Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Opiliones

2021-05-05T16:04:24Z

Laynapra:

'''Opiliones''' are commonly referred to as harvest men, but are also known as daddy long legs, granddaddy long legs, harvest spiders, shepherd spiders, or phalangids.
Opiliones were once scientifically classified as ''phalangida'', which you may see used in older literature. The more common name "daddy long legs" may also be mistakenly used to refer to the unrelated crane fly (''Tipulidae'') and the cellar spider (''Pholcidae'').[http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Opiliones&oldid=1016769.] They are known for grouping in large masses of unrelated individuals resembling fur.

[[File:0 OXzI69wALTmoxvJrPEBFbuOTM OcO0rVvYWw7k5K8.jpg|500px|right|''A Congregation of Opliliones''|thumb]]

== Description ==

Opiliones have been in evolutionary stasis since the early Devonian period.[me] They are delicate, shy forms, and are among the largest of arachnids in woodlands [2]. Like other arachnids, they possess 8 legs, 2 pedipalps and 2 chelicerae.[8]
'''Opiliones''' can be differentiated from spiders by looking closely at what appears to be one body segment, but is actually two fused segments, which is consistent with spiders. Daddy long-legs do not possess silk glands, and can not spin webs. Unlike spiders, harvest men lack venom glands associated with their chelicerae. True of all arachnids, fertilization is by direct contact with female. Males of most taxa possess a penis, which is also referred to as a pene, or an aedagus. [3] Opiliones unlike spiders do not possess a book lung, instead their respiratory system is trachial, similar to [[acari]] and [[solifugea]].[8]

Harvest men are known for their exceptionally long walking legs compared to body size, although some species do have shorter legs. In more advanced species of harvest men, the first five abdominal segments are often fused into a dorsal shield called the scutum, which is normally fused with the carapace. Sometimes this shield is only present in males.They have a second pair of legs that are longer than the others and work as antennae. This can be hard to see in short-legged species.

Typical body lengths do not exceed 7 millimeters, with some species smaller than one millimeter. The largest species ''Trogulus Torosus'' can reach a length of 22 millimeters. [4] Leg spans are much larger and some species can exceed 160 millimeters. [1]

== Range and Habitat ==

Opiliones are found globally with the exception of Antarctica but are largely restricted to damp shady places. Nymphs are especially susceptible to dehydration. [8]

Forests, grasslands, wetlands, mountains, caves, chaparral, and even human dwellings make for suitable Opilione habitats.

Tropical systems hold the most '''Opilione''' species. The neo-tropics and Indo-Malayan are
the most diverse realms with respectively 2691 species (41%) and 1337 species (20%). These two tropical regions are then home to
almost 2/3 of the Opiliones. The third most diverse realm is the pale arctic with 819 species (13%),
mostly because of its sheer size. The African tropics have 745 species (11%). Australasia with 564 species has
9% and Ne-arctic with 379 species has less than 6%. The total sum of species of all realms is slightly different
from the total Opiliones because a few species are shared between regions. [5]

== Species ==
There are an estimated 6600 species worldwide that are classified in 4 sub-orders and then divided into 45 families.
=== Suborders ===

[[File:Lani.jpg|200px|left|''Laniatore F. Phalangodidae'' [3] |thumb]]

[[File:Trogulushirtus,adult,Croatia,Konavle4.300a.JPG|200px|right|''Dyspnoi Trogulushirtus'' [2011 Axel Schönhofer]
|thumb]]

[[File:Gagrellinae_-_Philippines.jpg|200px|left|''Eupnoi'' Gagrellinae-Phillipines [4]|thumb]]

[[File:Cymph.jpg|200px|right|''Cyphophthalmi''|thumb]]

==== Laniatores ====

''Laniatores'' are by far the largest suborder with >4100 species).[3] These stout, spiny '''Opiliones''' are typically short legged with hard plates, with many reaching large sizes. Most species in this sub-order depend on warm moist habitats. Given that majority of ''Laniatores'' prefer the tropic climate, it is not uncommon to find them in temperate forests as well. [7]
==== Dyspnoi ====
The sub-order is divided into 8 families consisting of 340 species. They are temperate old world species that are dull-colored and short-legged. Some species may have odd ocular ornamentation. The small number of species of this sub-order, compared to ''Laniatores'', have a more restricted range and are only found in temperate zones with few exceptions.
==== Eupnoi ====
These are the '''Opiliones''' familiar to Europeans and Americans that have earned them the order the name daddy long legs. Their legs are often very thin and long. Several of the tropical species ex. ''Gagrellinae'', may have metallic shines, intricate honeycomb patterns of vascular tissues, and striped/dotted multicolored hues of blue, red, green, yellow.
==== Cyphophthalmi ====
These Opiliones are smaller than the ''Euponoi'' members and resemble minute [[Acari]]. ''Cyphophthalmi'' is the least studied sub-order with only 200 species, but this is thought to be a major underestimate. [6] Their small size and wide distribution have contributed to their lack of study. ''Cyphophthalmi'' species can tolerate many climate conditions and are found on all the continents except Antarctica.

== Activity & Diet ==

Species vary from omnivorous to carnivorous and eat [[insects]], vegetation and fungi, while some are can be [[coprophagous]]. they are by and large opportunistic feeders and will move between habitats looking for food, some species though are predatory
. Most species tend to be nocturnal, although a number of diurnal species have been identified. Some of the predaceous Opiliones are also diurnal, but most are known to be crepuscular.[2] Opiliones feed by ingesting large chunks or particles of prey rather than predigesting or liquefying their prey.[8]

== Reproduction ==

Although parthenogenic species do occur, most harvest men reproduce sexually. Mating involves direct copulation. The males of some species offer a secretion from their chelicerae to the female before copulation. Sometimes the male guards the female after sex.
The females lay eggs shortly after mating, or up to months later. Some species build nests for this purpose. A unique feature of some species is parental care of the offspring, with a few even displaying paternal care. The eggs can hatch anytime after the first 20 days, up to almost half a year after being laid. Daddy long legs need have about four to eight nymphal stages before reaching maturity, but six is the most common. [4]

== Noted ==

Although harvest men are a fascinating group of arachnids, the dramatic increase in environmental disturbances around the world, especially in tropical regions, may have driven many species to extinction even before the formal descriptions by taxonomists. Human activities including pesticide use, forestry operations, air and [[soil]] pollution, fire, and even the introduction of domestic [[animals]] have a tremendous impact on the habitats they depend on. All the formerly considered endangered were cave dwellers who are particularly sensitive to disturbances of habitat. [4]
Contrary to popular belief daddy-long legs species do not contain the world's most powerful venom or any at all for that matter! [7]

== References ==

----
[1] Opiliones. (2018, December 21). New World Encyclopedia, . Retrieved 21:30, April 20, 2019. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Opiliones&oldid=1016769.

[2] Coleman, David C., et al. Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]. Academic Press, 2018. {{ISBN 978-0-12-805251-8}}

[3] Bartlett, Troy. “Order Opiliones - Harvestmen.” Order Opiliones - Harvestmen - BugGuide.Net, 16 Feb. 2004, bugguide.net/node/view/2405#id.
https://bugguide.net/node/view/2405#id

[4] Pinto-da-Rocha, Ricardo, et al. Harvestmen: the Biology of Opiliones. Harvard University Press, 2007.

[5] Kury, Adriano. (2013). Order Opiliones Sundevall, 1833. Zootaxa. 3703. 27-33. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293635734_Order_Opiliones_Sundevall_1833

[6] Kury, A.B. (2000 onwards) Classification of Opiliones. Museu Nacional/UFRJ website. Online at: http://www.museunacional.ufrj.br/mndi/Aracnologia/opiliones.html

[7] “Myth: Daddy-Longlegs Would Be Deadly but...” Burke Museum, 8 Apr. 2016,
https://www.burkemuseum.org/blog/myth-daddy-longlegs-would-be-deadly.

[8] Cowles, J. 2018. Harvestmen:: Opiliones. Pages 102–113 Amazing Arachnids. Princeton University Press.

== External Links ==

'''Opiliones Wiki Site''' https://opiliones.fandom.com/wiki/Adriano_B._Kury

File:0 OXzI69wALTmoxvJrPEBFbuOTM OcO0rVvYWw7k5K8.jpg

2021-05-05T15:58:41Z

Laynapra:

Opiliones

2021-05-05T15:58:16Z

Laynapra:

'''Opiliones''' are commonly referred to as harvest men, but are also known as daddy long legs, granddaddy long legs, harvest spiders, shepherd spiders, or phalangids.
Opiliones were once scientifically classified as ''phalangida'', which you may see used in older literature. The more common name "daddy long legs" may also be mistakenly used to refer to the unrelated crane fly (''Tipulidae'') and the cellar spider (''Pholcidae'').[http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Opiliones&oldid=1016769.] They are known for grouping in large masses of unrelated individuals resembling fur.

== Description ==

Opiliones have been in evolutionary stasis since the early Devonian period.[me] They are delicate, shy forms, and are among the largest of arachnids in woodlands [2]. Like other arachnids, they possess 8 legs, 2 pedipalps and 2 chelicerae.[8]
'''Opiliones''' can be differentiated from spiders by looking closely at what appears to be one body segment, but is actually two fused segments, which is consistent with spiders. Daddy long-legs do not possess silk glands, and can not spin webs. Unlike spiders, harvest men lack venom glands associated with their chelicerae. True of all arachnids, fertilization is by direct contact with female. Males of most taxa possess a penis, which is also referred to as a pene, or an aedagus. [3] Opiliones unlike spiders do not possess a book lung, instead their respiratory system is trachial, similar to [[acari]] and [[solifugea]].[8]

Harvest men are known for their exceptionally long walking legs compared to body size, although some species do have shorter legs. In more advanced species of harvest men, the first five abdominal segments are often fused into a dorsal shield called the scutum, which is normally fused with the carapace. Sometimes this shield is only present in males.They have a second pair of legs that are longer than the others and work as antennae. This can be hard to see in short-legged species.

Typical body lengths do not exceed 7 millimeters, with some species smaller than one millimeter. The largest species ''Trogulus Torosus'' can reach a length of 22 millimeters. [4] Leg spans are much larger and some species can exceed 160 millimeters. [1]

== Range and Habitat ==

Opiliones are found globally with the exception of Antarctica but are largely restricted to damp shady places. Nymphs are especially susceptible to dehydration. [8]

Forests, grasslands, wetlands, mountains, caves, chaparral, and even human dwellings make for suitable Opilione habitats.

Tropical systems hold the most '''Opilione''' species. The neo-tropics and Indo-Malayan are
the most diverse realms with respectively 2691 species (41%) and 1337 species (20%). These two tropical regions are then home to
almost 2/3 of the Opiliones. The third most diverse realm is the pale arctic with 819 species (13%),
mostly because of its sheer size. The African tropics have 745 species (11%). Australasia with 564 species has
9% and Ne-arctic with 379 species has less than 6%. The total sum of species of all realms is slightly different
from the total Opiliones because a few species are shared between regions. [5]

== Species ==
There are an estimated 6600 species worldwide that are classified in 4 sub-orders and then divided into 45 families.
=== Suborders ===

[[File:Lani.jpg|200px|left|''Laniatore F. Phalangodidae'' [3] |thumb]]

[[File:Trogulushirtus,adult,Croatia,Konavle4.300a.JPG|200px|right|''Dyspnoi Trogulushirtus'' [2011 Axel Schönhofer]
|thumb]]

[[File:Gagrellinae_-_Philippines.jpg|200px|left|''Eupnoi'' Gagrellinae-Phillipines [4]|thumb]]

[[File:Cymph.jpg|200px|right|''Cyphophthalmi''|thumb]]

==== Laniatores ====

''Laniatores'' are by far the largest suborder with >4100 species).[3] These stout, spiny '''Opiliones''' are typically short legged with hard plates, with many reaching large sizes. Most species in this sub-order depend on warm moist habitats. Given that majority of ''Laniatores'' prefer the tropic climate, it is not uncommon to find them in temperate forests as well. [7]
==== Dyspnoi ====
The sub-order is divided into 8 families consisting of 340 species. They are temperate old world species that are dull-colored and short-legged. Some species may have odd ocular ornamentation. The small number of species of this sub-order, compared to ''Laniatores'', have a more restricted range and are only found in temperate zones with few exceptions.
==== Eupnoi ====
These are the '''Opiliones''' familiar to Europeans and Americans that have earned them the order the name daddy long legs. Their legs are often very thin and long. Several of the tropical species ex. ''Gagrellinae'', may have metallic shines, intricate honeycomb patterns of vascular tissues, and striped/dotted multicolored hues of blue, red, green, yellow.
==== Cyphophthalmi ====
These Opiliones are smaller than the ''Euponoi'' members and resemble minute [[Acari]]. ''Cyphophthalmi'' is the least studied sub-order with only 200 species, but this is thought to be a major underestimate. [6] Their small size and wide distribution have contributed to their lack of study. ''Cyphophthalmi'' species can tolerate many climate conditions and are found on all the continents except Antarctica.

== Activity & Diet ==

Species vary from omnivorous to carnivorous and eat [[insects]], vegetation and fungi, while some are can be [[coprophagous]]. they are by and large opportunistic feeders and will move between habitats looking for food, some species though are predatory
. Most species tend to be nocturnal, although a number of diurnal species have been identified. Some of the predaceous Opiliones are also diurnal, but most are known to be crepuscular.[2] Opiliones feed by ingesting large chunks or particles of prey rather than predigesting or liquefying their prey.[8]

== Reproduction ==

Although parthenogenic species do occur, most harvest men reproduce sexually. Mating involves direct copulation. The males of some species offer a secretion from their chelicerae to the female before copulation. Sometimes the male guards the female after sex.
The females lay eggs shortly after mating, or up to months later. Some species build nests for this purpose. A unique feature of some species is parental care of the offspring, with a few even displaying paternal care. The eggs can hatch anytime after the first 20 days, up to almost half a year after being laid. Daddy long legs need have about four to eight nymphal stages before reaching maturity, but six is the most common. [4]

== Noted ==

Although harvest men are a fascinating group of arachnids, the dramatic increase in environmental disturbances around the world, especially in tropical regions, may have driven many species to extinction even before the formal descriptions by taxonomists. Human activities including pesticide use, forestry operations, air and [[soil]] pollution, fire, and even the introduction of domestic [[animals]] have a tremendous impact on the habitats they depend on. All the formerly considered endangered were cave dwellers who are particularly sensitive to disturbances of habitat. [4]
Contrary to popular belief daddy-long legs species do not contain the world's most powerful venom or any at all for that matter! [7]

== References ==

----
[1] Opiliones. (2018, December 21). New World Encyclopedia, . Retrieved 21:30, April 20, 2019. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Opiliones&oldid=1016769.

[2] Coleman, David C., et al. Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]. Academic Press, 2018. {{ISBN 978-0-12-805251-8}}

[3] Bartlett, Troy. “Order Opiliones - Harvestmen.” Order Opiliones - Harvestmen - BugGuide.Net, 16 Feb. 2004, bugguide.net/node/view/2405#id.
https://bugguide.net/node/view/2405#id

[4] Pinto-da-Rocha, Ricardo, et al. Harvestmen: the Biology of Opiliones. Harvard University Press, 2007.

[5] Kury, Adriano. (2013). Order Opiliones Sundevall, 1833. Zootaxa. 3703. 27-33. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293635734_Order_Opiliones_Sundevall_1833

[6] Kury, A.B. (2000 onwards) Classification of Opiliones. Museu Nacional/UFRJ website. Online at: http://www.museunacional.ufrj.br/mndi/Aracnologia/opiliones.html

[7] “Myth: Daddy-Longlegs Would Be Deadly but...” Burke Museum, 8 Apr. 2016,
https://www.burkemuseum.org/blog/myth-daddy-longlegs-would-be-deadly.

[8] Cowles, J. 2018. Harvestmen:: Opiliones. Pages 102–113 Amazing Arachnids. Princeton University Press.

== External Links ==

'''Opiliones Wiki Site''' https://opiliones.fandom.com/wiki/Adriano_B._Kury

Solifugea

2021-04-23T17:49:46Z

Laynapra:

'''Solifugea''' is an order of [[arachnids]] native to arid areas around the world. They are sometimes referred to as Sun-Spiders, Wind-spiders, Barrel-spiders, False-spiders, Wind-scorpions, or Camel-spiders.[4][6] There are many more local names in addition to these. Despite their close resemblance to spiders, they are actually a completely separate order.

[[File:36711739553 6ed60655c7 o.jpg |thumb|50ppx|right|A Sun-spider on a window screen. Taken by David O. on flickr.]]

[[File:8641728640 9dcfed1d23 o.jpg |thumb|50ppx|right|Raquet organs on a member of Solifugea. Taken by Joe Lapp on Flickr.]]

==Taxonomy==
Solifugea is an order contained within the class [[Arachnida]] and the phylum [[Arthropoda]]. Within Solifugae there are 12 families, 141 genera, and approximately 1,087 described species.[4] the first one was described in 1772 by Pallas. They are commonly considered a sister group to [[Pseudoscorpions]] and both are placed in the clade [[Haplocnemata]].[4][6]

==Morphology==
Spider-like in their appearance they can be differentiated by their oversized chelicerae and pedipalp, giving the appearance of a fifth set of legs. Those are used to grab and tear apart prey.[6] Adults range in size from 1 to 7 cm, but the largest has a leg span of 12cm.[4][6] They have a series of fan-shaped structures underneath their fourth pair of legs referred to as racquet organs. These are believed to be used in chemoreception.[6] They are not venomous but can deliver a serious bite. Their body is divided into two sections, the carapace, and the abdomen. The abdomen is expandable to allow them to eat large amounts of food.[8] They also possess a unique suctorial organ that allows them to stick directly to even extremely smooth surfaces like glass. This organ is extendable and contains microscopic ridges that allow for suction.[2][7]
Solifuges start their life as non-motile larvae, this lasts 1-3 days before they molt into 1 instar nymphs. Starting in the II instar, nymphs are epigeic predators. There are 4 to 10 instar phases depending on species. [1]
Solifugae are characterized by their unusual mode of reproduction in which the male will lay the spermatophore on the soil surface which is then transferred to the female manually using its chelicerae.[7] North American species do not use this method.[2] The female will then dig a burrow and lay her eggs, 30 to 200 depending on the species. They are characterized by univoltine development, meaning only one generation develops each year, but some species are known to be bivoltine.[1]

==Range and habitat==
The presence of Solifugae is considered an indicator species of desert [[biomes]]. The range is restricted to warm dry areas with little vegetation.[5] They are found in tropical and subtropical deserts in Africa, Asia, the Americas, the Middle East, and southern Europe.[2]

==Ecology==
In most environments solifuges are only active in the summer, spending the cold season hibernating in burrows. Active adults have a short lifetime, appearing in only the final two to five weeks of summer. They are primarily nocturnal, with some species being exceptions to this. [1] There is evidence that some species of Solifugae will share burrows with prairie dogs in the American southwest. The exact reasons for this are unknown but it is suspected that it has something to do with greater abundance in [[arthropods]] caused by the management of prairie dogs.[3]
They are voracious predators that hunt by chasing down their prey. They have two adaptations that make them highly capable of sustained high-speed running. Firstly, unlike most [[arachnids]], they lack a book lung, instead, using a tracheal system for respiration which is much more efficient for oxygen uptake. Secondly, they run on only six of their legs, combined with their long legs and unique joint structure allow them to maximize their stride and agility.[2] They mainly hunt insects, spiders, and scorpions. There are however larger species that are known to hunt small lizards, mammals, and birds.[6] some species are exclusively [[termite]] predators.[8]
They will attack humans and other large animals if provoked and are known to be capable of inflicting severe wounds. Like [[scorpions]] they fluoresce under UV light, this is one of the most useful methods to capture them.[8]

==References==
[1] Belozerov, V. N. 2013. Seasonal aspects of the life cycle of solifugae (Arachnida, Solifugae) as compared with pseudoscorpions (Arachnida, Pseudoscorpiones). Entomological Review 93:1050–1073.

[2] Cowles, J. 2018. Wind Spiders:: Solifugae. Pages 114–123 Amazing Arachnids. Princeton University Press.

[3] Duval, B. D., and W. G. Whitford. 2009. Camel Spider (Solifugae) Use of Prairie Dog Colonies. Western North American Naturalist 69:272–276.

[4] Harvey, M. S. 2002. The Neglected Cousins: What Do We Know about the Smaller Arachnid Orders? The Journal of Arachnology 30:357–372.

[5] Institute of Zoology of National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan, and N. E. Novruzov. 2017. Comparison of trophic spectra and hunting strategies of some large arachnids (Arachnida: Scorpiones, Solifugae, Aranei) in semi-desert biocenoses of Gobustan (Eastern Azerbaijan). Caucasian Entomological Bulletin 13:135–144.

[6] Mullen, G. R., L. A. Durden, and G. Mullen. 2002. Medical and Veterinary Entomology. Elsevier Science & Technology, Burlington, UNITED STATES.

[7] Solifugae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). . https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/solifugae.

[8] Solifugae (solifuges, solifugids, solpugids). (n.d.). . http://www.biodiversityexplorer.info/arachnids/solifugids/index.htm.

File:8641728640 9dcfed1d23 o.jpg

2021-04-23T17:38:17Z

Laynapra: https://www.flickr.com/photos/arachnojoe/8641728640/in/photolist-eaD7Ro-6BjF7p-eaxsvc-eaxsZz-23uS5LX-eaD7sy-nHiJbR-eaD7oj-eaD7Jy-TUhWVQ-mY3jzE-mY192F-mXZDTr-LP4x6-qLs5Wo-9Ki3kX-rsgztT-r5GhkD-mSnFmD-dPyD6S-dPt1vK-iMnWus-LNUDm-LNUjs-eiQPdq-LP4sr-LP4Tr-pL...

https://www.flickr.com/photos/arachnojoe/8641728640/in/photolist-eaD7Ro-6BjF7p-eaxsvc-eaxsZz-23uS5LX-eaD7sy-nHiJbR-eaD7oj-eaD7Jy-TUhWVQ-mY3jzE-mY192F-mXZDTr-LP4x6-qLs5Wo-9Ki3kX-rsgztT-r5GhkD-mSnFmD-dPyD6S-dPt1vK-iMnWus-LNUDm-LNUjs-eiQPdq-LP4sr-LP4Tr-pLWXAo-pLTYrq-am7N9q-24xLdD5-24xLeib-4GTW9B-H946B-nCvf8m-bJ2FiM-bv82QC-5pmbyp-n64bt6-dMKnjg-NLfzvK-8tuNoa-2k77e4y-2bquJBy-993SeB-KQvkAY-2kT9fkH-nCvAfM-nChBNQ-6z7HZA
taken by Joe Lapp on flickr

Solifugea

2021-04-23T17:30:36Z

Laynapra:

'''Solifugea''' is an order of [[arachnids]] native to arid areas around the world. They are sometimes referred to as Sun-Spiders, Wind-spiders, Barrel-spiders, False-spiders, Wind-scorpions, or Camel-spiders.[4][6] There are many more local names in addition to these. Despite their close resemblance to spiders, they are actually a completely separate order.

[[File:36711739553 6ed60655c7 o.jpg |thumb|50ppx|right|A Sun-spider on a window screen. Taken by David O. on flickr.]]

==Taxonomy==
Solifugea is an order contained within the class [[Arachnida]] and the phylum [[Arthropoda]]. Within Solifugae there are 12 families, 141 genera, and approximately 1,087 described species.[4] the first one was described in 1772 by Pallas. They are commonly considered a sister group to [[Pseudoscorpions]] and both are placed in the clade [[Haplocnemata]].[4][6]

==Morphology==
Spider-like in their appearance they can be differentiated by their oversized chelicerae and pedipalp, giving the appearance of a fifth set of legs. Those are used to grab and tear apart prey.[6] Adults range in size from 1 to 7 cm, but the largest has a leg span of 12cm.[4][6] They have a series of fan-shaped structures underneath their fourth pair of legs referred to as racquet organs. These are believed to be used in chemoreception.[6] They are not venomous but can deliver a serious bite. Their body is divided into two sections, the carapace, and the abdomen. The abdomen is expandable to allow them to eat large amounts of food.[8] They also possess a unique suctorial organ that allows them to stick directly to even extremely smooth surfaces like glass. This organ is extendable and contains microscopic ridges that allow for suction.[2][7]
Solifuges start their life as non-motile larvae, this lasts 1-3 days before they molt into 1 instar nymphs. Starting in the II instar, nymphs are epigeic predators. There are 4 to 10 instar phases depending on species. [1]
Solifugae are characterized by their unusual mode of reproduction in which the male will lay the spermatophore on the soil surface which is then transferred to the female manually using its chelicerae.[7] North American species do not use this method.[2] The female will then dig a burrow and lay her eggs, 30 to 200 depending on the species. They are characterized by univoltine development, meaning only one generation develops each year, but some species are known to be bivoltine.[1]

==Range and habitat==
The presence of Solifugae is considered an indicator species of desert [[biomes]]. The range is restricted to warm dry areas with little vegetation.[5] They are found in tropical and subtropical deserts in Africa, Asia, the Americas, the Middle East, and southern Europe.[2]

==Ecology==
In most environments solifuges are only active in the summer, spending the cold season hibernating in burrows. Active adults have a short lifetime, appearing in only the final two to five weeks of summer. They are primarily nocturnal, with some species being exceptions to this. [1] There is evidence that some species of Solifugae will share burrows with prairie dogs in the American southwest. The exact reasons for this are unknown but it is suspected that it has something to do with greater abundance in [[arthropods]] caused by the management of prairie dogs.[3]
They are voracious predators that hunt by chasing down their prey. They have two adaptations that make them highly capable of sustained high-speed running. Firstly, unlike most [[arachnids]], they lack a book lung, instead, using a tracheal system for respiration which is much more efficient for oxygen uptake. Secondly, they run on only six of their legs, combined with their long legs and unique joint structure allow them to maximize their stride and agility.[2] They mainly hunt insects, spiders, and scorpions. There are however larger species that are known to hunt small lizards, mammals, and birds.[6] some species are exclusively [[termite]] predators.[8]
They will attack humans and other large animals if provoked and are known to be capable of inflicting severe wounds. Like [[scorpions]] they fluoresce under UV light, this is one of the most useful methods to capture them.[8]

==References==
[1] Belozerov, V. N. 2013. Seasonal aspects of the life cycle of solifugae (Arachnida, Solifugae) as compared with pseudoscorpions (Arachnida, Pseudoscorpiones). Entomological Review 93:1050–1073.

[2] Cowles, J. 2018. Wind Spiders:: Solifugae. Pages 114–123 Amazing Arachnids. Princeton University Press.

[3] Duval, B. D., and W. G. Whitford. 2009. Camel Spider (Solifugae) Use of Prairie Dog Colonies. Western North American Naturalist 69:272–276.

[4] Harvey, M. S. 2002. The Neglected Cousins: What Do We Know about the Smaller Arachnid Orders? The Journal of Arachnology 30:357–372.

[5] Institute of Zoology of National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan, and N. E. Novruzov. 2017. Comparison of trophic spectra and hunting strategies of some large arachnids (Arachnida: Scorpiones, Solifugae, Aranei) in semi-desert biocenoses of Gobustan (Eastern Azerbaijan). Caucasian Entomological Bulletin 13:135–144.

[6] Mullen, G. R., L. A. Durden, and G. Mullen. 2002. Medical and Veterinary Entomology. Elsevier Science & Technology, Burlington, UNITED STATES.

[7] Solifugae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). . https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/solifugae.

[8] Solifugae (solifuges, solifugids, solpugids). (n.d.). . http://www.biodiversityexplorer.info/arachnids/solifugids/index.htm.

File:36711739553 6ed60655c7 o.jpg

2021-04-23T17:24:45Z

Laynapra: https://www.flickr.com/photos/8106459@N07/36711739553/in/photolist-XW6g9M-2jNKx4-7J7B3r-7JbvDJ-8tuNoa-23uS5LX-mY3jzE-mY192F-mXZDTr-qLs5Wo-9Ki3kX-rsgztT-r5GhkD-mSnFmD-dPyD6S-dPt1vK-iMnWus-bJ2FiM-bv82QC-5pmbyp-NLfzvK-2k77e4y-2bquJBy-993SeB-KQvkAY-2kT9fkH...

https://www.flickr.com/photos/8106459@N07/36711739553/in/photolist-XW6g9M-2jNKx4-7J7B3r-7JbvDJ-8tuNoa-23uS5LX-mY3jzE-mY192F-mXZDTr-qLs5Wo-9Ki3kX-rsgztT-r5GhkD-mSnFmD-dPyD6S-dPt1vK-iMnWus-bJ2FiM-bv82QC-5pmbyp-NLfzvK-2k77e4y-2bquJBy-993SeB-KQvkAY-2kT9fkH
Taken by David O.

Solifugea

2021-04-23T17:21:53Z

Laynapra: Created page with "'''Solifugea''' is an order of arachnids native to arid areas around the world. They are sometimes referred to as Sun-Spiders, Wind-spiders, Barrel-spiders, False-spiders,..."

'''Solifugea''' is an order of [[arachnids]] native to arid areas around the world. They are sometimes referred to as Sun-Spiders, Wind-spiders, Barrel-spiders, False-spiders, Wind-scorpions, or Camel-spiders.[4][6] There are many more local names in addition to these. Despite their close resemblance to spiders, they are actually a completely separate order.

==Taxonomy==
Solifugea is an order contained within the class [[Arachnida]] and the phylum [[Arthropoda]]. Within Solifugae there are 12 families, 141 genera, and approximately 1,087 described species.[4] the first one was described in 1772 by Pallas. They are commonly considered a sister group to [[Pseudoscorpions]] and both are placed in the clade [[Haplocnemata]].[4][6]

==Morphology==
Spider-like in their appearance they can be differentiated by their oversized chelicerae and pedipalp, giving the appearance of a fifth set of legs. Those are used to grab and tear apart prey.[6] Adults range in size from 1 to 7 cm, but the largest has a leg span of 12cm.[4][6] They have a series of fan-shaped structures underneath their fourth pair of legs referred to as racquet organs. These are believed to be used in chemoreception.[6] They are not venomous but can deliver a serious bite. Their body is divided into two sections, the carapace, and the abdomen. The abdomen is expandable to allow them to eat large amounts of food.[8] They also possess a unique suctorial organ that allows them to stick directly to even extremely smooth surfaces like glass. This organ is extendable and contains microscopic ridges that allow for suction.[2][7]
Solifuges start their life as non-motile larvae, this lasts 1-3 days before they molt into 1 instar nymphs. Starting in the II instar, nymphs are epigeic predators. There are 4 to 10 instar phases depending on species. [1]
Solifugae are characterized by their unusual mode of reproduction in which the male will lay the spermatophore on the soil surface which is then transferred to the female manually using its chelicerae.[7] North American species do not use this method.[2] The female will then dig a burrow and lay her eggs, 30 to 200 depending on the species. They are characterized by univoltine development, meaning only one generation develops each year, but some species are known to be bivoltine.[1]

==Range and habitat==
The presence of Solifugae is considered an indicator species of desert [[biomes]]. The range is restricted to warm dry areas with little vegetation.[5] They are found in tropical and subtropical deserts in Africa, Asia, the Americas, the Middle East, and southern Europe.[2]

==Ecology==
In most environments solifuges are only active in the summer, spending the cold season hibernating in burrows. Active adults have a short lifetime, appearing in only the final two to five weeks of summer. They are primarily nocturnal, with some species being exceptions to this. [1] There is evidence that some species of Solifugae will share burrows with prairie dogs in the American southwest. The exact reasons for this are unknown but it is suspected that it has something to do with greater abundance in [[arthropods]] caused by the management of prairie dogs.[3]
They are voracious predators that hunt by chasing down their prey. They have two adaptations that make them highly capable of sustained high-speed running. Firstly, unlike most [[arachnids]], they lack a book lung, instead, using a tracheal system for respiration which is much more efficient for oxygen uptake. Secondly, they run on only six of their legs, combined with their long legs and unique joint structure allow them to maximize their stride and agility.[2] They mainly hunt insects, spiders, and scorpions. There are however larger species that are known to hunt small lizards, mammals, and birds.[6] some species are exclusively [[termite]] predators.[8]
They will attack humans and other large animals if provoked and are known to be capable of inflicting severe wounds. Like [[scorpions]] they fluoresce under UV light, this is one of the most useful methods to capture them.[8]

==References==
[1] Belozerov, V. N. 2013. Seasonal aspects of the life cycle of solifugae (Arachnida, Solifugae) as compared with pseudoscorpions (Arachnida, Pseudoscorpiones). Entomological Review 93:1050–1073.

[2] Cowles, J. 2018. Wind Spiders:: Solifugae. Pages 114–123 Amazing Arachnids. Princeton University Press.

[3] Duval, B. D., and W. G. Whitford. 2009. Camel Spider (Solifugae) Use of Prairie Dog Colonies. Western North American Naturalist 69:272–276.

[4] Harvey, M. S. 2002. The Neglected Cousins: What Do We Know about the Smaller Arachnid Orders? The Journal of Arachnology 30:357–372.

[5] Institute of Zoology of National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan, and N. E. Novruzov. 2017. Comparison of trophic spectra and hunting strategies of some large arachnids (Arachnida: Scorpiones, Solifugae, Aranei) in semi-desert biocenoses of Gobustan (Eastern Azerbaijan). Caucasian Entomological Bulletin 13:135–144.

[6] Mullen, G. R., L. A. Durden, and G. Mullen. 2002. Medical and Veterinary Entomology. Elsevier Science & Technology, Burlington, UNITED STATES.

[7] Solifugae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). . https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/solifugae.

[8] Solifugae (solifuges, solifugids, solpugids). (n.d.). . http://www.biodiversityexplorer.info/arachnids/solifugids/index.htm.

Chytridiomycota

2021-04-12T19:03:45Z

Laynapra:

'''Chytridiomycota''' is a phylum of zoosporic organisms within the kingdom [[fungi]], they are also known as Chytrids. The first recognizable Chytrids appeared in the late Precambrian period, over 500 MYA.[1][11] They were first recorded in 1886 and were described as a simple vestical like structure which penetrates its host with a root-like appendage. They are thought to be the oldest and most basal group of [[fungi]].[6] There is considerable variation in morphology and ecology within the phylum. There are approximately 1000 described species.[7]

[[File:Spizellomyces palustris monocentric eucarpic.jpg |frame|50ppx|right|Spizellomyces palustris, a monocentric, eucarpic chytrid. From Chen, et al. (2000).]]

==Taxonomy==
This Phylum is one of the five true phyla of [[Fungi]], they are the simplest of the true [[fungi]]. [1] The phylum contains only one class, Chytridiomycetes.[1][6] Within that class are five different orders Blastocladiales, Chytridialis, Monoblepharidales, Neocallimastigales, and Spizellomycetales.[6]

==Characteristics==
Chytrids are primarily aquatic but there are species that are considered terrestrial.[1] Most Chytrids are unicellular but certain species form multicellular organisms or [[hyphae]].[1] When [[hyphae]] are formed there are no septa between cells. Species are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. A defining characteristic of Chytrid fungi is their gamete cells have a flagellum, they are the only fungi known to have this in any life stage.[1][3][7] Like all fungi their cell walls contain chitin, but one unique group contains both cellulose and chitin.[1][6] The sporangia is one of the most prominent morphological traits of adult Chytridiomycota. The sporangia is a sac-like structure in which internal divisions of the protoplasm result in the production of zoospores.[7]

==Life cycle==
The life cycle varies considerably between species and their ecology. Reproduction is generally asexual, but there are exceptions. Reproduction occurs through mitosis resulting in the production of one more zoospore. The zoospore is motile and requires water in this stage for survival and dispersal.[6] Sexual reproduction involves motile gametes of opposite sexes with different sizes and colorations that attract and swim towards each other through pheromone signaling. Once an appropriate niche is found the Chytrid will encyst, creating a fungal cell wall. The chytrid life cycle includes a thallus with a cell wall and hyphal-like feeding structure known as a rhizoid. Some species are capable of developing true [[hyphae]].[10]
Microsporidia is contained within Chytridiomycota, despite the loss of their zoospore stage, as a result of phylogenetic analysis.[8][10]

==Ecology==
Some are [[saprobic]] and others are parasitic, famously to amphibians.[1] Many of the most well-studied chytrids are parasitic, this became especially true after Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was found to be the causative agent of chytridiomycosis in amphibians. This disease has led to a global decline in amphibian populations. [2][3] Chytrids are also commonly parasitic to the [[roots]] of plants. They are important vectors of viruses in plants as they have been known to cause serious damage to roots opening the plant up to opportunistic infections.[2][7] They are also a know algal parasite, an interaction that has been studied relatively little.[6]
Chytrids have been found to play an important role in the gut of many mammals, forming a [[mutualism]].[2][11]

===Roll in Soil===
Chytrid species are often [[saprobic]], serving as [[decomposers]] in their environments. In most terrestrial environments Chytrids are thought to be primarily obligate [[parasites]] in a host of vascular plants.[7] Due to their aquatic nature Chytrids have traditionally been considered to play little role in soil processes. There is increasing evidence that in [[periglacial]] soils chytrid fungi make up 70% fungal diversity and 30% of eukaryotic diversity at high elevations. This is only true in areas unvegetated and at high altitudes. Chytrids in these areas rely on snowmelt for dispersal. They make up the main decomposers for the photosynthetic microbial food chains that exist in the highest altitudes.[5]

===Chytridiomycosis===
Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was previously the only known instance of chytrid fungi being paracytic to vertebrates.[7] Currently, there are four strains of Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' with one being globally distributed. The East Asian strain was found to share the most genetic diversity with the global strain suggesting this as the origin of the parasite. Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was later found to be endemic in the area further supporting this theory.[4]

Known to infect over 350 species of amphibians, though frogs seem to be most severely impacted. Zoospores infect the keratin layer of the skin, resulting in excessive skin shedding. The earliest symptoms are anorexia and lethargy. Infection may eventually lead to death or secondary infections. Treatment of wild frogs is currently impossible. [9]

==References==

[1] 24.3A: Chytridiomycota: The Chytrids. 2018, July 15. . https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/24%3A_Fungi/24.3%3A_Classifications_of_Fungi/24.3A%3A_Chytridiomycota%3A_The_Chytrids.

[2] Chytridiomycota. (n.d.). . http://website.nbm-mnb.ca/mycologywebpages/NaturalHistoryOfFungi/Chytridiomycota.html.

[3] Chytridiomycota | phylum of fungi. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/science/Chytridiomycota.

[4] Fisher, M. C., and T. W. J. Garner. 2020. Chytrid fungi and global amphibian declines. Nature Reviews Microbiology 18:332–343.

[5] Freeman, K. R., A. P. Martin, D. Karki, R. C. Lynch, M. S. Mitter, A. F. Meyer, J. E. Longcore, D. R. Simmons, and S. K. Schmidt. 2009. Evidence that chytrids dominate fungal communities in high-elevation soils. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:18315–18320.

[6] Ibelings, B. W., A. D. Bruin, M. Kagami, M. Rijkeboer, M. Brehm, and E. V. Donk. 2004. Host Parasite Interactions Between Freshwater Phytoplankton and Chytrid Fungi (chytridiomycota)1. Journal of Phycology 40:437–453..

[7] James, T. Y., P. M. Letcher, J. E. Longcore, S. E. Mozley-Standridge, D. Porter, M. J. Powell, G. W. Griffith, and R. Vilgalys. 2006b. A Molecular Phylogeny of the Flagellated Fungi (Chytridiomycota) and Description of a New Phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia 98:860–871.

[8] James, T. Y., A. Pelin, L. Bonen, S. Ahrendt, D. Sain, N. Corradi, and J. E. Stajich. 2013. Shared Signatures of Parasitism and Phylogenomics Unite Cryptomycota and Microsporidia. Current Biology 23:1548–1553.

[9] jlp342. 2018, March 21. Chytridiomycosis. Text. https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/chytridiomycosis.

[10] Medina, E. M., and N. E. Buchler. 2020. Chytrid fungi. Current Biology 30:R516–R520.

[11] Taylor, Thomas N., et al. 2014. Fossil Fungi, Elsevier Science & Technology. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1774309.

Chytridiomycota

2021-04-12T18:56:44Z

Laynapra:

'''Chytridiomycota''' is a phylum of zoosporic organisms within the kingdom fungi, they are also known as Chytrids. The first recognizable Chytrids appeared in the late Precambrian period, over 500 MYA.[1][11] They were first recorded in 1886 and were described as a simple vestical like structure which penetrates its host with a root-like appendage. They are thought to be the oldest and most basal group of fungi.[6] There is considerable variation in morphology and ecology within the phylum. There are approximately 1000 described species.[7]

[[File:Spizellomyces palustris monocentric eucarpic.jpg |frame|50ppx|right|Spizellomyces palustris, a monocentric, eucarpic chytrid. From Chen, et al. (2000).]]

==Taxonomy==
This Phylum is one of the five true phyla of Fungi, they are the simplest of the true fungi. [1] The phylum contains only one class, Chytridiomycetes.[1][6] Within that class are five different orders Blastocladiales, Chytridialis, Monoblepharidales, Neocallimastigales, and Spizellomycetales.[6]

==Characteristics==
Chytrids are primarily aquatic but there are species that are considered terrestrial.[1] Most Chytrids are unicellular but certain species form multicellular organisms or hyphae.[1] When hyphae are formed there are no septa between cells. Species are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. A defining characteristic of Chytrid fungi is their gamete cells have a flagellum, they are the only fungi known to have this in any life stage.[1][3][7] Like all fungi their cell walls contain chitin, but one unique group contains both cellulose and chitin.[1][6] The sporangia is one of the most prominent morphological traits of adult Chytridiomycota. The sporangia is a sac-like structure in which internal divisions of the protoplasm result in the production of zoospores.[7]

==Life cycle==
The life cycle varies considerably between species and their ecology. Reproduction is generally asexual, but there are exceptions. Reproduction occurs through mitosis resulting in the production of one more zoospore. The zoospore is motile and requires water in this stage for survival and dispersal.[6] Sexual reproduction involves motile gametes of opposite sexes with different sizes and colorations that attract and swim towards each other through pheromone signaling. Once an appropriate niche is found the Chytrid will encyst, creating a fungal cell wall. The chytrid life cycle includes a thallus with a cell wall and hyphal-like feeding structure known as a rhizoid. Some species are capable of developing true hyphae.[10]
Microsporidia is contained within Chytridiomycota, despite the loss of their zoospore stage, as a result of phylogenetic analysis.[8][10]

==Ecology==
Some are saprobic and others are parasitic, famously to amphibians.[1] Many of the most well-studied chytrids are parasitic, this became especially true after Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was found to be the causative agent of chytridiomycosis in amphibians. This disease has led to a global decline in amphibian populations. [2][3] Chytrids are also commonly parasitic to the roots of plants. They are important vectors of viruses in plants as they have been known to cause serious damage to roots opening the plant up to opportunistic infections.[2][7] They are also a know algal parasite, an interaction that has been studied relatively little.[6]
Chytrids have been found to play an important role in the gut of many mammals, forming a mutualism.[2][11]

===Roll in Soil===
Chytrid species are often saprobic, serving as decomposers in their environments. In most terrestrial environments Chytrids are thought to be primarily obligate parasites in a host of vascular plants.[7] Due to their aquatic nature Chytrids have traditionally been considered to play little role in soil processes. There is increasing evidence that in periglacial soils chytrid fungi make up 70% fungal diversity and 30% of eukaryotic diversity at high elevations. This is only true in areas unvegetated and at high altitudes. Chytrids in these areas rely on snowmelt for dispersal. They make up the main decomposers for the photosynthetic microbial food chains that exist in the highest altitudes.[5]

===Chytridiomycosis===
Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was previously the only known instance of chytrid fungi being paracytic to vertebrates.[7] Currently, there are four strains of Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' with one being globally distributed. The East Asian strain was found to share the most genetic diversity with the global strain suggesting this as the origin of the parasite. Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was later found to be endemic in the area further supporting this theory.[4]

Known to infect over 350 species of amphibians, though frogs seem to be most severely impacted. Zoospores infect the keratin layer of the skin, resulting in excessive skin shedding. The earliest symptoms are anorexia and lethargy. Infection may eventually lead to death or secondary infections. Treatment of wild frogs is currently impossible. [9]

==References==

[1] 24.3A: Chytridiomycota: The Chytrids. 2018, July 15. . https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/24%3A_Fungi/24.3%3A_Classifications_of_Fungi/24.3A%3A_Chytridiomycota%3A_The_Chytrids.

[2] Chytridiomycota. (n.d.). . http://website.nbm-mnb.ca/mycologywebpages/NaturalHistoryOfFungi/Chytridiomycota.html.

[3] Chytridiomycota | phylum of fungi. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/science/Chytridiomycota.

[4] Fisher, M. C., and T. W. J. Garner. 2020. Chytrid fungi and global amphibian declines. Nature Reviews Microbiology 18:332–343.

[5] Freeman, K. R., A. P. Martin, D. Karki, R. C. Lynch, M. S. Mitter, A. F. Meyer, J. E. Longcore, D. R. Simmons, and S. K. Schmidt. 2009. Evidence that chytrids dominate fungal communities in high-elevation soils. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:18315–18320.

[6] Ibelings, B. W., A. D. Bruin, M. Kagami, M. Rijkeboer, M. Brehm, and E. V. Donk. 2004. Host Parasite Interactions Between Freshwater Phytoplankton and Chytrid Fungi (chytridiomycota)1. Journal of Phycology 40:437–453..

[7] James, T. Y., P. M. Letcher, J. E. Longcore, S. E. Mozley-Standridge, D. Porter, M. J. Powell, G. W. Griffith, and R. Vilgalys. 2006b. A Molecular Phylogeny of the Flagellated Fungi (Chytridiomycota) and Description of a New Phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia 98:860–871.

[8] James, T. Y., A. Pelin, L. Bonen, S. Ahrendt, D. Sain, N. Corradi, and J. E. Stajich. 2013. Shared Signatures of Parasitism and Phylogenomics Unite Cryptomycota and Microsporidia. Current Biology 23:1548–1553.

[9] jlp342. 2018, March 21. Chytridiomycosis. Text. https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/chytridiomycosis.

[10] Medina, E. M., and N. E. Buchler. 2020. Chytrid fungi. Current Biology 30:R516–R520.

[11] Taylor, Thomas N., et al. 2014. Fossil Fungi, Elsevier Science & Technology. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1774309.

Chytridiomycota

2021-04-12T18:55:12Z

Laynapra:

'''Chytridiomycota''' is a phylum of zoosporic organisms within the kingdom fungi, they are also known as Chytrids. The first recognizable Chytrids appeared in the late Precambrian period, over 500 MYA.[1][11] They were first recorded in 1886 and were described as a simple vestical like structure which penetrates its host with a root-like appendage. They are thought to be the oldest and most basal group of fungi.[6] There is considerable variation in morphology and ecology within the phylum. There are approximately 1000 described species.[7]

[[File:Spizellomyces palustris monocentric eucarpic.jpg |frame|50ppx|right|]]

==Taxonomy==
This Phylum is one of the five true phyla of Fungi, they are the simplest of the true fungi. [1] The phylum contains only one class, Chytridiomycetes.[1][6] Within that class are five different orders Blastocladiales, Chytridialis, Monoblepharidales, Neocallimastigales, and Spizellomycetales.[6]

==Characteristics==
Chytrids are primarily aquatic but there are species that are considered terrestrial.[1] Most Chytrids are unicellular but certain species form multicellular organisms or hyphae.[1] When hyphae are formed there are no septa between cells. Species are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. A defining characteristic of Chytrid fungi is their gamete cells have a flagellum, they are the only fungi known to have this in any life stage.[1][3][7] Like all fungi their cell walls contain chitin, but one unique group contains both cellulose and chitin.[1][6] The sporangia is one of the most prominent morphological traits of adult Chytridiomycota. The sporangia is a sac-like structure in which internal divisions of the protoplasm result in the production of zoospores.[7]

==Life cycle==
The life cycle varies considerably between species and their ecology. Reproduction is generally asexual, but there are exceptions. Reproduction occurs through mitosis resulting in the production of one more zoospore. The zoospore is motile and requires water in this stage for survival and dispersal.[6] Sexual reproduction involves motile gametes of opposite sexes with different sizes and colorations that attract and swim towards each other through pheromone signaling. Once an appropriate niche is found the Chytrid will encyst, creating a fungal cell wall. The chytrid life cycle includes a thallus with a cell wall and hyphal-like feeding structure known as a rhizoid. Some species are capable of developing true hyphae.[10]
Microsporidia is contained within Chytridiomycota, despite the loss of their zoospore stage, as a result of phylogenetic analysis.[8][10]

==Ecology==
Some are saprobic and others are parasitic, famously to amphibians.[1] Many of the most well-studied chytrids are parasitic, this became especially true after Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was found to be the causative agent of chytridiomycosis in amphibians. This disease has led to a global decline in amphibian populations. [2][3] Chytrids are also commonly parasitic to the roots of plants. They are important vectors of viruses in plants as they have been known to cause serious damage to roots opening the plant up to opportunistic infections.[2][7] They are also a know algal parasite, an interaction that has been studied relatively little.[6]
Chytrids have been found to play an important role in the gut of many mammals, forming a mutualism.[2][11]

===Roll in Soil===
Chytrid species are often saprobic, serving as decomposers in their environments. In most terrestrial environments Chytrids are thought to be primarily obligate parasites in a host of vascular plants.[7] Due to their aquatic nature Chytrids have traditionally been considered to play little role in soil processes. There is increasing evidence that in periglacial soils chytrid fungi make up 70% fungal diversity and 30% of eukaryotic diversity at high elevations. This is only true in areas unvegetated and at high altitudes. Chytrids in these areas rely on snowmelt for dispersal. They make up the main decomposers for the photosynthetic microbial food chains that exist in the highest altitudes.[5]

===Chytridiomycosis===
Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was previously the only known instance of chytrid fungi being paracytic to vertebrates.[7] Currently, there are four strains of Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' with one being globally distributed. The East Asian strain was found to share the most genetic diversity with the global strain suggesting this as the origin of the parasite. Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was later found to be endemic in the area further supporting this theory.[4]

Known to infect over 350 species of amphibians, though frogs seem to be most severely impacted. Zoospores infect the keratin layer of the skin, resulting in excessive skin shedding. The earliest symptoms are anorexia and lethargy. Infection may eventually lead to death or secondary infections. Treatment of wild frogs is currently impossible. [9]

==References==

[1] 24.3A: Chytridiomycota: The Chytrids. 2018, July 15. . https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/24%3A_Fungi/24.3%3A_Classifications_of_Fungi/24.3A%3A_Chytridiomycota%3A_The_Chytrids.

[2] Chytridiomycota. (n.d.). . http://website.nbm-mnb.ca/mycologywebpages/NaturalHistoryOfFungi/Chytridiomycota.html.

[3] Chytridiomycota | phylum of fungi. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/science/Chytridiomycota.

[4] Fisher, M. C., and T. W. J. Garner. 2020. Chytrid fungi and global amphibian declines. Nature Reviews Microbiology 18:332–343.

[5] Freeman, K. R., A. P. Martin, D. Karki, R. C. Lynch, M. S. Mitter, A. F. Meyer, J. E. Longcore, D. R. Simmons, and S. K. Schmidt. 2009. Evidence that chytrids dominate fungal communities in high-elevation soils. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:18315–18320.

[6] Ibelings, B. W., A. D. Bruin, M. Kagami, M. Rijkeboer, M. Brehm, and E. V. Donk. 2004. Host Parasite Interactions Between Freshwater Phytoplankton and Chytrid Fungi (chytridiomycota)1. Journal of Phycology 40:437–453..

[7] James, T. Y., P. M. Letcher, J. E. Longcore, S. E. Mozley-Standridge, D. Porter, M. J. Powell, G. W. Griffith, and R. Vilgalys. 2006b. A Molecular Phylogeny of the Flagellated Fungi (Chytridiomycota) and Description of a New Phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia 98:860–871.

[8] James, T. Y., A. Pelin, L. Bonen, S. Ahrendt, D. Sain, N. Corradi, and J. E. Stajich. 2013. Shared Signatures of Parasitism and Phylogenomics Unite Cryptomycota and Microsporidia. Current Biology 23:1548–1553.

[9] jlp342. 2018, March 21. Chytridiomycosis. Text. https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/chytridiomycosis.

[10] Medina, E. M., and N. E. Buchler. 2020. Chytrid fungi. Current Biology 30:R516–R520.

[11] Taylor, Thomas N., et al. 2014. Fossil Fungi, Elsevier Science & Technology. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1774309.

File:Spizellomyces palustris monocentric eucarpic.jpg

2021-04-12T18:39:54Z

Laynapra:

Chytridiomycota

2021-04-12T18:33:44Z

Laynapra:

'''Chytridiomycota''' is a phylum of zoosporic organisms within the kingdom fungi, they are also known as Chytrids. The first recognizable Chytrids appeared in the late Precambrian period, over 500 MYA.[1][11] They were first recorded in 1886 and were described as a simple vestical like structure which penetrates its host with a root-like appendage. They are thought to be the oldest and most basal group of fungi.[6] There is considerable variation in morphology and ecology within the phylum. There are approximately 1000 described species.[7]

==Taxonomy==
This Phylum is one of the five true phyla of Fungi, they are the simplest of the true fungi. [1] The phylum contains only one class, Chytridiomycetes.[1][6] Within that class are five different orders Blastocladiales, Chytridialis, Monoblepharidales, Neocallimastigales, and Spizellomycetales.[6]

==Characteristics==
Chytrids are primarily aquatic but there are species that are considered terrestrial.[1] Most Chytrids are unicellular but certain species form multicellular organisms or hyphae.[1] When hyphae are formed there are no septa between cells. Species are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. A defining characteristic of Chytrid fungi is their gamete cells have a flagellum, they are the only fungi known to have this in any life stage.[1][3][7] Like all fungi their cell walls contain chitin, but one unique group contains both cellulose and chitin.[1][6] The sporangia is one of the most prominent morphological traits of adult Chytridiomycota. The sporangia is a sac-like structure in which internal divisions of the protoplasm result in the production of zoospores.[7]

==Life cycle==
The life cycle varies considerably between species and their ecology. Reproduction is generally asexual, but there are exceptions. Reproduction occurs through mitosis resulting in the production of one more zoospore. The zoospore is motile and requires water in this stage for survival and dispersal.[6] Sexual reproduction involves motile gametes of opposite sexes with different sizes and colorations that attract and swim towards each other through pheromone signaling. Once an appropriate niche is found the Chytrid will encyst, creating a fungal cell wall. The chytrid life cycle includes a thallus with a cell wall and hyphal-like feeding structure known as a rhizoid. Some species are capable of developing true hyphae.[10]
Microsporidia is contained within Chytridiomycota, despite the loss of their zoospore stage, as a result of phylogenetic analysis.[8][10]

==Ecology==
Some are saprobic and others are parasitic, famously to amphibians.[1] Many of the most well-studied chytrids are parasitic, this became especially true after Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was found to be the causative agent of chytridiomycosis in amphibians. This disease has led to a global decline in amphibian populations. [2][3] Chytrids are also commonly parasitic to the roots of plants. They are important vectors of viruses in plants as they have been known to cause serious damage to roots opening the plant up to opportunistic infections.[2][7] They are also a know algal parasite, an interaction that has been studied relatively little.[6]
Chytrids have been found to play an important role in the gut of many mammals, forming a mutualism.[2][11]

===Roll in Soil===
Chytrid species are often saprobic, serving as decomposers in their environments. In most terrestrial environments Chytrids are thought to be primarily obligate parasites in a host of vascular plants.[7] Due to their aquatic nature Chytrids have traditionally been considered to play little role in soil processes. There is increasing evidence that in periglacial soils chytrid fungi make up 70% fungal diversity and 30% of eukaryotic diversity at high elevations. This is only true in areas unvegetated and at high altitudes. Chytrids in these areas rely on snowmelt for dispersal. They make up the main decomposers for the photosynthetic microbial food chains that exist in the highest altitudes.[5]

===Chytridiomycosis===
Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was previously the only known instance of chytrid fungi being paracytic to vertebrates.[7] Currently, there are four strains of Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' with one being globally distributed. The East Asian strain was found to share the most genetic diversity with the global strain suggesting this as the origin of the parasite. Batrachochytrium ''dendrobatidis'' was later found to be endemic in the area further supporting this theory.[4]

Known to infect over 350 species of amphibians, though frogs seem to be most severely impacted. Zoospores infect the keratin layer of the skin, resulting in excessive skin shedding. The earliest symptoms are anorexia and lethargy. Infection may eventually lead to death or secondary infections. Treatment of wild frogs is currently impossible. [9]

==References==

[1] 24.3A: Chytridiomycota: The Chytrids. 2018, July 15. . https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/24%3A_Fungi/24.3%3A_Classifications_of_Fungi/24.3A%3A_Chytridiomycota%3A_The_Chytrids.

[2] Chytridiomycota. (n.d.). . http://website.nbm-mnb.ca/mycologywebpages/NaturalHistoryOfFungi/Chytridiomycota.html.

[3] Chytridiomycota | phylum of fungi. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/science/Chytridiomycota.

[4] Fisher, M. C., and T. W. J. Garner. 2020. Chytrid fungi and global amphibian declines. Nature Reviews Microbiology 18:332–343.

[5] Freeman, K. R., A. P. Martin, D. Karki, R. C. Lynch, M. S. Mitter, A. F. Meyer, J. E. Longcore, D. R. Simmons, and S. K. Schmidt. 2009. Evidence that chytrids dominate fungal communities in high-elevation soils. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:18315–18320.

[6] Ibelings, B. W., A. D. Bruin, M. Kagami, M. Rijkeboer, M. Brehm, and E. V. Donk. 2004. Host Parasite Interactions Between Freshwater Phytoplankton and Chytrid Fungi (chytridiomycota)1. Journal of Phycology 40:437–453..

[7] James, T. Y., P. M. Letcher, J. E. Longcore, S. E. Mozley-Standridge, D. Porter, M. J. Powell, G. W. Griffith, and R. Vilgalys. 2006b. A Molecular Phylogeny of the Flagellated Fungi (Chytridiomycota) and Description of a New Phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia 98:860–871.

[8] James, T. Y., A. Pelin, L. Bonen, S. Ahrendt, D. Sain, N. Corradi, and J. E. Stajich. 2013. Shared Signatures of Parasitism and Phylogenomics Unite Cryptomycota and Microsporidia. Current Biology 23:1548–1553.

[9] jlp342. 2018, March 21. Chytridiomycosis. Text. https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/chytridiomycosis.

[10] Medina, E. M., and N. E. Buchler. 2020. Chytrid fungi. Current Biology 30:R516–R520.

[11] Taylor, Thomas N., et al. 2014. Fossil Fungi, Elsevier Science & Technology. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1774309.

Chytridiomycota

2021-04-12T18:28:05Z

Laynapra: /* Roll in soil */

‘’’Chytridiomycota’’’ is a phylum of zoosporic organisms within the kingdom fungi, they are also known as Chytrids. The first recognizable Chytrids appeared in the late Precambrian period, over 500 MYA.[1][11] They were first recorded in 1886 and were described as a simple vestical like structure which penetrates its host with a root-like appendage. They are thought to be the oldest and most basal group of fungi.[6] There is considerable variation in morphology and ecology within the phylum. There are approximately 1000 described species.[7]

==Taxonomy==
This Phylum is one of the five true phyla of Fungi, they are the simplest of the true fungi. [1] The phylum contains only one class, Chytridiomycetes.[1][6] Within that class are five different orders Blastocladiales, Chytridialis, Monoblepharidales, Neocallimastigales, and Spizellomycetales.[6]

==Characteristics==
Chytrids are primarily aquatic but there are species that are considered terrestrial.[1] Most Chytrids are unicellular but certain species form multicellular organisms or hyphae.[1] When hyphae are formed there are no septa between cells. Species are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. A defining characteristic of Chytrid fungi is their gamete cells have a flagellum, they are the only fungi known to have this in any life stage.[1][3][7] Like all fungi their cell walls contain chitin, but one unique group contains both cellulose and chitin.[1][6] The sporangia is one of the most prominent morphological traits of adult Chytridiomycota. The sporangia is a sac-like structure in which internal divisions of the protoplasm result in the production of zoospores.[7]

==Life cycle==
The life cycle varies considerably between species and their ecology. Reproduction is generally asexual, but there are exceptions. Reproduction occurs through mitosis resulting in the production of one more zoospore. The zoospore is motile and requires water in this stage for survival and dispersal.[6] Sexual reproduction involves motile gametes of opposite sexes with different sizes and colorations that attract and swim towards each other through pheromone signaling. Once an appropriate niche is found the Chytrid will encyst, creating a fungal cell wall. The chytrid life cycle includes a thallus with a cell wall and hyphal-like feeding structure known as a rhizoid. Some species are capable of developing true hyphae.[10]

Microsporidia is contained within Chytridiomycota despite the loss of their zoospore stage as a result of phylogenetic analysis.[8][10]

==Ecology==
Some are saprobic and others are parasitic, famously to amphibians.[1] Many of the most well-studied chytrids are parasitic, this became especially true after Batrachochytrium ‘’dendrobatidis’’ was found to be the causative agent of chytridiomycosis in amphibians. This disease has led to a global decline in amphibian populations. [2][3] Chytrids are also commonly parasitic to the roots of plants. They are important vectors of viruses in plants as they have been known to cause serious damage to roots opening the plant up to opportunistic infections.[2][7] They are also a know algal parasite, an interaction that has been studied relatively little.[6]
Chytrids have been found to play an important role in the gut of many mammals, forming a mutualism.[2][11]

===Roll in Soil===
Chytrid species are often saprobic, serving as decomposers in their environments. In most terrestrial environments Chytrids are thought to be primarily obligate parasites in a host of vascular plants.[7] Due to their aquatic nature Chytrids have traditionally been considered to play little role in soil processes. There is increasing evidence that in periglacial soils chytrid fungi make up 70% fungal diversity and 30% of eukaryotic diversity at high elevations. This is only true in areas unvegetated and at high altitudes. Chytrids in these areas rely on snowmelt for dispersal. They make up the main decomposers for the photosynthetic microbial food chains that exist in the highest altitudes.[5]

===Chytridiomycosis===
Batrachochytrium ‘’dendrobatidis’’ was previously the only known instance of chytrid fungi being paracytic to vertebrates.[7] Currently, there are four strains of Batrachochytrium ‘’dendrobatidis’’ with one being globally distributed. The East Asian strain was found to share the most genetic diversity with the global strain suggesting this as the origin of the parasite. Batrachochytrium ‘’dendrobatidis’’ was later found to be endemic in the area further supporting this theory.[4]

Known to infect over 350 species of amphibians, frogs seem to be most severely impacted. Zoospores infect the keratin layer of the skin, resulting in excessive skin shedding. The earliest symptoms are anorexia and lethargy. Infection may eventually lead to death or secondary infections. Treatment of wild frogs is currently impossible. [9]

==Notes==

[1] 24.3A: Chytridiomycota: The Chytrids. 2018, July 15. . https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/24%3A_Fungi/24.3%3A_Classifications_of_Fungi/24.3A%3A_Chytridiomycota%3A_The_Chytrids.

[2] Chytridiomycota. (n.d.). . http://website.nbm-mnb.ca/mycologywebpages/NaturalHistoryOfFungi/Chytridiomycota.html.

[3] Chytridiomycota | phylum of fungi. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/science/Chytridiomycota.

[4] Fisher, M. C., and T. W. J. Garner. 2020. Chytrid fungi and global amphibian declines. Nature Reviews Microbiology 18:332–343.

[5] Freeman, K. R., A. P. Martin, D. Karki, R. C. Lynch, M. S. Mitter, A. F. Meyer, J. E. Longcore, D. R. Simmons, and S. K. Schmidt. 2009. Evidence that chytrids dominate fungal communities in high-elevation soils. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:18315–18320.

[6] Ibelings, B. W., A. D. Bruin, M. Kagami, M. Rijkeboer, M. Brehm, and E. V. Donk. 2004. Host Parasite Interactions Between Freshwater Phytoplankton and Chytrid Fungi (chytridiomycota)1. Journal of Phycology 40:437–453..

[7] James, T. Y., P. M. Letcher, J. E. Longcore, S. E. Mozley-Standridge, D. Porter, M. J. Powell, G. W. Griffith, and R. Vilgalys. 2006b. A Molecular Phylogeny of the Flagellated Fungi (Chytridiomycota) and Description of a New Phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia 98:860–871.

[8] James, T. Y., A. Pelin, L. Bonen, S. Ahrendt, D. Sain, N. Corradi, and J. E. Stajich. 2013. Shared Signatures of Parasitism and Phylogenomics Unite Cryptomycota and Microsporidia. Current Biology 23:1548–1553.

[9] jlp342. 2018, March 21. Chytridiomycosis. Text. https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/chytridiomycosis.

[10] Medina, E. M., and N. E. Buchler. 2020. Chytrid fungi. Current Biology 30:R516–R520.

[11] Taylor, Thomas N., et al. 2014. Fossil Fungi, Elsevier Science & Technology. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1774309.

Chytridiomycota

2021-04-12T18:27:44Z

Laynapra: Created page with "‘’’Chytridiomycota’’’ is a phylum of zoosporic organisms within the kingdom fungi, they are also known as Chytrids. The first recognizable Chytrids appeared in the..."

‘’’Chytridiomycota’’’ is a phylum of zoosporic organisms within the kingdom fungi, they are also known as Chytrids. The first recognizable Chytrids appeared in the late Precambrian period, over 500 MYA.[1][11] They were first recorded in 1886 and were described as a simple vestical like structure which penetrates its host with a root-like appendage. They are thought to be the oldest and most basal group of fungi.[6] There is considerable variation in morphology and ecology within the phylum. There are approximately 1000 described species.[7]

==Taxonomy==
This Phylum is one of the five true phyla of Fungi, they are the simplest of the true fungi. [1] The phylum contains only one class, Chytridiomycetes.[1][6] Within that class are five different orders Blastocladiales, Chytridialis, Monoblepharidales, Neocallimastigales, and Spizellomycetales.[6]

==Characteristics==
Chytrids are primarily aquatic but there are species that are considered terrestrial.[1] Most Chytrids are unicellular but certain species form multicellular organisms or hyphae.[1] When hyphae are formed there are no septa between cells. Species are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. A defining characteristic of Chytrid fungi is their gamete cells have a flagellum, they are the only fungi known to have this in any life stage.[1][3][7] Like all fungi their cell walls contain chitin, but one unique group contains both cellulose and chitin.[1][6] The sporangia is one of the most prominent morphological traits of adult Chytridiomycota. The sporangia is a sac-like structure in which internal divisions of the protoplasm result in the production of zoospores.[7]

==Life cycle==
The life cycle varies considerably between species and their ecology. Reproduction is generally asexual, but there are exceptions. Reproduction occurs through mitosis resulting in the production of one more zoospore. The zoospore is motile and requires water in this stage for survival and dispersal.[6] Sexual reproduction involves motile gametes of opposite sexes with different sizes and colorations that attract and swim towards each other through pheromone signaling. Once an appropriate niche is found the Chytrid will encyst, creating a fungal cell wall. The chytrid life cycle includes a thallus with a cell wall and hyphal-like feeding structure known as a rhizoid. Some species are capable of developing true hyphae.[10]

Microsporidia is contained within Chytridiomycota despite the loss of their zoospore stage as a result of phylogenetic analysis.[8][10]

==Ecology==
Some are saprobic and others are parasitic, famously to amphibians.[1] Many of the most well-studied chytrids are parasitic, this became especially true after Batrachochytrium ‘’dendrobatidis’’ was found to be the causative agent of chytridiomycosis in amphibians. This disease has led to a global decline in amphibian populations. [2][3] Chytrids are also commonly parasitic to the roots of plants. They are important vectors of viruses in plants as they have been known to cause serious damage to roots opening the plant up to opportunistic infections.[2][7] They are also a know algal parasite, an interaction that has been studied relatively little.[6]
Chytrids have been found to play an important role in the gut of many mammals, forming a mutualism.[2][11]

===Roll in soil===
Chytrid species are often saprobic, serving as decomposers in their environments. In most terrestrial environments Chytrids are thought to be primarily obligate parasites in a host of vascular plants.[7] Due to their aquatic nature Chytrids have traditionally been considered to play little role in soil processes. There is increasing evidence that in periglacial soils chytrid fungi make up 70% fungal diversity and 30% of eukaryotic diversity at high elevations. This is only true in areas unvegetated and at high altitudes. Chytrids in these areas rely on snowmelt for dispersal. They make up the main decomposers for the photosynthetic microbial food chains that exist in the highest altitudes.[5]

===Chytridiomycosis===
Batrachochytrium ‘’dendrobatidis’’ was previously the only known instance of chytrid fungi being paracytic to vertebrates.[7] Currently, there are four strains of Batrachochytrium ‘’dendrobatidis’’ with one being globally distributed. The East Asian strain was found to share the most genetic diversity with the global strain suggesting this as the origin of the parasite. Batrachochytrium ‘’dendrobatidis’’ was later found to be endemic in the area further supporting this theory.[4]

Known to infect over 350 species of amphibians, frogs seem to be most severely impacted. Zoospores infect the keratin layer of the skin, resulting in excessive skin shedding. The earliest symptoms are anorexia and lethargy. Infection may eventually lead to death or secondary infections. Treatment of wild frogs is currently impossible. [9]

==Notes==

[1] 24.3A: Chytridiomycota: The Chytrids. 2018, July 15. . https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/24%3A_Fungi/24.3%3A_Classifications_of_Fungi/24.3A%3A_Chytridiomycota%3A_The_Chytrids.

[2] Chytridiomycota. (n.d.). . http://website.nbm-mnb.ca/mycologywebpages/NaturalHistoryOfFungi/Chytridiomycota.html.

[3] Chytridiomycota | phylum of fungi. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/science/Chytridiomycota.

[4] Fisher, M. C., and T. W. J. Garner. 2020. Chytrid fungi and global amphibian declines. Nature Reviews Microbiology 18:332–343.

[5] Freeman, K. R., A. P. Martin, D. Karki, R. C. Lynch, M. S. Mitter, A. F. Meyer, J. E. Longcore, D. R. Simmons, and S. K. Schmidt. 2009. Evidence that chytrids dominate fungal communities in high-elevation soils. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:18315–18320.

[6] Ibelings, B. W., A. D. Bruin, M. Kagami, M. Rijkeboer, M. Brehm, and E. V. Donk. 2004. Host Parasite Interactions Between Freshwater Phytoplankton and Chytrid Fungi (chytridiomycota)1. Journal of Phycology 40:437–453..

[7] James, T. Y., P. M. Letcher, J. E. Longcore, S. E. Mozley-Standridge, D. Porter, M. J. Powell, G. W. Griffith, and R. Vilgalys. 2006b. A Molecular Phylogeny of the Flagellated Fungi (Chytridiomycota) and Description of a New Phylum (Blastocladiomycota). Mycologia 98:860–871.

[8] James, T. Y., A. Pelin, L. Bonen, S. Ahrendt, D. Sain, N. Corradi, and J. E. Stajich. 2013. Shared Signatures of Parasitism and Phylogenomics Unite Cryptomycota and Microsporidia. Current Biology 23:1548–1553.

[9] jlp342. 2018, March 21. Chytridiomycosis. Text. https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/chytridiomycosis.

[10] Medina, E. M., and N. E. Buchler. 2020. Chytrid fungi. Current Biology 30:R516–R520.

[11] Taylor, Thomas N., et al. 2014. Fossil Fungi, Elsevier Science & Technology. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/lib/buffalo/detail.action?docID=1774309.