File:Yellowanther.jpg

2022-05-05T19:26:31Z

Leahtayl:

Invertebrates

2022-05-05T18:03:56Z

Leahtayl:

== Definition ==
Invertebrates are any [[animal]] that does not have a spinal column. They comprise the vast majority (almost 97%) of all animal species and include a diverse range of organisms, such as [[insects]], [[crustaceans]], [[worms]], and coral.<ref>Center for Biological [[Diversity]]. Invertebrates. https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/invertebrates/</ref> On a phylogenetic tree, invertebrates include all [[animals]] that do not fall in the subphylum Vertebrata. Although the term "invertebrates" does not officially define a specific phylum or subphylum like Vertebrata (vertebrates) does, the term has persisted out of convenience.<ref>Louis Aggassiz. (2013). Essay on Classification. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-15135-9.</ref>[[File:AnimalTree-1.png|300px|thumb|right|Overarching phylogenetic tree of animals.]]

== Soil Invertebrates ==
The main groups of invertebrates within [[soil]] are [[flatworms]] ([[Platyhelminthes]]), [[snails]] and [[slugs]] (Mollusca), worms (Annelida), [[nematodes]] (Nematoda), and [[arthropods]] (Arthropoda).<ref>Georgia Tech. (2019). Animals: Invertebrates. https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/biodiversity/animals-invertebrates-2019/</ref>

Flatworms are most diverse in tropical regions and are usually found under rocks or in leaf litter where conditions are humid and moist. They do not have the ability to retain water on their own and will desiccate without an external water source.<ref>Álvarez‐Presas, M., Mateos, E., & Riutort, M. (2018). Hidden diversity in forest soils: Characterization and comparison of terrestrial flatworm’s communities in two national parks in Spain. Ecology and evolution, 8(15), 7386-7400. DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4178</ref> They are predators and typically eat other invertebrates, including arthropods, earthworms, snails, and slugs. Invasive flatworms can have a damaging effect on an ecosystem when they consume native species. This is especially concerning when native [[earthworm]] populations are affected, as earthworms are important soil fauna. <ref>Bertone, M., Crawley, S., & Waldvogel, M. (2020). Terrestrial Flatworms, Land Planarians & Hammerhead Worms. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/terrestrial-flatwormshammerhead-worms</ref>

[[File:snailvsslug.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A slug (left) and a snail (right).]]Snails and slugs are typically found in leaf litter in forests, but can also be found in gardens, fields, river banks, and urban areas. Most are considered decomposers and feed on plants, [[fungi]], and algae, but can also consume empty shells, scat, and decaying animals. Some species are carnivorous and will eat nematodes and other snails and slugs. They are also important sources of food for many predators such as [[beetles]], millipedes, small mammals, reptiles, and birds. Snails are important for calcium cycling as they uptake calcium from their food and use it to create their shells, and then are eaten by predators. Calcium availability, soil moisture, and land use strongly affect snail populations.<ref>Hotopp, K. (2005). Land Snail [[Ecology]]. https://www.carnegiemnh.org/science/mollusks/landsnailecology.html</ref>

[[File:amynthas.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Amynthas agrestis, an invasive earthworm in North America.]]Although [[annelids]] include leeches and ragworms, the most ecologically important type that occurs in soil are earthworms. Earthworms decompose dead [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and are major drivers of nutrient and water cycling, plant growth, and changes to soil structure. Some species live at the very surface of soil and within leaf litter, while others live in the upper layer of the soil. Some types are deep burrowers and create permanent burrows several meters long that they use to pull [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] from the surface down into the soil. Earthworms also consume fungi and bacteria, and are commonly preyed upon by mammals and birds. Since earthworms majorly affect [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and microbial populations in soil, they indirectly influence the amount and distribution of other soil fauna.<ref>Edwards, C. The Living Soil: Earthworms. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053863</ref> Invasive species of earthworms can also be extremely damaging to ecosystems. Invasive earthworms negatively affect abundance and diversity of both macro- and [[microorganisms]] in the soil and cause changes to the physical and chemical [[properties]] of the soil. These effects can in turn negatively affect overall ecosystem functioning and services.<ref>Ferlian, O., Eisenhauer, N., Aguirrebengoa, M., Camara, M., Ramirez‐Rojas, I., Santos, F., ... & Thakur, M. P. (2018). Invasive earthworms erode soil biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Animal Ecology, 87(1), 162-172. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12746</ref>

Nematodes are small, non-segmented worms that are found in forest, grassland, and agricultural soils. Food sources differ between species, with some nematodes feeding on fungi, others on bacteria, and some on [[protozoa]] or other nematodes. They are typically found where their food sources are concentrated. Nematodes are preyed upon by insects and predatory nematodes, and are parasitized by bacteria and fungi. A few species cause diseases in plants, but beneficial nematodes are important for [[nutrient cycling]] and dispersing microbes within the soil. <ref>Ingham, E. The Living Soil: Nematodes. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053866</ref>

[[File:arthropods.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Different types of arthropods and their respective classes.]]Arthropods are an extremely diverse and prolific group of soil fauna, comprising up to 85% of the species present in soil.<ref>Bagyaraj, D., Nethravathi, C., & Nitin, K. (2016). Soil Biodiversity and Arthropods: Role in Soil Fertility. In: Chakravarthy, A., Sridhara, S. (eds) Economic and Ecological Significance of Arthropods in Diversified Ecosystems. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1524-3_2</ref> They include crustaceans, arachnids, insects, myriapods (centipedes and millipedes), and scorpions. Due to their multitude and diversity, arthropods carry out a wide range of functions and processes within soil. Shredders break down plant litter and residue, contributing to [[decomposition]] and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. Some arthropods feed on fungi, which also contributes to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. Arthropods can also be herbivores or predators, and many act as a biocontrol to crop pests or as crop pests themselves. Although some are pests, most arthropods are beneficial to soil ecosystems. The majority inhabit the top few inches of soil, with abundance and species diversity diminishing with depth. <ref>Moldenke, A. Living Soil: Arthropods. Natural Resource Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053861</ref>

== Role in the Ecosystem ==
Because of their diversity and abundance, soil invertebrates play many roles in the ecosystem. As part of the food web, invertebrates both consume and are a source of food for other [[organisms]], altering the composition and abundance of species of both plants and animals in a community.<ref>McCary, M. & Schmitz, O. (2021). Invertebrate functional traits and terrestrial [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]: Insights from a global meta-analysis. Journal of Animal Ecology 90, 1714-1726. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13489</ref> Many invertebrates are also drivers of nutrient and water cycling. By breaking down decaying plant matter and contributing to decomposition, nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon become available for plants to uptake, which in turn stimulates plant growth.<ref>Griffiths, H. M., Ashton, L. A., Parr, C. L., & Eggleton, P. (2021). The impact of invertebrate decomposers on plants and soil. New Phytologist, 231(6), 2142-2149. DOI: 10.1111/nph.17553</ref>

They can also be used as bioindicators of soil quality and health. Invertebrate populations are affected by soil contamination, ecosystem clearing, and land management practices. The presence of indicator species and diversity are indicative of higher soil quality.<ref>Nuria, R., Jérôme, M., Léonide, C., Christine, R., Gérard, H., Etienne, I., & Patrick, L. (2011). IBQS: A synthetic index of soil quality based on soil macro-invertebrate communities. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 43(10), 2032-2045. DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.05.019</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Spring Ephemerals

2022-05-03T15:18:45Z

Leahtayl:

Spring Ephemerals are a subcategory of wildflowers that are found on the forest floor in temperate areas and go through the entirety of their life cycle before the forest canopy closes in early summer. These [[flowers]] encompass a variety of plant families including: Berberidaceae (Barberry), Liliaceae (Lily), Portulacaceae (Purslane), and Geraniaceae (Geranium). There are other types of [[ephemeral plants]] (including desert ephemerals, which bloom quickly after a heavy rainfall in desert ecosystems) however this page discusses spring ephemerals which take advantage of the sunlight available in temperate deciduous forests in the early spring [1].
[[File:spring_beauties.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Photo of Eastern Spring Beauty (''Claytonia virginica'').]]

==Description==
[[File:trout_lily.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Photo of a yellow trout lily (''Erythronium americanum''), a common spring ephemeral in our area.]]

Typically spring ephemerals are herbaceous, low growing, [[perennial]] wildflowers with short lifecycles and belowground storage organs which store excess sugars and carbohydrates that the plants live off of for the remainder of the year once they go dormant. These plants are often the earliest sprouting plants within the forest since they have to take advantage of the sunlight before the trees grow their leaves and shade out the plants on the forest floor. They will have produced flowers, released seeds, and reentered dormancy before most other plants have begun to produce leaves [2].

A major advantage that many spring ephemerals share is the possession of an underground storage organ of some sort, like a [[bulb]], [[corm]], or [[rhizome]]. These organs allow ephemerals to store the excess quantities of sugars and carbohydrates they made during the early spring and summer in order to draw on those stores after they no longer have access to the sunlight.
[[File:trout-lily-bulbs.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Photo of the corms of a trout lily, which grow throughout the season.]]

==Reproductive Adaptations==
Since ephemerals are spread out across many different plant families there is not one shared method of reproduction, but rather many different reproduction methods that allow these plants to reproduce quickly and efficiently. The main reproductive attribute that most ephemerals share is that they are perennials which flower and produce seeds within 40-60 days of sprouting [2]. Some ephemerals, like [[Mayapple]] (''Podophyllum peltatum''), can partially avoid the energetic costs of seed production by reproducing asexually and creating clonal patches across the forest floor, only producing seeds and fruit after reaching maturity after about 4 years [5]. Meanwhile other spring ephemerals will wait up to 7 years before producing any flowers or seeds, the [[Trout lily]] is an example of this strategy [6].

[[File:mayapple-group.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Photo of a patch of Mayapple (''Podophyllum peltatum'') that has reproduced clonally.]]

==Ecological Importance==
[[File:miner_bee.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Photo of a trout lily miner bee (''Andrena erythronii'') a native specialist pollinator .]]

Spring Ephemerals are extremely important to forest ecosystems, especially to [[insect]] pollinators. There are a variety of insect pollinators that rely on these wildflowers for food in the early spring, and some are specialist pollinators that primarily feed on these flowers. Beeflies, mining bees, bumblebees, and syrphid flies are some examples of early pollinators who rely on these early blooming wildflowers to sustain themselves [3]. Additionally, small [[animals]] also rely on these plants for food; there is a documented relationship between Mayapple and box turtles that suggests that box turtles are one of the main seed dispersers of Mayapples because many animals do not eat the fruits that are produced due to the leaves and roots being toxic [4].

[[File:spring_miner_bee.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Photo of a spring beauty miner bee (''Andrena erigeniae'') a native specialist pollinator .]]

==Cultural Importance==
Most native spring ephemerals in the northeastern US are edible and/or used for medicinal treatments. As some of the first herbaceous plants people have collected the plants to supplement their food and medicinal stores for the winter for thousands of years. Today the knowledge of how to forage native plants is once again becoming more widespread, and as a result the importance and acknowledgement of spring ephemerals is increasing as well. However, there are still many people today who simply view these plants as a sign that spring has arrived [7].
[[File:BlueCohosh.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Photo of Blue Cohosh (''Caulophyllum thalictroides''). This plant has been used medicinally to induce labor and relieve menstrual pain for thousands of years.]]

==References==
[1] Steffen, J. 2018, April 22. The Secrets of Spring Ephemerals in the Woods | Chicago Botanic Garden. https://www.chicagobotanic.org/blog/plant_science_conservation/secrets_spring_ephemerals_woods.

[2] Anzelone, M. 2010, April 1. Native Spring Ephemerals. https://www.bbg.org/gardening/article/native_spring_ephemerals.

[3] Everett, B., and L. Schaefer. 2019, January 28. Thinking of Spring (Part 2): The Ecological Role of Spring Ephemerals. https://edgeofthewoodsnursery.com/the-ecological-role-of-spring-ephemerals.

[4] Holcomb, A. 2021, April 29. Nature In The Natural State: The Symbiotic Relationship Of Mayapples And Boxturtles. https://www.ualrpublicradio.org/2021-04-29/nature-in-the-natural-state-the-symbiotic-relationship-of-mayapples-and-boxturtles.

[5] Lobstein, M. 2022. Mayapple Plant Profile. https://vnps.org/princewilliamwildflowersociety/botanizing-with-marion/mayapple-plant-profile/.

[6] Weldy, T., D. Werier, and A. Nelson. 2022. Erythronium americanum ssp. americanum - Species Page - NYFA: New York Flora Atlas. https://newyork.plantatlas.usf.edu/Plant.aspx?id=1797.

[7] Tiles, K. 2012, May 11. Spring Wildflowers and Edibles. https://woodlandinfo.org/spring-wildflowers-and-edibles/

Invertebrates

2022-04-27T20:22:14Z

Leahtayl:

== Definition ==
Invertebrates are any [[animal]] that does not have a spinal column. They comprise the vast majority (almost 97%) of all animal species and range from [[insects]] to [[crustaceans]] to [[worms]] to coral.<ref>Center for Biological [[Diversity]]. Invertebrates. https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/invertebrates/</ref> On a phylogenetic tree, invertebrates include all [[animals]] that do not fall in the subphylum Vertebrata. Although the term "invertebrates" does not officially define a specific phylum or subphylum like Vertebrata (vertebrates) does, the term has persisted out of convenience.<ref>Louis Aggassiz. (2013). Essay on Classification. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-15135-9.</ref>[[File:AnimalTree-1.png|300px|thumb|right|Overarching phylogenetic tree of animals.]]

== Soil Invertebrates ==
The main groups of invertebrates within [[soil]] are [[flatworms]] ([[Platyhelminthes]]), [[snails]] and [[slugs]] (Mollusca), worms (Annelida), [[nematodes]] (Nematoda), and [[arthropods]] (Arthropoda).<ref>Georgia Tech. (2019). Animals: Invertebrates. https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/biodiversity/animals-invertebrates-2019/</ref>

Flatworms are most diverse in tropical regions and are usually found under rocks or in leaf litter where conditions are humid and moist. They do not have the ability to retain water on their own and will desiccate without an external water source.<ref>Álvarez‐Presas, M., Mateos, E., & Riutort, M. (2018). Hidden diversity in forest soils: Characterization and comparison of terrestrial flatworm’s communities in two national parks in Spain. Ecology and evolution, 8(15), 7386-7400. DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4178</ref> They are predators and typically eat other invertebrates, including arthropods, earthworms, snails, and slugs. Invasive flatworms can have a damaging effect on an ecosystem when they consume native species. This is especially concerning when native [[earthworm]] populations are affected, as earthworms are important soil fauna. <ref>Bertone, M., Crawley, S., & Waldvogel, M. (2020). Terrestrial Flatworms, Land Planarians & Hammerhead Worms. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/terrestrial-flatwormshammerhead-worms</ref>

[[File:snailvsslug.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A snail (left) and a slug (right).]]Snails and slugs are typically found in leaf litter in forests, but can also be found in gardens, fields, river banks, and urban areas. Most are considered decomposers and feed on plants, [[fungi]], and algae, but can also consume empty shells, scat, and decaying animals. Some species are carnivorous and will eat nematodes and other snails and slugs. They are also important sources of food for many predators such as [[beetles]], millipedes, small mammals, reptiles, and birds. Snails are important for calcium cycling as they uptake calcium from their food and use it to create their shells, and then are eaten by predators. Calcium availability, soil moisture, and land use strongly affect snail populations.<ref>Hotopp, K. (2005). Land Snail [[Ecology]]. https://www.carnegiemnh.org/science/mollusks/landsnailecology.html</ref>

[[File:amynthas.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Amynthas agrestis, an invasive earthworm in North America.]]Although [[annelids]] include leeches and ragworms, the most ecologically important type that occurs in soil are earthworms. Earthworms decompose dead [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and are major drivers of nutrient and water cycling, plant growth, and changes to soil structure. Some species live at the very surface of soil and within leaf litter, while others live in the upper layer of the soil. Some types are deep burrowers and create permanent burrows several meters long that they use to pull [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] from the surface down into the soil. Earthworms also consume fungi and bacteria, and are commonly preyed upon by mammals and birds. Since earthworms majorly affect [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and microbial populations in soil, they indirectly influence the amount and distribution of other soil fauna.<ref>Edwards, C. The Living Soil: Earthworms. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053863</ref> Invasive species of earthworms can also be extremely damaging to ecosystems. Invasive earthworms negatively affect abundance and diversity of both macro- and [[microorganisms]] in the soil and cause changes to the physical and chemical [[properties]] of the soil. These effects can in turn negatively affect overall ecosystem functioning and services.<ref>Ferlian, O., Eisenhauer, N., Aguirrebengoa, M., Camara, M., Ramirez‐Rojas, I., Santos, F., ... & Thakur, M. P. (2018). Invasive earthworms erode soil biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Animal Ecology, 87(1), 162-172. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12746</ref>

Nematodes are small, non-segmented worms that are found in forest, grassland, and agricultural soils. Food sources differ between species, with some nematodes feeding on fungi, others on bacteria, and some on [[protozoa]] or other nematodes. They are typically found where their food sources are concentrated. Nematodes are preyed upon by insects and predatory nematodes, and are parasitized by bacteria and fungi. A few species cause diseases in plants, but beneficial nematodes are important for [[nutrient cycling]] and dispersing microbes within the soil. <ref>Ingham, E. The Living Soil: Nematodes. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053866</ref>

[[File:arthropods.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Different types of arthropods and their respective classes.]]Arthropods are an extremely diverse and prolific group of soil fauna, comprising up to 85% of the species present in soil.<ref>Bagyaraj, D., Nethravathi, C., & Nitin, K. (2016). Soil Biodiversity and Arthropods: Role in Soil Fertility. In: Chakravarthy, A., Sridhara, S. (eds) Economic and Ecological Significance of Arthropods in Diversified Ecosystems. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1524-3_2</ref> They include crustaceans, arachnids, insects, myriapods (centipedes and millipedes), and scorpions. Due to their multitude and diversity, arthropods carry out a wide range of functions and processes within soil. Shredders break down plant litter and residue, contributing to [[decomposition]] and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. Some arthropods feed on fungi, which also contributes to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. Arthropods can also be herbivores or predators, and many act as a biocontrol to crop pests or as crop pests themselves. Although some are pests, most arthropods are beneficial to soil ecosystems. The majority inhabit the top few inches of soil, with abundance and species diversity diminishing with depth. <ref>Moldenke, A. Living Soil: Arthropods. Natural Resource Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053861</ref>

== Role in the Ecosystem ==
Because of their diversity and abundance, soil invertebrates play many roles in the ecosystem. As part of the food web, invertebrates both consume and are a source of food for other [[organisms]], altering the composition and abundance of species of both plants and animals in a community.<ref>McCary, M. & Schmitz, O. (2021). Invertebrate functional traits and terrestrial [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]: Insights from a global meta-analysis. Journal of Animal Ecology 90, 1714-1726. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13489</ref> Many invertebrates are also drivers of nutrient and water cycling. By breaking down decaying plant matter and contributing to decomposition, nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon become available for plants to uptake, which in turn stimulates plant growth.<ref>Griffiths, H. M., Ashton, L. A., Parr, C. L., & Eggleton, P. (2021). The impact of invertebrate decomposers on plants and soil. New Phytologist, 231(6), 2142-2149. DOI: 10.1111/nph.17553</ref>

They can also be used as bioindicators of soil quality and health. Invertebrate populations are affected by soil contamination, ecosystem clearing, and land management practices. The presence of indicator species and diversity are indicative of higher soil quality.<ref>Nuria, R., Jérôme, M., Léonide, C., Christine, R., Gérard, H., Etienne, I., & Patrick, L. (2011). IBQS: A synthetic index of soil quality based on soil macro-invertebrate communities. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 43(10), 2032-2045. DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.05.019</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Invertebrates

2022-04-27T20:21:34Z

Leahtayl:

== Definition ==
Invertebrates are any [[animal]] that does not have a spinal column. They comprise the vast majority (almost 97%) of all animal species and range from [[insects]] to [[crustaceans]] to [[worms]] to coral.<ref>Center for Biological [[Diversity]]. Invertebrates. https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/invertebrates/</ref> On a phylogenetic tree, invertebrates include all [[animals]] that do not fall in the subphylum Vertebrata. Although the term "invertebrates" does not officially define a specific phylum or subphylum like Vertebrata (vertebrates) does, the term has persisted out of convenience.<ref>Louis Aggassiz. (2013). Essay on Classification. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-15135-9.</ref>[[File:AnimalTree-1.png|300px|thumb|right|Overarching phylogenetic tree of animals.]]

== Soil Invertebrates ==
The main groups of invertebrates within [[soil]] are [[flatworms]] ([[Platyhelminthes]]), [[snails]] and [[slugs]] (Mollusca), worms (Annelida), [[nematodes]] (Nematoda), and [[arthropods]] (Arthropoda).<ref>Georgia Tech. (2019). Animals: Invertebrates. https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/biodiversity/animals-invertebrates-2019/</ref>

Flatworms are most diverse in tropical regions and are usually found under rocks or in leaf litter where conditions are humid and moist. They do not have the ability to retain water on their own and will desiccate without an external water source.<ref>Álvarez‐Presas, M., Mateos, E., & Riutort, M. (2018). Hidden diversity in forest soils: Characterization and comparison of terrestrial flatworm’s communities in two national parks in Spain. Ecology and evolution, 8(15), 7386-7400. DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4178</ref> They are predators and typically eat other invertebrates, including arthropods, earthworms, snails, and slugs. Invasive flatworms can have a damaging effect on an ecosystem when they consume native species. This is especially concerning when native [[earthworm]] populations are affected, as earthworms are important soil fauna. <ref>Bertone, M., Crawley, S., & Waldvogel, M. (2020). Terrestrial Flatworms, Land Planarians & Hammerhead Worms. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/terrestrial-flatwormshammerhead-worms</ref>

[[File:snailvsslug.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A snail (left) and a slug (right).]]Snails and slugs are typically found in leaf litter in forests, but can also be found in gardens, fields, river banks, and urban areas. Most are considered decomposers and feed on plants, [[fungi]], and algae, but can also consume empty shells, scat, and decaying animals. Some species are carnivorous and will eat nematodes and other snails and slugs. They are also important sources of food for many predators such as [[beetles]], millipedes, small mammals, reptiles, and birds. Snails are important for calcium cycling as they uptake calcium from their food and use it to create their shells, and then are eaten by predators. Calcium availability, soil moisture, and land use strongly affect snail populations.<ref>Hotopp, K. (2005). Land Snail [[Ecology]]. https://www.carnegiemnh.org/science/mollusks/landsnailecology.html</ref>

[[File:amynthas.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Amynthas agrestis, an invasive earthworm in North America.]]Although [[annelids]] include leeches and ragworms, the most ecologically important type that occurs in soil are earthworms. Earthworms decompose dead [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and are major drivers of nutrient and water cycling, plant growth, and changes to soil structure. Some species live at the very surface of soil and within leaf litter, while others live in the upper layer of the soil. Some types are deep burrowers and create permanent burrows several meters long that they use to pull [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] from the surface down into the soil. Earthworms also consume fungi and bacteria, and are commonly preyed upon by mammals and birds. Since earthworms majorly affect [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and microbial populations in soil, they indirectly influence the amount and distribution of other soil fauna.<ref>Edwards, C. The Living Soil: Earthworms. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053863</ref> Invasive species of earthworms can also be extremely damaging to ecosystems. Invasive earthworms negatively affect abundance and diversity of both macro- and [[microorganisms]] in the soil and cause changes to the physical and chemical [[properties]] of the soil. These effects can in turn negatively affect overall ecosystem functioning and services.<ref>Ferlian, O., Eisenhauer, N., Aguirrebengoa, M., Camara, M., Ramirez‐Rojas, I., Santos, F., ... & Thakur, M. P. (2018). Invasive earthworms erode soil biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Animal Ecology, 87(1), 162-172. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12746</ref>

Nematodes are small, non-segmented worms that are found in forest, grassland, and agricultural soils. Food sources differ between species, with some nematodes feeding on fungi, others on bacteria, and some on [[protozoa]] or other nematodes. They are typically found where their food sources are concentrated. Nematodes are preyed upon by insects and predatory nematodes, and are parasitized by bacteria and fungi. A few species cause diseases in plants, but beneficial nematodes are important for [[nutrient cycling]] and dispersing microbes within the soil. <ref>Ingham, E. The Living Soil: Nematodes. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053866</ref>

Arthropods are an extremely diverse and prolific group of soil fauna, comprising up to 85% of the species present in soil.<ref>Bagyaraj, D., Nethravathi, C., & Nitin, K. (2016). Soil Biodiversity and Arthropods: Role in Soil Fertility. In: Chakravarthy, A., Sridhara, S. (eds) Economic and Ecological Significance of Arthropods in Diversified Ecosystems. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1524-3_2</ref> They include crustaceans, arachnids, insects, myriapods (centipedes and millipedes), and scorpions. Due to their multitude and diversity, arthropods carry out a wide range of functions and processes within soil. Shredders break down plant litter and residue, contributing to [[decomposition]] and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. Some arthropods feed on fungi, which also contributes to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. Arthropods can also be herbivores or predators, and many act as a biocontrol to crop pests or as crop pests themselves. Although some are pests, most arthropods are beneficial to soil ecosystems. The majority inhabit the top few inches of soil, with abundance and species diversity diminishing with depth. <ref>Moldenke, A. Living Soil: Arthropods. Natural Resource Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053861</ref>[[File:arthropods.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Different types of arthropods and their respective classes.]]

== Role in the Ecosystem ==
Because of their diversity and abundance, soil invertebrates play many roles in the ecosystem. As part of the food web, invertebrates both consume and are a source of food for other [[organisms]], altering the composition and abundance of species of both plants and animals in a community.<ref>McCary, M. & Schmitz, O. (2021). Invertebrate functional traits and terrestrial [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]: Insights from a global meta-analysis. Journal of Animal Ecology 90, 1714-1726. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13489</ref> Many invertebrates are also drivers of nutrient and water cycling. By breaking down decaying plant matter and contributing to decomposition, nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon become available for plants to uptake, which in turn stimulates plant growth.<ref>Griffiths, H. M., Ashton, L. A., Parr, C. L., & Eggleton, P. (2021). The impact of invertebrate decomposers on plants and soil. New Phytologist, 231(6), 2142-2149. DOI: 10.1111/nph.17553</ref>

They can also be used as bioindicators of soil quality and health. Invertebrate populations are affected by soil contamination, ecosystem clearing, and land management practices. The presence of indicator species and diversity are indicative of higher soil quality.<ref>Nuria, R., Jérôme, M., Léonide, C., Christine, R., Gérard, H., Etienne, I., & Patrick, L. (2011). IBQS: A synthetic index of soil quality based on soil macro-invertebrate communities. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 43(10), 2032-2045. DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.05.019</ref>

== References ==
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Invertebrates are any [[animal]] that does not have a spinal column. They comprise the vast majority (almost 97%) of all animal species and range from [[insects]] to [[crustaceans]] to [[worms]] to coral.<ref>Center for Biological [[Diversity]]. Invertebrates. https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/invertebrates/</ref> On a phylogenetic tree, invertebrates include all [[animals]] that do not fall in the subphylum Vertebrata. Although the term "invertebrates" does not officially define a specific phylum or subphylum like Vertebrata (vertebrates) does, the term has persisted out of convenience.<ref>Louis Aggassiz. (2013). Essay on Classification. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-15135-9.</ref>[[File:AnimalTree-1.png|300px|thumb|right|Overarching phylogenetic tree of animals.]]

== Soil Invertebrates ==
The main groups of invertebrates within [[soil]] are [[flatworms]] ([[Platyhelminthes]]), [[snails]] and [[slugs]] (Mollusca), worms (Annelida), [[nematodes]] (Nematoda), and [[arthropods]] (Arthropoda).<ref>Georgia Tech. (2019). Animals: Invertebrates. https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/biodiversity/animals-invertebrates-2019/</ref>

Flatworms are most diverse in tropical regions and are usually found under rocks or in leaf litter where conditions are humid and moist. They are predators and typically eat other invertebrates, including arthropods, earthworms, snails, and slugs. Invasive flatworms can have a damaging effect on an ecosystem since they consume native species. This is especially concerning when native [[earthworm]] populations are affected, as earthworms are important soil fauna. <ref>Bertone, M., Crawley, S., & Waldvogel, M. (2020). Terrestrial Flatworms, Land Planarians & Hammerhead Worms. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/terrestrial-flatwormshammerhead-worms</ref>

Snails and slugs are typically found in leaf litter in forests, but can also be found in gardens, fields, river banks, and urban areas. Most are considered decomposers and feed on plants, [[fungi]], and algae, but can also consume empty shells, scat, and decaying animals. Some species are carnivorous and will eat nematodes and other snails and slugs. They are also important sources of food for many predators such as [[beetles]], millipedes, small mammals, reptiles, and birds. Snails are important for calcium cycling as they uptake calcium from their food and use it to create their shells, and then are eaten by predators. Calcium availability, soil moisture, and land use strongly affect snail populations.<ref>Hotopp, K. (2005). Land Snail [[Ecology]]. https://www.carnegiemnh.org/science/mollusks/landsnailecology.html</ref>

Although [[annelids]] include leeches and ragworms, the most ecologically important type that occurs in soil are earthworms. Earthworms decompose dead organic matter and are major drivers of nutrient and water cycling, plant growth, and changes to soil structure. Some species live at the very surface of soil and within leaf litter, while others live in the upper layer of the soil. Some types are deep burrowers and create permanent burrows several meters long that they use to pull organic matter from the surface down into the soil. Earthworms also consume fungi and bacteria, and are commonly preyed upon by mammals and birds. Since earthworms majorly affect organic matter and microbial populations in soil, they indirectly influence the amount and distribution of other soil fauna. Invasive earthworms can also be extremely damaging to ecosystems.<ref>Edwards, C. The Living Soil: Earthworms. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053863</ref>

Nematodes are small, non-segmented worms that are found in forest, grassland, and agricultural soils. Food sources differ between species, with some nematodes feeding on fungi, others on bacteria, and some on [[protozoa]] or other nematodes. They are typically found where their food sources are concentrated. Nematodes are preyed upon by insects and predatory nematodes, and are parasitized by bacteria and fungi. A few species cause diseases in plants, but beneficial nematodes are important for [[nutrient cycling]] and dispersing microbes within the soil. <ref>Ingham, E. The Living Soil: Nematodes. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053866</ref>

Arthropods are an extremely diverse and prolific group of soil fauna, comprising up to 85% of the species present in soil.<ref>Bagyaraj, D., Nethravathi, C., & Nitin, K. (2016). Soil Biodiversity and Arthropods: Role in Soil Fertility. In: Chakravarthy, A., Sridhara, S. (eds) Economic and Ecological Significance of Arthropods in Diversified Ecosystems. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1524-3_2</ref> They include crustaceans, arachnids, insects, myriapods (centipedes and millipedes), and scorpions. Due to their multitude and diversity, arthropods carry out a wide range of functions and processes within soil. Shredders break down plant litter and residue, contributing to [[decomposition]] and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. Some arthropods feed on fungi, which also contributes to nutrient cycling. Arthropods can also be herbivores or predators, and many act as a biocontrol to crop pests or as crop pests themselves. Although some are pests, most arthropods are beneficial to soil ecosystems. The majority inhabit the top few inches of soil, with abundance and species diversity diminishing with depth. <ref>Moldenke, A. Living Soil: Arthropods. Natural Resource Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053861</ref>

== Role in the Ecosystem ==
Because of their diversity and abundance, soil invertebrates play many roles in the ecosystem. Not only are many of them drivers of nutrient cycling, but they can be used as bioindicators of soil quality and health.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Invertebrates

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