:47Z

Leannesc: /* References */

[[File:Screen Shot 2021-05-03 at 9.37.50 PM.png|thumb||right| Stinkwort (''Dittrichia graveolens'') [1]]]

==Taxonomy==

'''Domain:''' Eukaryota
'''Kingdom:''' Planteae
'''Phylum:''' Tracheophyta
'''Subphylum:''' [[Angiosperms]]
'''Class:''' Magnoliopsida
'''Order:''' Asterales
'''Family:''' Asterceae
'''Subfamily:''' Asteroideae
'''Genus:''' ''Dittrichia''
'''Species:''' ''D. graveolens''

==Description==
''Dittrichia graveolens'' or stinkwort belongs to the Asteraceae family which consist of flowering plants [1]. Stinkwort is an invasive species that has found its way into many areas. It is also considered a noxious weed since it has the potential to harm horticultural crops, natural habitats, ecosytems, humans, and livestock [1,2,4,5]. Annually flowering in the fall, stinkwort is erect growing up to 2.5 feet [1,2,3,4,5]. Sticky glandular hairs of the stinkwort give off strong aromatic odor that is easily recognizable [1,2,4]. Stinkwort has flowers that have short yellow rays on the outer edge and yellow to red disk flowers in the center [1,2,4]. Stinkwort which is native to the Mediterranean is rapidly invading other areas. It has found its way into many other areas including Central Europe, Australia, South Africa, and the United States [1].

[[File:stinkwort PM.png|thumb||left| a. Stinkwort b. Zoomed in stinkwort c. Flower head d. Habitat along a road [3]]]

==Habitat==
Stinkwort can be found in a variety of places located around its native area. It is known to be prevalent in riparian woodlands, margins of tidal marshes, [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], and alluvial floodplains [1]. However, in areas where stinkwort is not native, it grows in disturbed areas such as overgrazed rangelands, roadsides, pastures, wastelands, vineyard edges, gravel mines, levees, washes, and mining sites [1,2]. Well-drained, sandy and gravelly soils are where Stinkwort thrives. Hot and dry climate is its preferred area, but grows well on the outskirts of wetlands.

==Seed Dispersal==
There are few different ways in which stinkwort seeds can be dispersed. The seeds have small fine hairs which allow for wind dispersal [3]. The fine hairs also stick to clothing, wool, hair, and machinery [3]. Stinkwort seeds have high viability with about 90% of the seeds being capable of germination at the time of dispersal [1].

==Negative Impacts==
Stinkwort is not an edible species so it can cause problems within livestock. If consumed by livestock, stinkwort can poison them leading to mortality in some cases [1,4]. The fine hairs of the seed induce enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) or release fatal bacterium if the livestock have chosen to graze on it [4]. Not only does it cause problems in [[animals]], but also humans. When stinkwort is flowered and then handled by bare skin, it can cause severe dermatitis [4,5].

==Control==
There are several different ways in which stinkwort can be controlled. For smaller areas of invasions, mechanical practices can be used. This involves pulling, hoeing, and mowing [1,4]. When hand pulling and hoeing, gloves should be worn to avoid dermatitis. Mowing is only a partial control. It should be done late in the season and multiple times [1]. The buds remaining may grow back, which is why this should be repeated more than once [1]. For larger areas two different types of herbicides can be used. The two types being either post or preemergence herbicides. Postemergence herbicides are applied to young plants and target visibly infested areas [1]. Preemergence herbicides are used for larger areas before seeds are allowed to germinate [1].

==References==
[1] Brownsey, R., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2013. Stinkwort is rapidly expanding its range in California. Cal Ag 67, 110–115. https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.v067n02p110

[2] Brownsey, R.N., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2014. Growth and phenology of Dittrichia graveolens, a rapidly spreading invasive plant in California. Biol Invasions 16, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-013-0501-4

[3] Kocián, P., 2015. Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter – a new alien species in Poland. Acta Musei Silesiae, Scientiae Naturales 64, 193–197. https://doi.org/10.1515/cszma-2015-0027

[4] Stinkwort Guide [WWW Document], n.d. . HerbiGuide. URL http://www.herbiguide.com.au/Descriptions/hg_Stinkwort.htm

[5] Thong, H.-Y., Yokota, M., Kardassakis, D., Maibach, H.I., 2007. Allergic contact dermatitis from Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter (stinkwort). Contact Dermatitis 58, 51–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01154.x

Stinkwort (Dittrichia graveolens)

2022-04-11T15:12:36Z

Leannesc: /* Control */

[[File:Screen Shot 2021-05-03 at 9.37.50 PM.png|thumb||right| Stinkwort (''Dittrichia graveolens'') [1]]]

==Taxonomy==

'''Domain:''' Eukaryota
'''Kingdom:''' Planteae
'''Phylum:''' Tracheophyta
'''Subphylum:''' [[Angiosperms]]
'''Class:''' Magnoliopsida
'''Order:''' Asterales
'''Family:''' Asterceae
'''Subfamily:''' Asteroideae
'''Genus:''' ''Dittrichia''
'''Species:''' ''D. graveolens''

==Description==
''Dittrichia graveolens'' or stinkwort belongs to the Asteraceae family which consist of flowering plants [1]. Stinkwort is an invasive species that has found its way into many areas. It is also considered a noxious weed since it has the potential to harm horticultural crops, natural habitats, ecosytems, humans, and livestock [1,2,4,5]. Annually flowering in the fall, stinkwort is erect growing up to 2.5 feet [1,2,3,4,5]. Sticky glandular hairs of the stinkwort give off strong aromatic odor that is easily recognizable [1,2,4]. Stinkwort has flowers that have short yellow rays on the outer edge and yellow to red disk flowers in the center [1,2,4]. Stinkwort which is native to the Mediterranean is rapidly invading other areas. It has found its way into many other areas including Central Europe, Australia, South Africa, and the United States [1].

[[File:stinkwort PM.png|thumb||left| a. Stinkwort b. Zoomed in stinkwort c. Flower head d. Habitat along a road [3]]]

==Habitat==
Stinkwort can be found in a variety of places located around its native area. It is known to be prevalent in riparian woodlands, margins of tidal marshes, [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], and alluvial floodplains [1]. However, in areas where stinkwort is not native, it grows in disturbed areas such as overgrazed rangelands, roadsides, pastures, wastelands, vineyard edges, gravel mines, levees, washes, and mining sites [1,2]. Well-drained, sandy and gravelly soils are where Stinkwort thrives. Hot and dry climate is its preferred area, but grows well on the outskirts of wetlands.

==Seed Dispersal==
There are few different ways in which stinkwort seeds can be dispersed. The seeds have small fine hairs which allow for wind dispersal [3]. The fine hairs also stick to clothing, wool, hair, and machinery [3]. Stinkwort seeds have high viability with about 90% of the seeds being capable of germination at the time of dispersal [1].

==Negative Impacts==
Stinkwort is not an edible species so it can cause problems within livestock. If consumed by livestock, stinkwort can poison them leading to mortality in some cases [1,4]. The fine hairs of the seed induce enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) or release fatal bacterium if the livestock have chosen to graze on it [4]. Not only does it cause problems in [[animals]], but also humans. When stinkwort is flowered and then handled by bare skin, it can cause severe dermatitis [4,5].

==Control==
There are several different ways in which stinkwort can be controlled. For smaller areas of invasions, mechanical practices can be used. This involves pulling, hoeing, and mowing [1,4]. When hand pulling and hoeing, gloves should be worn to avoid dermatitis. Mowing is only a partial control. It should be done late in the season and multiple times [1]. The buds remaining may grow back, which is why this should be repeated more than once [1]. For larger areas two different types of herbicides can be used. The two types being either post or preemergence herbicides. Postemergence herbicides are applied to young plants and target visibly infested areas [1]. Preemergence herbicides are used for larger areas before seeds are allowed to germinate [1].

===References===
[1] Brownsey, R., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2013. Stinkwort is rapidly expanding its range in California. Cal Ag 67, 110–115. https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.v067n02p110

[2] Brownsey, R.N., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2014. Growth and phenology of Dittrichia graveolens, a rapidly spreading invasive plant in California. Biol Invasions 16, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-013-0501-4

[3] Kocián, P., 2015. Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter – a new alien species in Poland. Acta Musei Silesiae, Scientiae Naturales 64, 193–197. https://doi.org/10.1515/cszma-2015-0027

[4] Stinkwort Guide [WWW Document], n.d. . HerbiGuide. URL http://www.herbiguide.com.au/Descriptions/hg_Stinkwort.htm

[5] Thong, H.-Y., Yokota, M., Kardassakis, D., Maibach, H.I., 2007. Allergic contact dermatitis from Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter (stinkwort). Contact Dermatitis 58, 51–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01154.x

Stinkwort (Dittrichia graveolens)

2022-04-11T15:12:26Z

Leannesc: /* Negative Impacts */

[[File:Screen Shot 2021-05-03 at 9.37.50 PM.png|thumb||right| Stinkwort (''Dittrichia graveolens'') [1]]]

==Taxonomy==

'''Domain:''' Eukaryota
'''Kingdom:''' Planteae
'''Phylum:''' Tracheophyta
'''Subphylum:''' [[Angiosperms]]
'''Class:''' Magnoliopsida
'''Order:''' Asterales
'''Family:''' Asterceae
'''Subfamily:''' Asteroideae
'''Genus:''' ''Dittrichia''
'''Species:''' ''D. graveolens''

==Description==
''Dittrichia graveolens'' or stinkwort belongs to the Asteraceae family which consist of flowering plants [1]. Stinkwort is an invasive species that has found its way into many areas. It is also considered a noxious weed since it has the potential to harm horticultural crops, natural habitats, ecosytems, humans, and livestock [1,2,4,5]. Annually flowering in the fall, stinkwort is erect growing up to 2.5 feet [1,2,3,4,5]. Sticky glandular hairs of the stinkwort give off strong aromatic odor that is easily recognizable [1,2,4]. Stinkwort has flowers that have short yellow rays on the outer edge and yellow to red disk flowers in the center [1,2,4]. Stinkwort which is native to the Mediterranean is rapidly invading other areas. It has found its way into many other areas including Central Europe, Australia, South Africa, and the United States [1].

[[File:stinkwort PM.png|thumb||left| a. Stinkwort b. Zoomed in stinkwort c. Flower head d. Habitat along a road [3]]]

==Habitat==
Stinkwort can be found in a variety of places located around its native area. It is known to be prevalent in riparian woodlands, margins of tidal marshes, [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], and alluvial floodplains [1]. However, in areas where stinkwort is not native, it grows in disturbed areas such as overgrazed rangelands, roadsides, pastures, wastelands, vineyard edges, gravel mines, levees, washes, and mining sites [1,2]. Well-drained, sandy and gravelly soils are where Stinkwort thrives. Hot and dry climate is its preferred area, but grows well on the outskirts of wetlands.

==Seed Dispersal==
There are few different ways in which stinkwort seeds can be dispersed. The seeds have small fine hairs which allow for wind dispersal [3]. The fine hairs also stick to clothing, wool, hair, and machinery [3]. Stinkwort seeds have high viability with about 90% of the seeds being capable of germination at the time of dispersal [1].

==Negative Impacts==
Stinkwort is not an edible species so it can cause problems within livestock. If consumed by livestock, stinkwort can poison them leading to mortality in some cases [1,4]. The fine hairs of the seed induce enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) or release fatal bacterium if the livestock have chosen to graze on it [4]. Not only does it cause problems in [[animals]], but also humans. When stinkwort is flowered and then handled by bare skin, it can cause severe dermatitis [4,5].

===Control===
There are several different ways in which stinkwort can be controlled. For smaller areas of invasions, mechanical practices can be used. This involves pulling, hoeing, and mowing [1,4]. When hand pulling and hoeing, gloves should be worn to avoid dermatitis. Mowing is only a partial control. It should be done late in the season and multiple times [1]. The buds remaining may grow back, which is why this should be repeated more than once [1]. For larger areas two different types of herbicides can be used. The two types being either post or preemergence herbicides. Postemergence herbicides are applied to young plants and target visibly infested areas [1]. Preemergence herbicides are used for larger areas before seeds are allowed to germinate [1].

===References===
[1] Brownsey, R., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2013. Stinkwort is rapidly expanding its range in California. Cal Ag 67, 110–115. https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.v067n02p110

[2] Brownsey, R.N., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2014. Growth and phenology of Dittrichia graveolens, a rapidly spreading invasive plant in California. Biol Invasions 16, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-013-0501-4

[3] Kocián, P., 2015. Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter – a new alien species in Poland. Acta Musei Silesiae, Scientiae Naturales 64, 193–197. https://doi.org/10.1515/cszma-2015-0027

[4] Stinkwort Guide [WWW Document], n.d. . HerbiGuide. URL http://www.herbiguide.com.au/Descriptions/hg_Stinkwort.htm

[5] Thong, H.-Y., Yokota, M., Kardassakis, D., Maibach, H.I., 2007. Allergic contact dermatitis from Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter (stinkwort). Contact Dermatitis 58, 51–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01154.x

Stinkwort (Dittrichia graveolens)

2022-04-11T15:12:13Z

Leannesc: /* Seed Dispersal */

[[File:Screen Shot 2021-05-03 at 9.37.50 PM.png|thumb||right| Stinkwort (''Dittrichia graveolens'') [1]]]

==Taxonomy==

'''Domain:''' Eukaryota
'''Kingdom:''' Planteae
'''Phylum:''' Tracheophyta
'''Subphylum:''' [[Angiosperms]]
'''Class:''' Magnoliopsida
'''Order:''' Asterales
'''Family:''' Asterceae
'''Subfamily:''' Asteroideae
'''Genus:''' ''Dittrichia''
'''Species:''' ''D. graveolens''

==Description==
''Dittrichia graveolens'' or stinkwort belongs to the Asteraceae family which consist of flowering plants [1]. Stinkwort is an invasive species that has found its way into many areas. It is also considered a noxious weed since it has the potential to harm horticultural crops, natural habitats, ecosytems, humans, and livestock [1,2,4,5]. Annually flowering in the fall, stinkwort is erect growing up to 2.5 feet [1,2,3,4,5]. Sticky glandular hairs of the stinkwort give off strong aromatic odor that is easily recognizable [1,2,4]. Stinkwort has flowers that have short yellow rays on the outer edge and yellow to red disk flowers in the center [1,2,4]. Stinkwort which is native to the Mediterranean is rapidly invading other areas. It has found its way into many other areas including Central Europe, Australia, South Africa, and the United States [1].

[[File:stinkwort PM.png|thumb||left| a. Stinkwort b. Zoomed in stinkwort c. Flower head d. Habitat along a road [3]]]

==Habitat==
Stinkwort can be found in a variety of places located around its native area. It is known to be prevalent in riparian woodlands, margins of tidal marshes, [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], and alluvial floodplains [1]. However, in areas where stinkwort is not native, it grows in disturbed areas such as overgrazed rangelands, roadsides, pastures, wastelands, vineyard edges, gravel mines, levees, washes, and mining sites [1,2]. Well-drained, sandy and gravelly soils are where Stinkwort thrives. Hot and dry climate is its preferred area, but grows well on the outskirts of wetlands.

==Seed Dispersal==
There are few different ways in which stinkwort seeds can be dispersed. The seeds have small fine hairs which allow for wind dispersal [3]. The fine hairs also stick to clothing, wool, hair, and machinery [3]. Stinkwort seeds have high viability with about 90% of the seeds being capable of germination at the time of dispersal [1].

===Negative Impacts===
Stinkwort is not an edible species so it can cause problems within livestock. If consumed by livestock, stinkwort can poison them leading to mortality in some cases [1,4]. The fine hairs of the seed induce enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) or release fatal bacterium if the livestock have chosen to graze on it [4]. Not only does it cause problems in [[animals]], but also humans. When stinkwort is flowered and then handled by bare skin, it can cause severe dermatitis [4,5].

===Control===
There are several different ways in which stinkwort can be controlled. For smaller areas of invasions, mechanical practices can be used. This involves pulling, hoeing, and mowing [1,4]. When hand pulling and hoeing, gloves should be worn to avoid dermatitis. Mowing is only a partial control. It should be done late in the season and multiple times [1]. The buds remaining may grow back, which is why this should be repeated more than once [1]. For larger areas two different types of herbicides can be used. The two types being either post or preemergence herbicides. Postemergence herbicides are applied to young plants and target visibly infested areas [1]. Preemergence herbicides are used for larger areas before seeds are allowed to germinate [1].

===References===
[1] Brownsey, R., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2013. Stinkwort is rapidly expanding its range in California. Cal Ag 67, 110–115. https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.v067n02p110

[2] Brownsey, R.N., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2014. Growth and phenology of Dittrichia graveolens, a rapidly spreading invasive plant in California. Biol Invasions 16, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-013-0501-4

[3] Kocián, P., 2015. Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter – a new alien species in Poland. Acta Musei Silesiae, Scientiae Naturales 64, 193–197. https://doi.org/10.1515/cszma-2015-0027

[4] Stinkwort Guide [WWW Document], n.d. . HerbiGuide. URL http://www.herbiguide.com.au/Descriptions/hg_Stinkwort.htm

[5] Thong, H.-Y., Yokota, M., Kardassakis, D., Maibach, H.I., 2007. Allergic contact dermatitis from Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter (stinkwort). Contact Dermatitis 58, 51–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01154.x

Stinkwort (Dittrichia graveolens)

2022-04-11T15:12:02Z

Leannesc: /* Habitat */

[[File:Screen Shot 2021-05-03 at 9.37.50 PM.png|thumb||right| Stinkwort (''Dittrichia graveolens'') [1]]]

==Taxonomy==

'''Domain:''' Eukaryota
'''Kingdom:''' Planteae
'''Phylum:''' Tracheophyta
'''Subphylum:''' [[Angiosperms]]
'''Class:''' Magnoliopsida
'''Order:''' Asterales
'''Family:''' Asterceae
'''Subfamily:''' Asteroideae
'''Genus:''' ''Dittrichia''
'''Species:''' ''D. graveolens''

==Description==
''Dittrichia graveolens'' or stinkwort belongs to the Asteraceae family which consist of flowering plants [1]. Stinkwort is an invasive species that has found its way into many areas. It is also considered a noxious weed since it has the potential to harm horticultural crops, natural habitats, ecosytems, humans, and livestock [1,2,4,5]. Annually flowering in the fall, stinkwort is erect growing up to 2.5 feet [1,2,3,4,5]. Sticky glandular hairs of the stinkwort give off strong aromatic odor that is easily recognizable [1,2,4]. Stinkwort has flowers that have short yellow rays on the outer edge and yellow to red disk flowers in the center [1,2,4]. Stinkwort which is native to the Mediterranean is rapidly invading other areas. It has found its way into many other areas including Central Europe, Australia, South Africa, and the United States [1].

[[File:stinkwort PM.png|thumb||left| a. Stinkwort b. Zoomed in stinkwort c. Flower head d. Habitat along a road [3]]]

==Habitat==
Stinkwort can be found in a variety of places located around its native area. It is known to be prevalent in riparian woodlands, margins of tidal marshes, [[Vernal Pools|vernal pools]], and alluvial floodplains [1]. However, in areas where stinkwort is not native, it grows in disturbed areas such as overgrazed rangelands, roadsides, pastures, wastelands, vineyard edges, gravel mines, levees, washes, and mining sites [1,2]. Well-drained, sandy and gravelly soils are where Stinkwort thrives. Hot and dry climate is its preferred area, but grows well on the outskirts of wetlands.

===Seed Dispersal===
There are few different ways in which stinkwort seeds can be dispersed. The seeds have small fine hairs which allow for wind dispersal [3]. The fine hairs also stick to clothing, wool, hair, and machinery [3]. Stinkwort seeds have high viability with about 90% of the seeds being capable of germination at the time of dispersal [1].

===Negative Impacts===
Stinkwort is not an edible species so it can cause problems within livestock. If consumed by livestock, stinkwort can poison them leading to mortality in some cases [1,4]. The fine hairs of the seed induce enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) or release fatal bacterium if the livestock have chosen to graze on it [4]. Not only does it cause problems in [[animals]], but also humans. When stinkwort is flowered and then handled by bare skin, it can cause severe dermatitis [4,5].

===Control===
There are several different ways in which stinkwort can be controlled. For smaller areas of invasions, mechanical practices can be used. This involves pulling, hoeing, and mowing [1,4]. When hand pulling and hoeing, gloves should be worn to avoid dermatitis. Mowing is only a partial control. It should be done late in the season and multiple times [1]. The buds remaining may grow back, which is why this should be repeated more than once [1]. For larger areas two different types of herbicides can be used. The two types being either post or preemergence herbicides. Postemergence herbicides are applied to young plants and target visibly infested areas [1]. Preemergence herbicides are used for larger areas before seeds are allowed to germinate [1].

===References===
[1] Brownsey, R., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2013. Stinkwort is rapidly expanding its range in California. Cal Ag 67, 110–115. https://doi.org/10.3733/ca.v067n02p110

[2] Brownsey, R.N., Kyser, G.B., DiTomaso, J.M., 2014. Growth and phenology of Dittrichia graveolens, a rapidly spreading invasive plant in California. Biol Invasions 16, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-013-0501-4

[3] Kocián, P., 2015. Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter – a new alien species in Poland. Acta Musei Silesiae, Scientiae Naturales 64, 193–197. https://doi.org/10.1515/cszma-2015-0027

[4] Stinkwort Guide [WWW Document], n.d. . HerbiGuide. URL http://www.herbiguide.com.au/Descriptions/hg_Stinkwort.htm

[5] Thong, H.-Y., Yokota, M., Kardassakis, D., Maibach, H.I., 2007. Allergic contact dermatitis from Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter (stinkwort). Contact Dermatitis 58, 51–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01154.x

Detritivores

2022-04-11T15:10:32Z

Leannesc: /* Definition */

== Definition ==

Detritivore's are heterotrophic [[Organisms]] that feed off of decaying plant and animal matter. Organisms that feed on detritus (decaying plant or animal matter, or feces). Detritivores may also obtain nutrition by coprophagy, which is a feeding strategy involving the consumption of feces.
(add in text citations!)

== In Ecology ==

In [[ecology]] detritivores are [[scavengers]] that feed of other organisms in the environment that have died. Since detritivores are decomposers they are typically on the lower end of the food chain and are also prey for [[animals]] higher on the food chain. Detritivores play the role of recyclers in ecosystems taking nutrients from decaying organisms and reintroducing it into the environment by being eaten by other organisms. The relationship between predators and detritivores is closely linked to plant biomass in certain [[biomes]]. Typically the more predators the lower the plant biomass because the predators are eating the detritivores who help facilitate plant growth by recycling nutrients, especially nitrogen, back into the [[soil]].

== Types of Detritivores ==

'''[[Annelids]]''' - Earth worms are one of the most common groups of detritivores. They consume dead [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] as well as the dirt surrounding it, recycling it back into the soil.

[[File:Earthworm1.jpg|thumb|Multiple annelids laying in soil.]]

'''[[Fungi]]''' - Fungi are actually not considered to be detritivores. Even though they fill the same roles as detritivores they are only considered decomposers.

'''[[Bacteria]]''' - Bacteria, like fungi, are also not considered to be detritivores even though they fulfill almost the same roles as detritivores. The only marked difference between detritivores and decomposers like fungi and bacteria are that fungi and bacteria are capable of digesting lignin while other organisms that are classified as detritivores cannot.

'''[[Isopods]]''' - Some isopods are detritivores that feed on the bottom of fallen trees.

[[File:Armadillidium_vulgare_000.jpg|thumb|Armadillidium vulgare rolled up in a ball.]]

'''[[Pitcher Plants]]''' - These plants evolved from carnivorous plants to have a pitcher like shape that collects and breaks down leaf litter that falls into them.

[[File:Pitcherplant.jpg]]

== [[Nitrogen Fixation]] ==

Detritivores play a major role in the [[nitrogen cycle]] allowing [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] that normally would go to waste re-enter the food chain. Detritivores break down nitrates and nitrites from the organic material they consume and release it back into the atmosphere as nitrogen gas. This process is called the [[Decomposition Reaction]] and is often only achieved through the aid of detritivores and [[decomposers]]. Detritivores also create ammonia during the [[decomposition]] of organic matter. The ammonia produced by detritivores is used in the [[nitrification]] process to keep nitrogen in the [[biosphere]].

== References ==

1. Thompson, J. N., and D. M. Gates. 2018, March 30. Biosphere. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/science/biosphere/The-nitrogen-cycle.

2. THE NITROGEN CYCLE. (n.d.). . http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Chemistry-Vol-8/The-Nitrogen-Cycle.html.

3. Megías, A. G., and C. Müller. 2010. Root herbivores and detritivores shape above-ground multitrophic assemblage through plant-mediated effects. Journal of Animal Ecology.

4. Wu, X., J. N. Griffin, and S. Sun. 2013. Cascading effects of predator-detritivore interactions depend on environmental context in a Tibetan alpine meadow. Journal of Animal Ecology 83:546–556.

5. (n.d.). . Study.com. https://study.com/academy/lesson/detritivores-definition-examples.html.

6. GCSE Bitesize: Decay processes. (n.d.). . BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/green_world/decayrev1.shtml.

Detritivores

2022-04-11T15:10:09Z

Leannesc: /* Definition */

== Definition ==

Detritivore's are heterotrophic [[Organisms]] that feed off of decaying plant and animal matter. Organisms that feed on detritus (decaying plant or animal matter, or feces). Detritivores may also obtain nutrition by coprophagy, which is a feeding strategy involving the consumption of feces.

== In Ecology ==

In [[ecology]] detritivores are [[scavengers]] that feed of other organisms in the environment that have died. Since detritivores are decomposers they are typically on the lower end of the food chain and are also prey for [[animals]] higher on the food chain. Detritivores play the role of recyclers in ecosystems taking nutrients from decaying organisms and reintroducing it into the environment by being eaten by other organisms. The relationship between predators and detritivores is closely linked to plant biomass in certain [[biomes]]. Typically the more predators the lower the plant biomass because the predators are eating the detritivores who help facilitate plant growth by recycling nutrients, especially nitrogen, back into the [[soil]].

== Types of Detritivores ==

'''[[Annelids]]''' - Earth worms are one of the most common groups of detritivores. They consume dead [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] as well as the dirt surrounding it, recycling it back into the soil.

[[File:Earthworm1.jpg|thumb|Multiple annelids laying in soil.]]

'''[[Fungi]]''' - Fungi are actually not considered to be detritivores. Even though they fill the same roles as detritivores they are only considered decomposers.

'''[[Bacteria]]''' - Bacteria, like fungi, are also not considered to be detritivores even though they fulfill almost the same roles as detritivores. The only marked difference between detritivores and decomposers like fungi and bacteria are that fungi and bacteria are capable of digesting lignin while other organisms that are classified as detritivores cannot.

'''[[Isopods]]''' - Some isopods are detritivores that feed on the bottom of fallen trees.

[[File:Armadillidium_vulgare_000.jpg|thumb|Armadillidium vulgare rolled up in a ball.]]

'''[[Pitcher Plants]]''' - These plants evolved from carnivorous plants to have a pitcher like shape that collects and breaks down leaf litter that falls into them.

[[File:Pitcherplant.jpg]]

== [[Nitrogen Fixation]] ==

Detritivores play a major role in the [[nitrogen cycle]] allowing organic matter that normally would go to waste re-enter the food chain. Detritivores break down nitrates and nitrites from the organic material they consume and release it back into the atmosphere as nitrogen gas. This process is called the [[Decomposition Reaction]] and is often only achieved through the aid of detritivores and [[decomposers]]. Detritivores also create ammonia during the [[decomposition]] of organic matter. The ammonia produced by detritivores is used in the [[nitrification]] process to keep nitrogen in the [[biosphere]].

== References ==

1. Thompson, J. N., and D. M. Gates. 2018, March 30. Biosphere. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/science/biosphere/The-nitrogen-cycle.

2. THE NITROGEN CYCLE. (n.d.). . http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Chemistry-Vol-8/The-Nitrogen-Cycle.html.

3. Megías, A. G., and C. Müller. 2010. Root herbivores and detritivores shape above-ground multitrophic assemblage through plant-mediated effects. Journal of Animal Ecology.

4. Wu, X., J. N. Griffin, and S. Sun. 2013. Cascading effects of predator-detritivore interactions depend on environmental context in a Tibetan alpine meadow. Journal of Animal Ecology 83:546–556.

5. (n.d.). . Study.com. https://study.com/academy/lesson/detritivores-definition-examples.html.

6. GCSE Bitesize: Decay processes. (n.d.). . BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/green_world/decayrev1.shtml.

Wolf Spider

2022-04-06T18:22:45Z

Leannesc: Created page with "Wolf Spiders are members of the family Lycosidae. This family belongs to the order of Araneae, which includes all known spiders. There are more than 100 genera and about 2,300..."

Wolf Spiders are members of the family Lycosidae. This family belongs to the order of Araneae, which includes all known spiders. There are more than 100 genera and about 2,300 species of wolf spiders; 200 species live in the United States [1]. The Wolf Spider mainly feeds on [[insects]], has a lifespan of up to a year (making them annuals), and ranges in size from 0.24 to 1.2 inches [2].

[[File:Wolf spider white bg.jpg|thumb|Wolf Spider Full Body View]]

==Description==
The size of the wolf spider can be as small as a 1/4 inch but can grow as large as 2 inches. The females are found to be much larger than the males. They have as many as 8 eyes that are separated into 3 rows with the bottom row containing 4 small eyes, the middle row containing the 2 large eyes, and then the top row containing 2 medium-sized eyes. This gives them the powerful vision to detect their prey, even at night. Their bodies are also covered in hairs that help them detect their surroundings with touch. The Wolf Spider has a wide range of colorations including black, orange, brown, and grey [3].

==Habitats==
Wolf spiders are found all throughout the United States. Their common habitats include woods, grasslands, and shrubbery (any area that has a close source of running water). Because there is such variety in species and size, their habitats are broad. Instead of living on spun webs, the Wolf Spider creates shallow burrows in the dirt for resting and overwintering [4].

==Mating and Reproduction==
Wolf Spiders only come in contact with female wolf spiders during their mating seasons. Mating takes place outside of the female's burrow at night. The male is attracted to the female through the pheromones from the silk they produce. Males perform a complex mating dance that includes complex leg movements and palp signaling to the female. After mating is completed, the female constructs an egg sac that she carries around to protect. Females are very defensive over their egg sacs and show aggressive behaviors when they are lost or to protect them [1].

[[File:Wolf Spider with egg sac (31663965492).jpg|thumb|Wolf Spider with egg sac]]

==Hunting Habits==
Wolf Spiders get their name from the way that they hunt and stalk their prey. They are usually lone hunters, which does not hinder their chances of catching their prey. Just like regular wolves, the wolf spider leaps at its prey after stalking them and uses its strong jaws to bite and consume them. Common prey of this species includes crickets, earwigs, grasshoppers, flies, and ants [3]. They have even been found to prey upon small reptiles or amphibians in some cases. Unlike other Arachnid species, the Wolf Spider will hunt in a set territory and return its prey to its nest to consume it [1].

==References==
[1] Wolf Spiders - Great Facts, Venom & Habitat Information. (n.d.). .

[2] Wolf Spider Facts. 2018, December 14. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/wolf-spider.

[3]Wolf Spider - Size, Appearance, Bite, Facts and Pictures. 2018, November 15. . https://badpests.com/wolf-spider/.

[4] Wolf Spider Habitat | Terminix. (n.d.). . https://www.terminix.com/spiders/wolf/where-do-wolf-spiders-live/.

Amynthas agrestis

2022-04-04T18:41:21Z

Leannesc:

Amynthas agrestis is a species of invasive [[earthworm]]. They are more widely known as the Asian jumping worm or Crazy worm. It is an invasive species that is relatively new in the United States, they can be found in the Southeast, along the Eastern Seaboard, and in the mid-Atlantic, Midwest, and some Northwestern states. They out compete other local native earthworms. This is done by taking over a forest floor section until it has exhausted its resources and then moves onto another. (Add in text citations - Leanne)
[[File:Crazy_worm.jpg|thumb|Asian Jumping Worm in comparison to an individuals fingers]]

==Scientific Classification==

'''Kingdom'''- Animalia

'''Phylum''' - Annelida

'''Class''' - Clitellata

'''Order''' - Haploxida

'''Family''' - Megascolecidae

==Background==

In the Northeast during the last ice age around 10,000 years ago massive glaciers scraped the [[bedrock]] bare as they receded over hundreds of years and in doing so also cleared out any native earthworms we originally had. That being said we have brought new earthworms over from Europe and though there is an ongoing debate whether they are helpful or a hindrance, for the most part we assume at the moment that they are doing more good than bad. The Amynthas agrestis is from Japan and Korea and is much different than our other earthworms and as part of their name suggests, they are very aggressive and much different than the European earthworms.

[[File:Worm.jpg|thumb| Video Depicting Amynthas Agrestis: "https://www.youtube.com/embed/Ca7n3Gf3xX4" ]]

==Characteristics of Amynthas Agrestis==

Amynthas agrestis can be distinguished from other worms by their darker color (in general), and by the band near their middle called a clitellum. In most worms it’s puffy, and similar in color. In crazy worms it’s even with the body, and milky white to gray. Mature size and behavior also set them apart. Crazy worms are transplants, and that’s how they often spread. Whether in a potted plant from a garden center or a gift from a South Carolina relative, these monsters hitchhike long distances with transplants. They also move from infested areas, mostly in southern states, in shipments of mulch.

There are two ways of telling if your potted plant harbors dangerous fugitives. One is to turn it upside-down and gently remove the root ball. If crazy worms are present, the roots, as well as some potting soil, may be missing. The thing is, if there is only young crazy worms present, or very few, damage might not be evident. A better solution is a mustard solution. Mix a gallon of water with one-third cup of ground yellow mustard seed, and pour this slowly into the soil. It won’t hurt the plant, but worms (even “good” ones) will come to the surface and you can check for miscreants.”

As can be seen by their common name "Crazy Worm" they are very hyperactive. They slither like a snake which is not normal of other [[annelids]]. Their clitellum is light in contrast. They are typically iridescent, and violet colors in direct sunlight. They will shed their tails to escape predation just like their close relative the Alabama Jumper (amynthas gracilis).Their vermicast is very large and has the resemblance and characteristics of cooked ground beef. On the surface this annelid seems to be just another earth worm but as we dig deeper we find that they are having a huge devastating effect on forest floor substrate and the vital nutrients that make up the food web of the forest as a whole.

Because of their acrobatics, crazy worms are valued as fishing bait. This is illegal in most places, but it does happen. To be safe, anglers should securely cover bait containers, and destroy all unused bait by placing it on bare concrete and stepping on it. With a presence in Wisconsin and Minnesota, Amynthas agrestis is hardy to USDA Zone 4 and possibly colder.

[[File:Worm_deer.jpg]]

==Reproduction==

One of many differences is their reproduction process. Most earth worms are hermaphroditic which means that they all have male and female organs. However, they still need a mate to complete the reproductive process. Amynthas agrestis on the other hand are parthenogenic, meaning they’re all females who then have the ability to make cocoons filled with hundreds of babies that are also female and there for never needing to mate with another so it only takes one worm in any given area to lead to infestation.

They also mature twice at twice the rate of European earthworms, finishing two generations per season instead of just one. Their population density also gets greater than other worms. Crazy worms are a much larger species growing to lengths of 8 inches long. That leads to a massive worm biomass that will destroy all biomass in its path. "In areas of heavy infestation, native plants, [[soil]] invertebrates, salamanders, birds and other [[animals]] may decline. By disturbing the soil, jumping worms help facilitate the spread of invasive species. Jumping worms can severely damage roots of plants in nurseries, gardens, forests and turf." This includes lawns as well as the roots of annuals, perennials, and shrubs. In the forests, they destroy the native wildflowers, wiping out such plants as trillium, bloodroot, Jack-in-the-pulpit, lady slipper, and other understory plants. As these understory plants disappear they take with them the understory songbirds with them. As Amynthas agrestis infestation removes organics from soil, the soil becomes clumpy and granular and prone to compaction and erosion. Forest soils actually subside, exposing tree roots. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources invasive species specialist Bernie Williams stated “Their introduction into our state poses a huge threat to the future of our forests.”

[[File:Amynthas-agrestis-crazy-worm-1.jpg|thumb|Amynthas Agrestis amoung a pile of litter on the base of the forest floor]]

==References==

[2]https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.cornell.edu/dist/a/4227/files/2017/11/JumpingWoms_FactSheet-11_15_17-2026fwt.pdf

[3]https://www.arboretum.harvard.edu/native-plants-crazy-snake-worm/

[4]https://urbanwormcompany.com/crazy-worm-amynthas-agrestis

[5]New York State Urban Forestry Council. http://nysufc.org/worms-bad-urban-forest/2017/10/14/#more-3574

[6]http://fingerlakesinvasives.org/species-spotlight-crazy-snake-worm/

https://dnr.wi.gov/topic/forestmanagement/documents/wildcards/fr-518.pdf

“Amynthas Agrestis.” INaturalist.org, www.inaturalist.org/taxa/364093-Amynthas-agrestis.

http://blog.uvm.edu/jgorres/amynthas/

Monocots

2022-03-30T15:13:40Z

Leannesc: /* Familes */

=Monocots=

[[File:orchid.jpg|left|200px|[16]|]]

Monocots make up one of the largest groups of [[wikipedia:angiosperms|angiosperms]], or flowering plants, comprising a total of twenty-five percent of all [[angiosperms]] [4]. The term monocot, stems from most membering plants having one seed leaf, known as a [[wikipedia:cotyledon|cotyledon]]. There are nearly 60,000 different species of monocots and together they form a monophyletic group [2]. Famous monocot families include Orchidaceae (orchids), the largest known plant family, Iridaceae (irises), Arecaceae (palms) and more [13]. Monocots are of great economic and cultural importance around the world [13].

[[File:monodistems.jpg|border|frame|The scattered vascular structure of a monocot pattern (left) compared to the ring-shaped vascular structure of eudicots (right) [17].]]

=Physical Structure=

The identifying feature of a monocot is a trimerious-pentacyclic flower design. This design consists of six tepals in two whorls, six stamens in two whorls, and three carpels. These features are virtually absent from earlier angiosperms [8]. Floral parts in monocots typically occur in threes [9]. Monocots are also known to have leaves with parallel venation, the veins are arranged parallel to one another and do not join other veins. Monocotyledons differ from the other main group of angiosperms, [[wikipedia:eudicots|eudicots]], in their vascular structure. Monocots have primary vascular bundles containing both [[wikipedia:phloem|phloem]] and [[wikipedia:xylem|xylem]] in a scattered arrangement, known as an atactostele. There is no differentiation between cortical and stellar regions in monocots. This contrasts eudicots, which have a ring like vascular bundle shape with a distinct phloem and xylem, differentiated by the cortex and stele [15]. Root systems in monocots are characterized by a radical, which aborts at an early stage. Since the first root that emerges dies, a central taproot forms and roots grow adventitiously [3]. [[wikipedia:Adventitious roots|adventitious roots]] sprout from shoot tissues near the base of the monocot. [[Root hairs]] of Monocots are short-lived but are regularly replaced by new hairs as long as the root continues to grow. Monocots also lack a cambium, which allows for growth in diameter with height [3]. Due to the lack of cambium, there is a limit on how tall shoots can grow and many monocots tend to be herbaceous. However, some monocots are able to reach great height, length and mass such as agaves, palms, and bamboos.

[[File:monocot_seed.png|frame|border|left|Seed structure in monocots shown in a front view (left) and a longitudinal cross section (right) [18].]]

=Reproductive Structures=

A monocot seed is comprised of the plant embryo, cotyledon and endosperm. The embryo will consume the endosperm and the cotyledon will transfer the stored energy to the embryo [12]. As the embryo develops it sends a primary root out of the seed coating and into the [[soil]]. A primary leaf is then pushed up through the seed coating to the surface. This process differs from [[dicots]] in that a dicot’s primary roots will grow towards the soil surface initially.

[[File:monotree.PNG|frame|border|Monophyletic monocot tree based on 18s rDNA data [11].]]

=DNA=

Based on recent data, monocots have been identified to be a monophyletic group that diverged from other angiosperms over a million years BP, during the Cretaceous era [2]. Advances in molecular systematics have enabled eight major groups of monocot to be identified. Moving from the most basal, these groups include Acorus, Alismatales, and a polytomy of six remaining clades known as Japonolirion, Dioscoreales, Pandanales, Liliales, Asparagales, and a commelinoid clade with subclades, Arecaceae, Zinigiberales, and Poales [5]. While monocots were originally named due to having a single cotyledon, 18s rDNA evidence has shown that a stronger uniting factor among monocots is pollen grain type. Through the use of molecular systematics, it has been found that taxa with uniaperturate pollen form a grade at the base of the angiosperm tree [11]. Nearly all monocots have been identified to have uniaperturate pollen grains which distinguishes them from a large eudicot clade with taxa having primarily triaperturate pollen [10].

=Familes=

Monocots include several different families such as Alismatales, Lilioids, Orchidaceae, Arecaceae, and Poaceae [19]. Alismatales are marine angiosperms that experienced a reduction or loss of features due to adaptations to aquatic environments and have large floral [[diversity]]. Lilioids are petaloid, showy monocots that have many ornamental features, elliptical leaves without a petiole, and are used as nectaries by pollinators such as birds and [[insects]]. Orchidaceae is one of the largest angiosperm families with over 22,000 species. They are terrestrial saprophytes and epiphytes that are highly specialized pollinators and usually have strong ornamentals. Arecaceae are the palms that are the tallest of all the Monocots with the largest seeds found in simple fruits. The leaves are compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. Lastly, the Poaceae are the grasses which contain over 10,000 different species and make up 20% of vegetation and provide a strong economic role for humans (food, lawns, etc.). The grasses grow from the base of the blade, rather than the tips, and the flowers are arranged into spikelets [20].

=Uses=

Monocots are of great cultural and economic importance. [[wikipedia:Grasses|Grasses]], in particular, are monocots which are of vital importance to both humans and [[wikipedia:animals|animals]] (Poaceae) [4]. Monocots are ubiquitous in the diet of humans. Grains such as rice, wheat, and barley are all monocots [1]. Fruits such as plantains, coconuts, pineapples, and dates fall under the monocot clade. In addition to the monocot’s dietary use, some monocots are used medicinally. The genus Dioscorea is responsible for producing diosgenin, a steroid-like compound that aids in making progesterone for many contraceptives. Indigenous communities around the world rely on monocots for medicinal purposes [6,7,14]. Other monocots used by humans include the [[wikipedia:sedge|sedge]] family (Cyperaceae), palms, lilies, bromeliads, skunk cabbage, and philodendron [9].

=References=

[1] Anderson CL, Janssen T. 2009. Monocots. In: Hedges SB, Kumar S, eds. Timetree of life. New York: Oxford University Press, 203–212.

[2] Bremer, K. (2000). Early Cretaceous Lineages of Monocot Flowering Plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97(9), 4707–4711. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.080421597

[3] Chase, M. W. (2004). Monocot relationships: An overview. American Journal of Botany. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.91.10.1645

[4] Fay, M. F. (2013). Monocots. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 172(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12052

[5] Furness, C. A., & Rudall, P. J. (2004). Pollen aperture evolution - A crucial factor for eudicot success? Trends in Plant Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2004.01.001

[6] Mahomoodally, M. F. (2013). Traditional medicines in Africa: An appraisal of ten potent African medicinal plants. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/617459

[7] Maroyi, A. (2013). Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe: Review and perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-31

[8] Remizowa, M. V., Sokoloff, D. D., & Rudall, P. J. (2010). Evolutionary History of the Monocot Flower 1. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 97(4), 617–645. https://doi.org/10.3417/2009142

[9] Robinson, R. (2016). Monocots. In M. S. Hill (Ed.), Biology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 104-106). Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. Retrieved from 128.205.114.91 http://link.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/apps/doc/CX3629800285/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&xid=028f8864

[10] Soltis, D. E., Bell, C. D., Kim, S., & Soltis, P. S. (2008). Origin and early evolution of angiosperms. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1438.005

[11] Soltis, D. E., Soltis, P. S., Chase, M. W., Mort, M. E., Albach, D. C., Zanis, M., … Farris, J. S. (2000). Angiosperm phylogeny inferred from 18S rDNA, rbcL, and atpB sequences. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 133(4), 381–461. https://doi.org/10.1006/bojl.2000.0380

[12] Sreenivasulu, N., & Wobus, U. (2013). Seed-Development Programs: A Systems Biology–Based Comparison Between Dicots and Monocots. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 64(1), 189–217. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120215

[13] Tang, C. Q., Orme, C. D. L., Bunnefeld, L., Jones, F. A., Powell, S., Chase, M. W., … Savolainen, V. (2017). Global monocot diversification: geography explains variation in species richness better than environment or biology. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 183(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12497

[14] Uprety, Y., Asselin, H., Dhakal, A., & Julien, N. (2012). Traditional use of medicinal plants in the boreal forest of Canada: Review and perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-8-7

[15] Zimmermann, M. H., & Tomlinson, P. B. (1972). The Vascular System of Monocotyledonous Stems. Botanical Gazette, 133(2), 141-155. doi:10.1086/336628 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2473813 .

Photo References:

[16] Foster, N. (2016, July). How To Care For Your Beautiful Phalaenopsis Orchid. Retrieved March 9, 2018, from https://www.joyusgarden.com/how-to-care-for-your-beautiful-phalaenopsis-orchid/

[17] Plant Structure bi. (n.d.). Retrieved March 09, 2018, from http://www.biologyjunction.com/plant_structure_bi1.htm

[18] Tiftickjian, J. (n.d.). Corn Seed Structure. Retrieved from http://www.doctortee.com/cgi/image-lookup.cgi?corn-seed

[19] Editors, B. B. D., By: and B. D. Editors. 2017, May 27. Monocot - definition and examples of monocotyledon. https://biologydictionary.net/monocot/.

[20] Monocot Families (USDA). (n.d.). . http://www.efloras.org/key_page.aspx?set_id=10084&flora_id=1200.

Monocots

2022-03-30T15:13:18Z

Leannesc: /* References */

=Monocots=

[[File:orchid.jpg|left|200px|[16]|]]

Monocots make up one of the largest groups of [[wikipedia:angiosperms|angiosperms]], or flowering plants, comprising a total of twenty-five percent of all [[angiosperms]] [4]. The term monocot, stems from most membering plants having one seed leaf, known as a [[wikipedia:cotyledon|cotyledon]]. There are nearly 60,000 different species of monocots and together they form a monophyletic group [2]. Famous monocot families include Orchidaceae (orchids), the largest known plant family, Iridaceae (irises), Arecaceae (palms) and more [13]. Monocots are of great economic and cultural importance around the world [13].

[[File:monodistems.jpg|border|frame|The scattered vascular structure of a monocot pattern (left) compared to the ring-shaped vascular structure of eudicots (right) [17].]]

=Physical Structure=

The identifying feature of a monocot is a trimerious-pentacyclic flower design. This design consists of six tepals in two whorls, six stamens in two whorls, and three carpels. These features are virtually absent from earlier angiosperms [8]. Floral parts in monocots typically occur in threes [9]. Monocots are also known to have leaves with parallel venation, the veins are arranged parallel to one another and do not join other veins. Monocotyledons differ from the other main group of angiosperms, [[wikipedia:eudicots|eudicots]], in their vascular structure. Monocots have primary vascular bundles containing both [[wikipedia:phloem|phloem]] and [[wikipedia:xylem|xylem]] in a scattered arrangement, known as an atactostele. There is no differentiation between cortical and stellar regions in monocots. This contrasts eudicots, which have a ring like vascular bundle shape with a distinct phloem and xylem, differentiated by the cortex and stele [15]. Root systems in monocots are characterized by a radical, which aborts at an early stage. Since the first root that emerges dies, a central taproot forms and roots grow adventitiously [3]. [[wikipedia:Adventitious roots|adventitious roots]] sprout from shoot tissues near the base of the monocot. [[Root hairs]] of Monocots are short-lived but are regularly replaced by new hairs as long as the root continues to grow. Monocots also lack a cambium, which allows for growth in diameter with height [3]. Due to the lack of cambium, there is a limit on how tall shoots can grow and many monocots tend to be herbaceous. However, some monocots are able to reach great height, length and mass such as agaves, palms, and bamboos.

[[File:monocot_seed.png|frame|border|left|Seed structure in monocots shown in a front view (left) and a longitudinal cross section (right) [18].]]

=Reproductive Structures=

A monocot seed is comprised of the plant embryo, cotyledon and endosperm. The embryo will consume the endosperm and the cotyledon will transfer the stored energy to the embryo [12]. As the embryo develops it sends a primary root out of the seed coating and into the [[soil]]. A primary leaf is then pushed up through the seed coating to the surface. This process differs from [[dicots]] in that a dicot’s primary roots will grow towards the soil surface initially.

[[File:monotree.PNG|frame|border|Monophyletic monocot tree based on 18s rDNA data [11].]]

=DNA=

Based on recent data, monocots have been identified to be a monophyletic group that diverged from other angiosperms over a million years BP, during the Cretaceous era [2]. Advances in molecular systematics have enabled eight major groups of monocot to be identified. Moving from the most basal, these groups include Acorus, Alismatales, and a polytomy of six remaining clades known as Japonolirion, Dioscoreales, Pandanales, Liliales, Asparagales, and a commelinoid clade with subclades, Arecaceae, Zinigiberales, and Poales [5]. While monocots were originally named due to having a single cotyledon, 18s rDNA evidence has shown that a stronger uniting factor among monocots is pollen grain type. Through the use of molecular systematics, it has been found that taxa with uniaperturate pollen form a grade at the base of the angiosperm tree [11]. Nearly all monocots have been identified to have uniaperturate pollen grains which distinguishes them from a large eudicot clade with taxa having primarily triaperturate pollen [10].

=Familes=

Monocots include several different families such as Alismatales, Lilioids, Orchidaceae, Arecaceae, and Poaceae [19]. Alismatales are marine angiosperms that experienced a reduction or loss of features due to adaptations to aquatic environments and have large floral [[diversity]]. Lilioids are petaloid, showy monocots that have many ornamental features, elliptical leaves without a petiole, and are used as nectaries by pollinators such as birds and [[insects]]. Orchidaceae is one of the largest angiosperm families with over 22,000 species. They are terrestrial saprophytes and epiphytes that are highly specialized pollinators and usually have strong ornamentals. Arecaceae are the palms that are the tallest of all the Monocots with the largest seeds found in simple fruits. The leaves are compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. Lastly, the Poaceae are the grasses which contain over 10,000 different species and make up 20% of vegetation and provide a strong economic role for humans (food, lawns, etc.). The grasses grow from the base of the blade, rather than the tips, and the flowers are arranged into spikelets.

=Uses=

Monocots are of great cultural and economic importance. [[wikipedia:Grasses|Grasses]], in particular, are monocots which are of vital importance to both humans and [[wikipedia:animals|animals]] (Poaceae) [4]. Monocots are ubiquitous in the diet of humans. Grains such as rice, wheat, and barley are all monocots [1]. Fruits such as plantains, coconuts, pineapples, and dates fall under the monocot clade. In addition to the monocot’s dietary use, some monocots are used medicinally. The genus Dioscorea is responsible for producing diosgenin, a steroid-like compound that aids in making progesterone for many contraceptives. Indigenous communities around the world rely on monocots for medicinal purposes [6,7,14]. Other monocots used by humans include the [[wikipedia:sedge|sedge]] family (Cyperaceae), palms, lilies, bromeliads, skunk cabbage, and philodendron [9].

=References=

[1] Anderson CL, Janssen T. 2009. Monocots. In: Hedges SB, Kumar S, eds. Timetree of life. New York: Oxford University Press, 203–212.

[2] Bremer, K. (2000). Early Cretaceous Lineages of Monocot Flowering Plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97(9), 4707–4711. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.080421597

[3] Chase, M. W. (2004). Monocot relationships: An overview. American Journal of Botany. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.91.10.1645

[4] Fay, M. F. (2013). Monocots. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 172(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12052

[5] Furness, C. A., & Rudall, P. J. (2004). Pollen aperture evolution - A crucial factor for eudicot success? Trends in Plant Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2004.01.001

[6] Mahomoodally, M. F. (2013). Traditional medicines in Africa: An appraisal of ten potent African medicinal plants. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/617459

[7] Maroyi, A. (2013). Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe: Review and perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-31

[8] Remizowa, M. V., Sokoloff, D. D., & Rudall, P. J. (2010). Evolutionary History of the Monocot Flower 1. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 97(4), 617–645. https://doi.org/10.3417/2009142

[9] Robinson, R. (2016). Monocots. In M. S. Hill (Ed.), Biology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 104-106). Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. Retrieved from 128.205.114.91 http://link.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/apps/doc/CX3629800285/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&xid=028f8864

[10] Soltis, D. E., Bell, C. D., Kim, S., & Soltis, P. S. (2008). Origin and early evolution of angiosperms. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1438.005

[11] Soltis, D. E., Soltis, P. S., Chase, M. W., Mort, M. E., Albach, D. C., Zanis, M., … Farris, J. S. (2000). Angiosperm phylogeny inferred from 18S rDNA, rbcL, and atpB sequences. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 133(4), 381–461. https://doi.org/10.1006/bojl.2000.0380

[12] Sreenivasulu, N., & Wobus, U. (2013). Seed-Development Programs: A Systems Biology–Based Comparison Between Dicots and Monocots. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 64(1), 189–217. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120215

[13] Tang, C. Q., Orme, C. D. L., Bunnefeld, L., Jones, F. A., Powell, S., Chase, M. W., … Savolainen, V. (2017). Global monocot diversification: geography explains variation in species richness better than environment or biology. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 183(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12497

[14] Uprety, Y., Asselin, H., Dhakal, A., & Julien, N. (2012). Traditional use of medicinal plants in the boreal forest of Canada: Review and perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-8-7

[15] Zimmermann, M. H., & Tomlinson, P. B. (1972). The Vascular System of Monocotyledonous Stems. Botanical Gazette, 133(2), 141-155. doi:10.1086/336628 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2473813 .

Photo References:

[16] Foster, N. (2016, July). How To Care For Your Beautiful Phalaenopsis Orchid. Retrieved March 9, 2018, from https://www.joyusgarden.com/how-to-care-for-your-beautiful-phalaenopsis-orchid/

[17] Plant Structure bi. (n.d.). Retrieved March 09, 2018, from http://www.biologyjunction.com/plant_structure_bi1.htm

[18] Tiftickjian, J. (n.d.). Corn Seed Structure. Retrieved from http://www.doctortee.com/cgi/image-lookup.cgi?corn-seed

[19] Editors, B. B. D., By: and B. D. Editors. 2017, May 27. Monocot - definition and examples of monocotyledon. https://biologydictionary.net/monocot/.

[20] Monocot Families (USDA). (n.d.). . http://www.efloras.org/key_page.aspx?set_id=10084&flora_id=1200.

Monocots

2022-03-30T15:03:12Z

Leannesc: /* Familes */

=Monocots=

[[File:orchid.jpg|left|200px|[16]|]]

Monocots make up one of the largest groups of [[wikipedia:angiosperms|angiosperms]], or flowering plants, comprising a total of twenty-five percent of all [[angiosperms]] [4]. The term monocot, stems from most membering plants having one seed leaf, known as a [[wikipedia:cotyledon|cotyledon]]. There are nearly 60,000 different species of monocots and together they form a monophyletic group [2]. Famous monocot families include Orchidaceae (orchids), the largest known plant family, Iridaceae (irises), Arecaceae (palms) and more [13]. Monocots are of great economic and cultural importance around the world [13].

[[File:monodistems.jpg|border|frame|The scattered vascular structure of a monocot pattern (left) compared to the ring-shaped vascular structure of eudicots (right) [17].]]

=Physical Structure=

The identifying feature of a monocot is a trimerious-pentacyclic flower design. This design consists of six tepals in two whorls, six stamens in two whorls, and three carpels. These features are virtually absent from earlier angiosperms [8]. Floral parts in monocots typically occur in threes [9]. Monocots are also known to have leaves with parallel venation, the veins are arranged parallel to one another and do not join other veins. Monocotyledons differ from the other main group of angiosperms, [[wikipedia:eudicots|eudicots]], in their vascular structure. Monocots have primary vascular bundles containing both [[wikipedia:phloem|phloem]] and [[wikipedia:xylem|xylem]] in a scattered arrangement, known as an atactostele. There is no differentiation between cortical and stellar regions in monocots. This contrasts eudicots, which have a ring like vascular bundle shape with a distinct phloem and xylem, differentiated by the cortex and stele [15]. Root systems in monocots are characterized by a radical, which aborts at an early stage. Since the first root that emerges dies, a central taproot forms and roots grow adventitiously [3]. [[wikipedia:Adventitious roots|adventitious roots]] sprout from shoot tissues near the base of the monocot. [[Root hairs]] of Monocots are short-lived but are regularly replaced by new hairs as long as the root continues to grow. Monocots also lack a cambium, which allows for growth in diameter with height [3]. Due to the lack of cambium, there is a limit on how tall shoots can grow and many monocots tend to be herbaceous. However, some monocots are able to reach great height, length and mass such as agaves, palms, and bamboos.

[[File:monocot_seed.png|frame|border|left|Seed structure in monocots shown in a front view (left) and a longitudinal cross section (right) [18].]]

=Reproductive Structures=

A monocot seed is comprised of the plant embryo, cotyledon and endosperm. The embryo will consume the endosperm and the cotyledon will transfer the stored energy to the embryo [12]. As the embryo develops it sends a primary root out of the seed coating and into the [[soil]]. A primary leaf is then pushed up through the seed coating to the surface. This process differs from [[dicots]] in that a dicot’s primary roots will grow towards the soil surface initially.

[[File:monotree.PNG|frame|border|Monophyletic monocot tree based on 18s rDNA data [11].]]

=DNA=

Based on recent data, monocots have been identified to be a monophyletic group that diverged from other angiosperms over a million years BP, during the Cretaceous era [2]. Advances in molecular systematics have enabled eight major groups of monocot to be identified. Moving from the most basal, these groups include Acorus, Alismatales, and a polytomy of six remaining clades known as Japonolirion, Dioscoreales, Pandanales, Liliales, Asparagales, and a commelinoid clade with subclades, Arecaceae, Zinigiberales, and Poales [5]. While monocots were originally named due to having a single cotyledon, 18s rDNA evidence has shown that a stronger uniting factor among monocots is pollen grain type. Through the use of molecular systematics, it has been found that taxa with uniaperturate pollen form a grade at the base of the angiosperm tree [11]. Nearly all monocots have been identified to have uniaperturate pollen grains which distinguishes them from a large eudicot clade with taxa having primarily triaperturate pollen [10].

=Familes=

Monocots include several different families such as Alismatales, Lilioids, Orchidaceae, Arecaceae, and Poaceae [19]. Alismatales are marine angiosperms that experienced a reduction or loss of features due to adaptations to aquatic environments and have large floral [[diversity]]. Lilioids are petaloid, showy monocots that have many ornamental features, elliptical leaves without a petiole, and are used as nectaries by pollinators such as birds and [[insects]]. Orchidaceae is one of the largest angiosperm families with over 22,000 species. They are terrestrial saprophytes and epiphytes that are highly specialized pollinators and usually have strong ornamentals. Arecaceae are the palms that are the tallest of all the Monocots with the largest seeds found in simple fruits. The leaves are compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. Lastly, the Poaceae are the grasses which contain over 10,000 different species and make up 20% of vegetation and provide a strong economic role for humans (food, lawns, etc.). The grasses grow from the base of the blade, rather than the tips, and the flowers are arranged into spikelets.

=Uses=

Monocots are of great cultural and economic importance. [[wikipedia:Grasses|Grasses]], in particular, are monocots which are of vital importance to both humans and [[wikipedia:animals|animals]] (Poaceae) [4]. Monocots are ubiquitous in the diet of humans. Grains such as rice, wheat, and barley are all monocots [1]. Fruits such as plantains, coconuts, pineapples, and dates fall under the monocot clade. In addition to the monocot’s dietary use, some monocots are used medicinally. The genus Dioscorea is responsible for producing diosgenin, a steroid-like compound that aids in making progesterone for many contraceptives. Indigenous communities around the world rely on monocots for medicinal purposes [6,7,14]. Other monocots used by humans include the [[wikipedia:sedge|sedge]] family (Cyperaceae), palms, lilies, bromeliads, skunk cabbage, and philodendron [9].

=References=

[1] Anderson CL, Janssen T. 2009. Monocots. In: Hedges SB, Kumar S, eds. Timetree of life. New York: Oxford University Press, 203–212.

[2] Bremer, K. (2000). Early Cretaceous Lineages of Monocot Flowering Plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97(9), 4707–4711. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.080421597

[3] Chase, M. W. (2004). Monocot relationships: An overview. American Journal of Botany. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.91.10.1645

[4] Fay, M. F. (2013). Monocots. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 172(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12052

[5] Furness, C. A., & Rudall, P. J. (2004). Pollen aperture evolution - A crucial factor for eudicot success? Trends in Plant Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2004.01.001

[6] Mahomoodally, M. F. (2013). Traditional medicines in Africa: An appraisal of ten potent African medicinal plants. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/617459

[7] Maroyi, A. (2013). Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe: Review and perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-31

[8] Remizowa, M. V., Sokoloff, D. D., & Rudall, P. J. (2010). Evolutionary History of the Monocot Flower 1. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 97(4), 617–645. https://doi.org/10.3417/2009142

[9] Robinson, R. (2016). Monocots. In M. S. Hill (Ed.), Biology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 104-106). Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. Retrieved from 128.205.114.91 http://link.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/apps/doc/CX3629800285/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&xid=028f8864

[10] Soltis, D. E., Bell, C. D., Kim, S., & Soltis, P. S. (2008). Origin and early evolution of angiosperms. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1438.005

[11] Soltis, D. E., Soltis, P. S., Chase, M. W., Mort, M. E., Albach, D. C., Zanis, M., … Farris, J. S. (2000). Angiosperm phylogeny inferred from 18S rDNA, rbcL, and atpB sequences. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 133(4), 381–461. https://doi.org/10.1006/bojl.2000.0380

[12] Sreenivasulu, N., & Wobus, U. (2013). Seed-Development Programs: A Systems Biology–Based Comparison Between Dicots and Monocots. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 64(1), 189–217. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120215

[13] Tang, C. Q., Orme, C. D. L., Bunnefeld, L., Jones, F. A., Powell, S., Chase, M. W., … Savolainen, V. (2017). Global monocot diversification: geography explains variation in species richness better than environment or biology. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 183(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12497

[14] Uprety, Y., Asselin, H., Dhakal, A., & Julien, N. (2012). Traditional use of medicinal plants in the boreal forest of Canada: Review and perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-8-7

[15] Zimmermann, M. H., & Tomlinson, P. B. (1972). The Vascular System of Monocotyledonous Stems. Botanical Gazette, 133(2), 141-155. doi:10.1086/336628 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2473813 .

Photo References:

[16] Foster, N. (2016, July). How To Care For Your Beautiful Phalaenopsis Orchid. Retrieved March 9, 2018, from https://www.joyusgarden.com/how-to-care-for-your-beautiful-phalaenopsis-orchid/

[17] Plant Structure bi. (n.d.). Retrieved March 09, 2018, from http://www.biologyjunction.com/plant_structure_bi1.htm

[18] Tiftickjian, J. (n.d.). Corn Seed Structure. Retrieved from http://www.doctortee.com/cgi/image-lookup.cgi?corn-seed

[19] Editors, B. B. D., By: and B. D. Editors. 2017, May 27. Monocot - definition and examples of monocotyledon. https://biologydictionary.net/monocot/.

Monocots

2022-03-30T15:02:39Z

Leannesc: /* References */

=Monocots=

[[File:orchid.jpg|left|200px|[16]|]]

Monocots make up one of the largest groups of [[wikipedia:angiosperms|angiosperms]], or flowering plants, comprising a total of twenty-five percent of all [[angiosperms]] [4]. The term monocot, stems from most membering plants having one seed leaf, known as a [[wikipedia:cotyledon|cotyledon]]. There are nearly 60,000 different species of monocots and together they form a monophyletic group [2]. Famous monocot families include Orchidaceae (orchids), the largest known plant family, Iridaceae (irises), Arecaceae (palms) and more [13]. Monocots are of great economic and cultural importance around the world [13].

[[File:monodistems.jpg|border|frame|The scattered vascular structure of a monocot pattern (left) compared to the ring-shaped vascular structure of eudicots (right) [17].]]

=Physical Structure=

The identifying feature of a monocot is a trimerious-pentacyclic flower design. This design consists of six tepals in two whorls, six stamens in two whorls, and three carpels. These features are virtually absent from earlier angiosperms [8]. Floral parts in monocots typically occur in threes [9]. Monocots are also known to have leaves with parallel venation, the veins are arranged parallel to one another and do not join other veins. Monocotyledons differ from the other main group of angiosperms, [[wikipedia:eudicots|eudicots]], in their vascular structure. Monocots have primary vascular bundles containing both [[wikipedia:phloem|phloem]] and [[wikipedia:xylem|xylem]] in a scattered arrangement, known as an atactostele. There is no differentiation between cortical and stellar regions in monocots. This contrasts eudicots, which have a ring like vascular bundle shape with a distinct phloem and xylem, differentiated by the cortex and stele [15]. Root systems in monocots are characterized by a radical, which aborts at an early stage. Since the first root that emerges dies, a central taproot forms and roots grow adventitiously [3]. [[wikipedia:Adventitious roots|adventitious roots]] sprout from shoot tissues near the base of the monocot. [[Root hairs]] of Monocots are short-lived but are regularly replaced by new hairs as long as the root continues to grow. Monocots also lack a cambium, which allows for growth in diameter with height [3]. Due to the lack of cambium, there is a limit on how tall shoots can grow and many monocots tend to be herbaceous. However, some monocots are able to reach great height, length and mass such as agaves, palms, and bamboos.

[[File:monocot_seed.png|frame|border|left|Seed structure in monocots shown in a front view (left) and a longitudinal cross section (right) [18].]]

=Reproductive Structures=

A monocot seed is comprised of the plant embryo, cotyledon and endosperm. The embryo will consume the endosperm and the cotyledon will transfer the stored energy to the embryo [12]. As the embryo develops it sends a primary root out of the seed coating and into the [[soil]]. A primary leaf is then pushed up through the seed coating to the surface. This process differs from [[dicots]] in that a dicot’s primary roots will grow towards the soil surface initially.

[[File:monotree.PNG|frame|border|Monophyletic monocot tree based on 18s rDNA data [11].]]

=DNA=

Based on recent data, monocots have been identified to be a monophyletic group that diverged from other angiosperms over a million years BP, during the Cretaceous era [2]. Advances in molecular systematics have enabled eight major groups of monocot to be identified. Moving from the most basal, these groups include Acorus, Alismatales, and a polytomy of six remaining clades known as Japonolirion, Dioscoreales, Pandanales, Liliales, Asparagales, and a commelinoid clade with subclades, Arecaceae, Zinigiberales, and Poales [5]. While monocots were originally named due to having a single cotyledon, 18s rDNA evidence has shown that a stronger uniting factor among monocots is pollen grain type. Through the use of molecular systematics, it has been found that taxa with uniaperturate pollen form a grade at the base of the angiosperm tree [11]. Nearly all monocots have been identified to have uniaperturate pollen grains which distinguishes them from a large eudicot clade with taxa having primarily triaperturate pollen [10].

=Familes=

Monocots include several different families such as Alismatales, Lilioids, Orchidaceae, Arecaceae, and Poaceae. Alismatales are marine angiosperms that experienced a reduction or loss of features due to adaptations to aquatic environments and have large floral [[diversity]]. Lilioids are petaloid, showy monocots that have many ornamental features, elliptical leaves without a petiole, and are used as nectaries by pollinators such as birds and [[insects]]. Orchidaceae is one of the largest angiosperm families with over 22,000 species. They are terrestrial saprophytes and epiphytes that are highly specialized pollinators and usually have strong ornamentals. Arecaceae are the palms that are the tallest of all the Monocots with the largest seeds found in simple fruits. The leaves are compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. Lastly, the Poaceae are the grasses which contain over 10,000 different species and make up 20% of vegetation and provide a strong economic role for humans (food, lawns, etc.). The grasses grow from the base of the blade, rather than the tips, and the flowers are arranged into spikelets.

=Uses=

Monocots are of great cultural and economic importance. [[wikipedia:Grasses|Grasses]], in particular, are monocots which are of vital importance to both humans and [[wikipedia:animals|animals]] (Poaceae) [4]. Monocots are ubiquitous in the diet of humans. Grains such as rice, wheat, and barley are all monocots [1]. Fruits such as plantains, coconuts, pineapples, and dates fall under the monocot clade. In addition to the monocot’s dietary use, some monocots are used medicinally. The genus Dioscorea is responsible for producing diosgenin, a steroid-like compound that aids in making progesterone for many contraceptives. Indigenous communities around the world rely on monocots for medicinal purposes [6,7,14]. Other monocots used by humans include the [[wikipedia:sedge|sedge]] family (Cyperaceae), palms, lilies, bromeliads, skunk cabbage, and philodendron [9].

=References=

[1] Anderson CL, Janssen T. 2009. Monocots. In: Hedges SB, Kumar S, eds. Timetree of life. New York: Oxford University Press, 203–212.

[2] Bremer, K. (2000). Early Cretaceous Lineages of Monocot Flowering Plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97(9), 4707–4711. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.080421597

[3] Chase, M. W. (2004). Monocot relationships: An overview. American Journal of Botany. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.91.10.1645

[4] Fay, M. F. (2013). Monocots. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 172(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12052

[5] Furness, C. A., & Rudall, P. J. (2004). Pollen aperture evolution - A crucial factor for eudicot success? Trends in Plant Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2004.01.001

[6] Mahomoodally, M. F. (2013). Traditional medicines in Africa: An appraisal of ten potent African medicinal plants. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/617459

[7] Maroyi, A. (2013). Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe: Review and perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-31

[8] Remizowa, M. V., Sokoloff, D. D., & Rudall, P. J. (2010). Evolutionary History of the Monocot Flower 1. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 97(4), 617–645. https://doi.org/10.3417/2009142

[9] Robinson, R. (2016). Monocots. In M. S. Hill (Ed.), Biology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 104-106). Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. Retrieved from 128.205.114.91 http://link.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/apps/doc/CX3629800285/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&xid=028f8864

[10] Soltis, D. E., Bell, C. D., Kim, S., & Soltis, P. S. (2008). Origin and early evolution of angiosperms. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1438.005

[11] Soltis, D. E., Soltis, P. S., Chase, M. W., Mort, M. E., Albach, D. C., Zanis, M., … Farris, J. S. (2000). Angiosperm phylogeny inferred from 18S rDNA, rbcL, and atpB sequences. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 133(4), 381–461. https://doi.org/10.1006/bojl.2000.0380

[12] Sreenivasulu, N., & Wobus, U. (2013). Seed-Development Programs: A Systems Biology–Based Comparison Between Dicots and Monocots. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 64(1), 189–217. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120215

[13] Tang, C. Q., Orme, C. D. L., Bunnefeld, L., Jones, F. A., Powell, S., Chase, M. W., … Savolainen, V. (2017). Global monocot diversification: geography explains variation in species richness better than environment or biology. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 183(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12497

[14] Uprety, Y., Asselin, H., Dhakal, A., & Julien, N. (2012). Traditional use of medicinal plants in the boreal forest of Canada: Review and perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-8-7

[15] Zimmermann, M. H., & Tomlinson, P. B. (1972). The Vascular System of Monocotyledonous Stems. Botanical Gazette, 133(2), 141-155. doi:10.1086/336628 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2473813 .

Photo References:

[16] Foster, N. (2016, July). How To Care For Your Beautiful Phalaenopsis Orchid. Retrieved March 9, 2018, from https://www.joyusgarden.com/how-to-care-for-your-beautiful-phalaenopsis-orchid/

[17] Plant Structure bi. (n.d.). Retrieved March 09, 2018, from http://www.biologyjunction.com/plant_structure_bi1.htm

[18] Tiftickjian, J. (n.d.). Corn Seed Structure. Retrieved from http://www.doctortee.com/cgi/image-lookup.cgi?corn-seed

[19] Editors, B. B. D., By: and B. D. Editors. 2017, May 27. Monocot - definition and examples of monocotyledon. https://biologydictionary.net/monocot/.

Monocots

2022-03-28T18:49:46Z

Leannesc:

=Monocots=

[[File:orchid.jpg|left|200px|[16]|]]

Monocots make up one of the largest groups of [[wikipedia:angiosperms|angiosperms]], or flowering plants, comprising a total of twenty-five percent of all [[angiosperms]] [4]. The term monocot, stems from most membering plants having one seed leaf, known as a [[wikipedia:cotyledon|cotyledon]]. There are nearly 60,000 different species of monocots and together they form a monophyletic group [2]. Famous monocot families include Orchidaceae (orchids), the largest known plant family, Iridaceae (irises), Arecaceae (palms) and more [13]. Monocots are of great economic and cultural importance around the world [13].

[[File:monodistems.jpg|border|frame|The scattered vascular structure of a monocot pattern (left) compared to the ring-shaped vascular structure of eudicots (right) [17].]]

=Physical Structure=

The identifying feature of a monocot is a trimerious-pentacyclic flower design. This design consists of six tepals in two whorls, six stamens in two whorls, and three carpels. These features are virtually absent from earlier angiosperms [8]. Floral parts in monocots typically occur in threes [9]. Monocots are also known to have leaves with parallel venation, the veins are arranged parallel to one another and do not join other veins. Monocotyledons differ from the other main group of angiosperms, [[wikipedia:eudicots|eudicots]], in their vascular structure. Monocots have primary vascular bundles containing both [[wikipedia:phloem|phloem]] and [[wikipedia:xylem|xylem]] in a scattered arrangement, known as an atactostele. There is no differentiation between cortical and stellar regions in monocots. This contrasts eudicots, which have a ring like vascular bundle shape with a distinct phloem and xylem, differentiated by the cortex and stele [15]. Root systems in monocots are characterized by a radical, which aborts at an early stage. Since the first root that emerges dies, a central taproot forms and roots grow adventitiously [3]. [[wikipedia:Adventitious roots|adventitious roots]] sprout from shoot tissues near the base of the monocot. [[Root hairs]] of Monocots are short-lived but are regularly replaced by new hairs as long as the root continues to grow. Monocots also lack a cambium, which allows for growth in diameter with height [3]. Due to the lack of cambium, there is a limit on how tall shoots can grow and many monocots tend to be herbaceous. However, some monocots are able to reach great height, length and mass such as agaves, palms, and bamboos.

[[File:monocot_seed.png|frame|border|left|Seed structure in monocots shown in a front view (left) and a longitudinal cross section (right) [18].]]

=Reproductive Structures=

A monocot seed is comprised of the plant embryo, cotyledon and endosperm. The embryo will consume the endosperm and the cotyledon will transfer the stored energy to the embryo [12]. As the embryo develops it sends a primary root out of the seed coating and into the [[soil]]. A primary leaf is then pushed up through the seed coating to the surface. This process differs from [[dicots]] in that a dicot’s primary roots will grow towards the soil surface initially.

[[File:monotree.PNG|frame|border|Monophyletic monocot tree based on 18s rDNA data [11].]]

=DNA=

Based on recent data, monocots have been identified to be a monophyletic group that diverged from other angiosperms over a million years BP, during the Cretaceous era [2]. Advances in molecular systematics have enabled eight major groups of monocot to be identified. Moving from the most basal, these groups include Acorus, Alismatales, and a polytomy of six remaining clades known as Japonolirion, Dioscoreales, Pandanales, Liliales, Asparagales, and a commelinoid clade with subclades, Arecaceae, Zinigiberales, and Poales [5]. While monocots were originally named due to having a single cotyledon, 18s rDNA evidence has shown that a stronger uniting factor among monocots is pollen grain type. Through the use of molecular systematics, it has been found that taxa with uniaperturate pollen form a grade at the base of the angiosperm tree [11]. Nearly all monocots have been identified to have uniaperturate pollen grains which distinguishes them from a large eudicot clade with taxa having primarily triaperturate pollen [10].

=Familes=

Monocots include several different families such as Alismatales, Lilioids, Orchidaceae, Arecaceae, and Poaceae. Alismatales are marine angiosperms that experienced a reduction or loss of features due to adaptations to aquatic environments and have large floral [[diversity]]. Lilioids are petaloid, showy monocots that have many ornamental features, elliptical leaves without a petiole, and are used as nectaries by pollinators such as birds and [[insects]]. Orchidaceae is one of the largest angiosperm families with over 22,000 species. They are terrestrial saprophytes and epiphytes that are highly specialized pollinators and usually have strong ornamentals. Arecaceae are the palms that are the tallest of all the Monocots with the largest seeds found in simple fruits. The leaves are compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. Lastly, the Poaceae are the grasses which contain over 10,000 different species and make up 20% of vegetation and provide a strong economic role for humans (food, lawns, etc.). The grasses grow from the base of the blade, rather than the tips, and the flowers are arranged into spikelets.

=Uses=

Monocots are of great cultural and economic importance. [[wikipedia:Grasses|Grasses]], in particular, are monocots which are of vital importance to both humans and [[wikipedia:animals|animals]] (Poaceae) [4]. Monocots are ubiquitous in the diet of humans. Grains such as rice, wheat, and barley are all monocots [1]. Fruits such as plantains, coconuts, pineapples, and dates fall under the monocot clade. In addition to the monocot’s dietary use, some monocots are used medicinally. The genus Dioscorea is responsible for producing diosgenin, a steroid-like compound that aids in making progesterone for many contraceptives. Indigenous communities around the world rely on monocots for medicinal purposes [6,7,14]. Other monocots used by humans include the [[wikipedia:sedge|sedge]] family (Cyperaceae), palms, lilies, bromeliads, skunk cabbage, and philodendron [9].

=References=

[1] Anderson CL, Janssen T. 2009. Monocots. In: Hedges SB, Kumar S, eds. Timetree of life. New York: Oxford University Press, 203–212.

[2] Bremer, K. (2000). Early Cretaceous Lineages of Monocot Flowering Plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97(9), 4707–4711. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.080421597

[3] Chase, M. W. (2004). Monocot relationships: An overview. American Journal of Botany. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.91.10.1645

[4] Fay, M. F. (2013). Monocots. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 172(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12052

[5] Furness, C. A., & Rudall, P. J. (2004). Pollen aperture evolution - A crucial factor for eudicot success? Trends in Plant Science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2004.01.001

[6] Mahomoodally, M. F. (2013). Traditional medicines in Africa: An appraisal of ten potent African medicinal plants. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/617459

[7] Maroyi, A. (2013). Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe: Review and perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-31

[8] Remizowa, M. V., Sokoloff, D. D., & Rudall, P. J. (2010). Evolutionary History of the Monocot Flower 1. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 97(4), 617–645. https://doi.org/10.3417/2009142

[9] Robinson, R. (2016). Monocots. In M. S. Hill (Ed.), Biology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 104-106). Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. Retrieved from 128.205.114.91 http://link.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/apps/doc/CX3629800285/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&xid=028f8864

[10] Soltis, D. E., Bell, C. D., Kim, S., & Soltis, P. S. (2008). Origin and early evolution of angiosperms. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1438.005

[11] Soltis, D. E., Soltis, P. S., Chase, M. W., Mort, M. E., Albach, D. C., Zanis, M., … Farris, J. S. (2000). Angiosperm phylogeny inferred from 18S rDNA, rbcL, and atpB sequences. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 133(4), 381–461. https://doi.org/10.1006/bojl.2000.0380

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Photo References:

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