Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Extremophiles

2019-05-08T12:45:54Z

Kyledesi: /* Bioremediation */

[[File:Permafrost_-_polygon.jpg|thumb|Permafrozen Anartic soils that experience extreme dryness and high salinity. Halophiles and xerophiles may be found here.]]
An Extremophile is an organism that experiences optimal growth in environments outside the realm of what is considered “normal” and may even require intense geochemical or physical conditions to survive [1]. Extremophiles associated with plants encompass all three domains of life: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Within these domains, they can be found in different phylums and groups such as Actinobacteria, Ascomycota, Bacteroidetes, Basidiomycota, Crenarchaeota, Euryarchaeota, Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. Extremophilic microbes that benefit plant health and soil fertility are [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and bacteria found in the [[rhizosphere]] growing under abiotic stress conditions of temperature, salinity, pH and water deficiency. These microbes are said to be psychrophiles (-2°C to 20°C), thermophiles (60°C to 115°C), halophiles (2-5M), acidophiles (pH<4), alkaliphiles (pH>9) and xerophiles (water potential 0.75 kPa) [2]. Though not intensively studied until recently, extremophiles may have huge potential in the application of agriculture, biotechnology and bioremediation [3].

==Plant Health and Agriculture==
[[File:Penicillium notatum.jpg|thumb|Penicillium chrysogenum, a rhizobacteria used both in penicillin production and a bio-fertilizer.]]
Extremophilic microbes found in soils and within plants present a of variety of benefits towards increasing overall plant health. They have ability to produce phytohormones, solubilize nutrients, and attack pathogens.

There has been success in applying these microbes as biofertilizers for crop improvement and soil health as a sustainable option[2]. Two rhizobacteria root endophytes that are found in Antarctica, Penicillium chrysogenum and Penicillium brevicompactum, increased fitness in cayenne, lettuce, onion, and tomato in high salinity environments by limiting the intake of salt. This has useful application in reduction of saline stress on plants that are not saline tolerant, such as lettuce [4].

In another study, endophytic mycorrhizae isolated from the roots of a tomato grown in intense drought and saline conditions was found to activate and stimulate defense mechanisms in plants through the use of phytohormones to achieve improved growth [5]. There is an extreme interest in extremophilic microbes found in cold environments due to their ability to thrive in what is often a high salinity and arid environment, but full potential of these microbes in agriculture is still being discovered and researched, for example the recent increase in the reports of acidophiles found in plants growing within acidic soil [2].

==Bioremediation==
[[File:ValleLuna-002.jpg|thumb|The Atacama desert, subject of intensive research due to the diverse extremophilic organisms found residing there.]]
[[File:Aspergillus sp. 4.5X (1).JPG|left|250px|Aspergillus, a diverse fungi that contains many extremophiles.|thumb]]
Bioremediation refers to the use of an organism in degradation of contaminants that pose environmental and human risks. There has been a number of extremophilic organisms successful in remediation of contaminated soil [3].

Deinococcus radiodurans is a radiation-resistant bacteria occurring naturally in the cracks of rocks in Antarctica that has been genetically engineered by insertion of the mercuric reductase gene from Escherichia coli to be useful in remediation of heavy metals and radiation in nuclear waste sites. The gene combined with the bacteria's ability to tolerate radiation has made it a reliable option degrade mercury in radiation enriched soil environments [6].

Acidophiles have been successfully utilized in remediation of heavy metal soil sites. The fungi in ''Aspergillus'', which also contains the species that causes black mold, and the bacteria ''A.ferrooxidans'', have been used to remove nickel from contaminated soil and wastewater. Extremophilic bacteria B. thuringiensis have been shown to increase extraction of Cd and Zn from Cd-rich soil and soil polluted with effluent from metal industry [14]. ''Acidithiobacillus sp'' has been successful in removing sulfur from coal in order to help prevent acid rain [8]. The soil of the Atacama desert, noted for its similarity to mars, is now being heavily studied due to the vast variety of extremophilic organisms found there with high bioremediation potential [9].

==Biotechnology==
In a process known as bio-leaching, g, the removal of insoluble metal sulfides or oxides by using microorganisms, extremophiles are used as a sustainble option to mine ores, referred to as biomining. This is much more eco-friendly to soils and the surrounding environment. Biomining techniques have successfully been employed to mine metals such as gold, silver, copper, zinc, nickel, and uranium. The organisms used in this process are acidophiles such as Acidithiobacillus and Ferroplasma. In certain mining conditions there is extreme heat present, where thermophilic organisms Sulfolobus and Metallosphaera are utilized [15].

[[File:Blue-green algae and mineral deposits in Waimangu Stream (Hot Water Creek).jpg|thumb|Waimangu Stream, an example of where the acidophilc algae Cyanidium caldarium can be found.]]
Extremophilic organisms have been increasingly researched as an option for a cleaner fuel source. ''Cyanidium caldarium'' and ''galdieria sulphuraria'' contain long chain hydrocarbons similar to those found in petroleum. They can be found in bogs and moist acidic soil all over the world and grown in open containers as the high salinity required for growth inhibits most other microbes [10].

Extremophilic microbes have also shown great promise in medical applications. Antimicrobial peptides have been found in halophiles belonging to numerous species that reside in soils. Peptides from halophiles are referred to as halocins, which have been shown to be effective at killing archaeal cells [11]. There has also been numerous research done showing the ability of extremophiles to assist canines in recovery from surgery [12].
Diketopiperazines, also found in halophiles, have shown to ability to reduce tumors and reduce blood clotting. An example of this is ''Naloterrigena hispanica'', found in the soils of an extremely salty lake in Fuente de Piedra, Spain.

An extremely intriguing contribution from extremophiles may come from an alternative method for vaccines. Halobacterium, another organism found in extremely salty environments, produce internal gas vesicles and small gas-filled proteinaceous structures [13]. These structures have been engineered to show a recombinant form of an immunodeficiency virus on the external surface of the bacterium. These newly formed vesicles have shown a strong antibody response and long lasting immune memory when administered nasally to mice. The vaccine showed no toxicity in mice and is being further studied [13].

==Refrences==
[1] Rampelotto P. H. (2013). Extremophiles and extreme environments. Life (Basel, Switzerland), 3(3), 482–485. doi:10.3390/life3030482

[2] Yadav, Ajar Nath. (2017). Beneficial role of extremophilic microbes for plant health and soil fertility. Journal of Agricultural Science and Botany. 1. 1-4.

[3] Kristjánsson, J.K. & Hreggvidsson. (2017). G.O. World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 11: 17. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00339134

[4 ]Acuña-Rodríguez Ian S., Hansen Hermann, Gallardo-Cerda Jorge, Atala Cristian, Molina-Montenegro Marco A. (2019). Antarctic Extremophiles: Biotechnological Alternative to Crop Productivity in Saline Soils. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 22.

[5] Khan, A.L., Waqas, M., Khan, A.R. et al. World J Microbiol Biotechnol (2013) 29: 2133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-013-1378-1

[6] Rew, D. A (1 August 2003). "Deinococcus radiodurans". European Journal of Surgical Oncology (EJSO). 29 (6): 557–558. doi:10.1016/S0748-7983(03)00080-5

[7] Mohapatra, S.; Bohidar, S.; Pradhan, N.; Kar, R.N.; Sukla, L.B. (2007). "Microbial extraction of nickel from Sukinda chromite overburden by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Aspergillus strains".

[8] Rai, Charanjit; Reyniers, Jon P. (1988). "Microbial Desulfurization of Coals by Organisms of the Genus Pseudomonas". Biotechnology Progress. 4 (4): 225–30. doi:10.1002/btpr.5420040406.

[9] Orellana, R., Macaya, C., Bravo, G., Dorochesi, F., Cumsille, A., Valencia, R., … Seeger, M. (2018). Living at the Frontiers of Life: Extremophiles in Chile and Their Potential for Bioremediation. Frontiers in microbiology, 9, 2309. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.02309.

[10] Pulz O, Gross W.(2004).Valuable products from biotechnology of microalgae. Applied Microbiol Biotechnology;65(6):635–48. 10.1007/s00253-004-1647-x

[11] DasSarma P, Coker JA, Huse V, et al. : Halophiles, Industrial Applications. In: Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.2009.

[12] Shand RF, Leyva K: Archaeal antimicrobials: an undiscovered country. In: Paul Blum ed. Archaea: new models for prokaryotic biology Norfolk, UK: Caister Academic Press,2008;233–44.

[13] Stuart ES, Morshed F, Sremac M, et al. : Antigen presentation using novel particulate organelles from halophilic archaea. J Biotechnol. 2001;88(2):119–28. 10.1016/S0168-1656(01)00267-X

[14] G. U. Chibuike and S. C. Obiora,2014,“Heavy Metal Polluted Soils: Effect on Plants and Bioremediation Methods,” Applied and Environmental Soil Science, vol.article ID 752708, 12 pages, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/752708.

[15] Coker J. A. (2016). Extremophiles and biotechnology: current uses and prospects. F1000Research, 5, F1000 Faculty Rev-396. doi:10.12688/f1000research.7432.1

Microplastics

2019-05-08T12:43:34Z

Kyledesi:

==Overview==
Most commonly studied for the detrimental effects caused in marine environments, the impact of '''Microplastics''' on soil ecosystems have been largely neglected. The main sources of microplastic pollution in soil is thought to be plastic mulching film and fertilizer produced through waste water irrigation [1].
‎[[File:Microplasticsfoundinsoil.jpg|center|thumb|450px| A microscopic look at plastic microfibers found in soil.]]

==Plastic Mulching==
[[File:20110829-FSA-XX-0028 - Flickr - USDAgov.jpg|120px|left|thumb|Plastic mulching in agriculture]]
Plastic mulch is used to conserve water and subdue weed growth in agriculture. Conventional plastic polymers are typically used as biodegradable alternatives are usually much more expensive [3]. Plastic polymers tend to accumulate in soil as it is broken down due to lack of economical and legal incentive surrounding removal of plastic mulching [1].

==Buildup of Microplastics Due to Fertilizer Application==
[[File:Shovel excavator loading the sewage sludge (6305610332).jpg|thumb|Shovel excavator loading sewage sludge fertilizer onto farmland.]]
Wastewater facilities receive a large amount of microplastic fibers emitted from industry, surface run-off, and households in urban areas. A surprisingly large amount may come through use of washer machines [4]. Most of these fibers accumulate in sewage sludge, which is often turned into a fertilizer. While there are regulatory methods on the possible pollutants in waste water sludge, there remains none regarding the accumulation of microplastics. Microplastics are able to accumulate in soil through the repeat application of this sewage sludge fertilizer[2].

==Unknown Consequences==
Studies done in Norway suggest a large portion of microplastics generated in western societies end up in the sludge found at wastewater treatment facilities [1]. In America and Europe, it is estimated that about half of total sewage sludge accumulated each year is used as fertilizer. Estimates range anywhere from 110,000 tons and 730,000 tons of microplastics being transferred to American and European soil each year [5]. There is an estimated total of 93,000 to 236,000 metric tons of microplastic entering the ocean each year [6], making soil potentially a larger reservoir than the ocean for microplastics.

==Potential Impacts on Plant and Soil Health==
[[File:Isotoma Habitus.jpg|left|200px|thumb|A [[springtail]], whose movement and ability to escape predations may be debilitated due to microplastic interference with the furcula appendage.]]
The vast potential consequences of microplastics on soil and plant ecology in generally unknown [2]. In a study conducted over five weeks, soil was exposed to a concentration of up to 2% of micro-fibrous plastics. Bulk density, water holding capacity, hydraulic conductivity, soil aggregation, and microbial activity were all measured. It was concluded that microplastics effected the bulk density of soil, water holding capacity, and the relationship between microbes and soil. The study suggests that microplastics could potentially be interfering with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]], a crucial symbiotic relationship many plants rely on. In another study, it was found that microplastics actually inhibit the movement of [[springtail]], an organism that plays a part in soil ecology [8]. There is a clear and surprising knowledge gap on the effects on microplastics on soils and more research is needed in order get a better understanding of the problem and the solutions to fix it [1].

==Refrences==
[1] Lei.(2018).Microplastics in soils: Analytical methods, pollution characteristics and ecological risks.TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry.163-172.0165-9936.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.10.006.

[2] Rillig,M.C.(2012).Microplastic in Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Soil?.Environ.Sci.Technol. 46 (12), 6453– 6454, DOI: 10.1021/es302011r

[3] Nizzetto et al (2016): “A theoretical assessment of microplastic transport in river catchments and their retention by soils and river sediments” in Environ. Sci.: Processes Impacts, 2016, 18, 1050-1059. DOI: 10.1039/C6EM00206D

[4] Nizzetto, Futter, Langaas (2016): “Are Agricultural Soils Dumps for Microplastics of Urban Origin?“ in Environ. Sci. Technol. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04140

[5] Rodríguez-Seijo, Andrés & Pereira, Ruth. (2019). Chapter 3. Microplastics in Agricultural Soils: Are They a Real Environmental Hazard?. 10.1201/9781315205137.

[6] Luís Carlos de Sá, Miguel Oliveira, Francisca Ribeiro, Thiago Lopes Rocha, Martyn Norman Futter.(2018).studies of the effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms: What do we know and where should we focus our efforts in the future?.Science of The Total Environment.Volume.645.1029-1039.0048-9697.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.207

[7] Anderson Abel de Souza Machado, Chung Wai Lau, Jennifer Till, Werner Kloas, Anika Lehmann, Roland Becker, and Matthias C. Rillig
Environmental Science & Technology 2018 52 (17), 9656-9665
DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b02212

[8]Kim, S. W., and Y.-J. An. 2019. Soil microplastics inhibit the movement of springtail species. Environment International 126:699–706.

Microplastics

2019-05-08T12:43:20Z

Kyledesi:

Microplastics

2019-05-08T12:42:51Z

Kyledesi: /* Potential Impacts on Plant and Soil Health */

Microplastics

2019-05-08T12:42:26Z

Kyledesi: /* Potential Impacts on Plant and Soil Health */

==Overview==
Most commonly studied for the detrimental effects caused in marine environments, the impact of '''Microplastics''' on soil ecosystems have been largely neglected. The main sources of microplastic pollution in soil is thought to be plastic mulching film and fertilizer produced through waste water irrigation [1].
‎[[File:Microplasticsfoundinsoil.jpg|center|thumb|450px| A microscopic look at plastic microfibers found in soil.]]

==Plastic Mulching==
[[File:20110829-FSA-XX-0028 - Flickr - USDAgov.jpg|120px|left|thumb|Plastic mulching in agriculture]]
Plastic mulch is used to conserve water and subdue weed growth in agriculture. Conventional plastic polymers are typically used as biodegradable alternatives are usually much more expensive [3]. Plastic polymers tend to accumulate in soil as it is broken down due to lack of economical and legal incentive surrounding removal of plastic mulching [1].

==Buildup of Microplastics Due to Fertilizer Application==
[[File:Shovel excavator loading the sewage sludge (6305610332).jpg|thumb|Shovel excavator loading sewage sludge fertilizer onto farmland.]]
Wastewater facilities receive a large amount of microplastic fibers emitted from industry, surface run-off, and households in urban areas. A surprisingly large amount may come through use of washer machines [4]. Most of these fibers accumulate in sewage sludge, which is often turned into a fertilizer. While there are regulatory methods on the possible pollutants in waste water sludge, there remains none regarding the accumulation of microplastics. Microplastics are able to accumulate in soil through the repeat application of this sewage sludge fertilizer[2].

==Unknown Consequences==
Studies done in Norway suggest a large portion of microplastics generated in western societies end up in the sludge found at wastewater treatment facilities [1]. In America and Europe, it is estimated that about half of total sewage sludge accumulated each year is used as fertilizer. Estimates range anywhere from 110,000 tons and 730,000 tons of microplastics being transferred to American and European soil each year [5]. There is an estimated total of 93,000 to 236,000 metric tons of microplastic entering the ocean each year [6], making soil potentially a larger reservoir than the ocean for microplastics.

==Potential Impacts on Plant and Soil Health==
[[File:Isotoma Habitus.jpg|left|200px|thumb|A springtail, whose movement and ability to escape predations may be debilitated due to microplastic interference with the furcula appendage.]]
The vast potential consequences of microplastics on soil and plant ecology in generally unknown [2]. In a study conducted over five weeks, soil was exposed to a concentration of up to 2% of micro-fibrous plastics. Bulk density, water holding capacity, hydraulic conductivity, soil aggregation, and microbial activity were all measured. It was concluded that microplastics effected the bulk density of soil, water holding capacity, and the relationship between microbes and soil. The study suggests that microplastics could potentially be interfering with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]], a crucial symbiotic relationship many plants rely on. In another study, it was found that microplastics actually inhibit the movement of [[springtail]], an organism that plays a part in soil ecology [8]. There is a clear and surprising knowledge gap on the effects on microplastics on soils and more research is needed in order get a better understanding of the problem and the solutions to fix it [1].

==Refrences==
[1] Lei.(2018).Microplastics in soils: Analytical methods, pollution characteristics and ecological risks.TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry.163-172.0165-9936.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.10.006.

[2] Rillig,M.C.(2012).Microplastic in Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Soil?.Environ.Sci.Technol. 46 (12), 6453– 6454, DOI: 10.1021/es302011r

[3] Nizzetto et al (2016): “A theoretical assessment of microplastic transport in river catchments and their retention by soils and river sediments” in Environ. Sci.: Processes Impacts, 2016, 18, 1050-1059. DOI: 10.1039/C6EM00206D

[4] Nizzetto, Futter, Langaas (2016): “Are Agricultural Soils Dumps for Microplastics of Urban Origin?“ in Environ. Sci. Technol. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04140

[5] Rodríguez-Seijo, Andrés & Pereira, Ruth. (2019). Chapter 3. Microplastics in Agricultural Soils: Are They a Real Environmental Hazard?. 10.1201/9781315205137.

[6] Luís Carlos de Sá, Miguel Oliveira, Francisca Ribeiro, Thiago Lopes Rocha, Martyn Norman Futter.(2018).studies of the effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms: What do we know and where should we focus our efforts in the future?.Science of The Total Environment.Volume.645.1029-1039.0048-9697.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.207

[7] Anderson Abel de Souza Machado, Chung Wai Lau, Jennifer Till, Werner Kloas, Anika Lehmann, Roland Becker, and Matthias C. Rillig
Environmental Science & Technology 2018 52 (17), 9656-9665
DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b02212

[8]Kim, S. W., and Y.-J. An. 2019. Soil microplastics inhibit the movement of springtail species. Environment International 126:699–706.

Extremophiles

2019-05-08T12:40:10Z

Kyledesi:

[[File:Permafrost_-_polygon.jpg|thumb|Permafrozen Anartic soils that experience extreme dryness and high salinity. Halophiles and xerophiles may be found here.]]
An Extremophile is an organism that experiences optimal growth in environments outside the realm of what is considered “normal” and may even require intense geochemical or physical conditions to survive [1]. Extremophiles associated with plants encompass all three domains of life: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Within these domains, they can be found in different phylums and groups such as Actinobacteria, Ascomycota, Bacteroidetes, Basidiomycota, Crenarchaeota, Euryarchaeota, Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. Extremophilic microbes that benefit plant health and soil fertility are [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and bacteria found in the [[rhizosphere]] growing under abiotic stress conditions of temperature, salinity, pH and water deficiency. These microbes are said to be psychrophiles (-2°C to 20°C), thermophiles (60°C to 115°C), halophiles (2-5M), acidophiles (pH<4), alkaliphiles (pH>9) and xerophiles (water potential 0.75 kPa) [2]. Though not intensively studied until recently, extremophiles may have huge potential in the application of agriculture, biotechnology and bioremediation [3].

==Plant Health and Agriculture==
[[File:Penicillium notatum.jpg|thumb|Penicillium chrysogenum, a rhizobacteria used both in penicillin production and a bio-fertilizer.]]
Extremophilic microbes found in soils and within plants present a of variety of benefits towards increasing overall plant health. They have ability to produce phytohormones, solubilize nutrients, and attack pathogens.

There has been success in applying these microbes as biofertilizers for crop improvement and soil health as a sustainable option[2]. Two rhizobacteria root endophytes that are found in Antarctica, Penicillium chrysogenum and Penicillium brevicompactum, increased fitness in cayenne, lettuce, onion, and tomato in high salinity environments by limiting the intake of salt. This has useful application in reduction of saline stress on plants that are not saline tolerant, such as lettuce [4].

In another study, endophytic mycorrhizae isolated from the roots of a tomato grown in intense drought and saline conditions was found to activate and stimulate defense mechanisms in plants through the use of phytohormones to achieve improved growth [5]. There is an extreme interest in extremophilic microbes found in cold environments due to their ability to thrive in what is often a high salinity and arid environment, but full potential of these microbes in agriculture is still being discovered and researched, for example the recent increase in the reports of acidophiles found in plants growing within acidic soil [2].

==Bioremediation==
[[File:ValleLuna-002.jpg|thumb|The Atacama desert, subject of intensive research due to the diverse extremophilic organisms found residing there.]]
[[File:Aspergillus sp. 4.5X (1).JPG|left|250px|Aspergillus, a diverse fungi that contains many extremophiles.|thumb]]
Bioremediation refers to the use of an organism in degradation of contaminants that pose environmental and human risks. There has been a number of extremophilic organisms successful in remediation of contaminated soil [3].

Deinococcus radiodurans is a radiation-resistant bacteria occurring naturally in the cracks of rocks in Antarctica that has been genetically engineered by insertion of the mercuric reductase gene from Escherichia coli to be useful in remediation of heavy metals and radiation in nuclear waste sites. The gene combined with the bacteria's ability to tolerate radiation has made it a reliable option degrade mercury in radiation enriched soil environments [6].

Acidophiles have been successfully utilized in remediation of heavy metal soil sites. The fungi in ''Aspergillus'', which also contains the species that causes black mold, and the bacteria ''A.ferrooxidans'', have been used to remove nickel from contaminated soil and wastewater. Extremophilic bacteria cereus and B. thuringiensis have been shown to increase extraction of Cd and Zn from Cd-rich soil and soil polluted with effluent from metal industry [14]. ''Acidithiobacillus sp'' has been successful in removing sulfur from coal in order to help prevent acid rain [8]. The soil of the Atacama desert, noted for its similarity to mars, is now being heavily studied due to the vast variety of extremophilic organisms found there with high bioremediation potential [9].

==Biotechnology==
In a process known as bio-leaching, g, the removal of insoluble metal sulfides or oxides by using microorganisms, extremophiles are used as a sustainble option to mine ores, referred to as biomining. This is much more eco-friendly to soils and the surrounding environment. Biomining techniques have successfully been employed to mine metals such as gold, silver, copper, zinc, nickel, and uranium. The organisms used in this process are acidophiles such as Acidithiobacillus and Ferroplasma. In certain mining conditions there is extreme heat present, where thermophilic organisms Sulfolobus and Metallosphaera are utilized [15].

[[File:Blue-green algae and mineral deposits in Waimangu Stream (Hot Water Creek).jpg|thumb|Waimangu Stream, an example of where the acidophilc algae Cyanidium caldarium can be found.]]
Extremophilic organisms have been increasingly researched as an option for a cleaner fuel source. ''Cyanidium caldarium'' and ''galdieria sulphuraria'' contain long chain hydrocarbons similar to those found in petroleum. They can be found in bogs and moist acidic soil all over the world and grown in open containers as the high salinity required for growth inhibits most other microbes [10].

Extremophilic microbes have also shown great promise in medical applications. Antimicrobial peptides have been found in halophiles belonging to numerous species that reside in soils. Peptides from halophiles are referred to as halocins, which have been shown to be effective at killing archaeal cells [11]. There has also been numerous research done showing the ability of extremophiles to assist canines in recovery from surgery [12].
Diketopiperazines, also found in halophiles, have shown to ability to reduce tumors and reduce blood clotting. An example of this is ''Naloterrigena hispanica'', found in the soils of an extremely salty lake in Fuente de Piedra, Spain.

An extremely intriguing contribution from extremophiles may come from an alternative method for vaccines. Halobacterium, another organism found in extremely salty environments, produce internal gas vesicles and small gas-filled proteinaceous structures [13]. These structures have been engineered to show a recombinant form of an immunodeficiency virus on the external surface of the bacterium. These newly formed vesicles have shown a strong antibody response and long lasting immune memory when administered nasally to mice. The vaccine showed no toxicity in mice and is being further studied [13].

==Refrences==
[1] Rampelotto P. H. (2013). Extremophiles and extreme environments. Life (Basel, Switzerland), 3(3), 482–485. doi:10.3390/life3030482

[2] Yadav, Ajar Nath. (2017). Beneficial role of extremophilic microbes for plant health and soil fertility. Journal of Agricultural Science and Botany. 1. 1-4.

[3] Kristjánsson, J.K. & Hreggvidsson. (2017). G.O. World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 11: 17. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00339134

[4 ]Acuña-Rodríguez Ian S., Hansen Hermann, Gallardo-Cerda Jorge, Atala Cristian, Molina-Montenegro Marco A. (2019). Antarctic Extremophiles: Biotechnological Alternative to Crop Productivity in Saline Soils. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 22.

[5] Khan, A.L., Waqas, M., Khan, A.R. et al. World J Microbiol Biotechnol (2013) 29: 2133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-013-1378-1

[6] Rew, D. A (1 August 2003). "Deinococcus radiodurans". European Journal of Surgical Oncology (EJSO). 29 (6): 557–558. doi:10.1016/S0748-7983(03)00080-5

[7] Mohapatra, S.; Bohidar, S.; Pradhan, N.; Kar, R.N.; Sukla, L.B. (2007). "Microbial extraction of nickel from Sukinda chromite overburden by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Aspergillus strains".

[8] Rai, Charanjit; Reyniers, Jon P. (1988). "Microbial Desulfurization of Coals by Organisms of the Genus Pseudomonas". Biotechnology Progress. 4 (4): 225–30. doi:10.1002/btpr.5420040406.

[9] Orellana, R., Macaya, C., Bravo, G., Dorochesi, F., Cumsille, A., Valencia, R., … Seeger, M. (2018). Living at the Frontiers of Life: Extremophiles in Chile and Their Potential for Bioremediation. Frontiers in microbiology, 9, 2309. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.02309.

[10] Pulz O, Gross W.(2004).Valuable products from biotechnology of microalgae. Applied Microbiol Biotechnology;65(6):635–48. 10.1007/s00253-004-1647-x

[11] DasSarma P, Coker JA, Huse V, et al. : Halophiles, Industrial Applications. In: Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.2009.

[12] Shand RF, Leyva K: Archaeal antimicrobials: an undiscovered country. In: Paul Blum ed. Archaea: new models for prokaryotic biology Norfolk, UK: Caister Academic Press,2008;233–44.

[13] Stuart ES, Morshed F, Sremac M, et al. : Antigen presentation using novel particulate organelles from halophilic archaea. J Biotechnol. 2001;88(2):119–28. 10.1016/S0168-1656(01)00267-X

[14] G. U. Chibuike and S. C. Obiora,2014,“Heavy Metal Polluted Soils: Effect on Plants and Bioremediation Methods,” Applied and Environmental Soil Science, vol.article ID 752708, 12 pages, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/752708.

[15] Coker J. A. (2016). Extremophiles and biotechnology: current uses and prospects. F1000Research, 5, F1000 Faculty Rev-396. doi:10.12688/f1000research.7432.1

Extremophiles

2019-05-08T05:32:09Z

Kyledesi: /* Bioremediation */

[[File:Permafrost_-_polygon.jpg|thumb|Permafrozen Anartic soils that experience extreme dryness and high salinity. Halophiles and xerophiles may be found here.]]
An Extremophile is an organism that experiences optimal growth in environments outside the realm of what is considered “normal” and may even require intense geochemical or physical conditions to survive [1]. Extremophiles associated with plants encompass all three domains of life: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Within these domains, they can be found in different phylums and groups such as Actinobacteria, Ascomycota, Bacteroidetes, Basidiomycota, Crenarchaeota, Euryarchaeota, Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. Extremophilic microbes that benefit plant health and soil fertility are [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and bacteria found in the [[rhizosphere]] growing under abiotic stress conditions of temperature, salinity, pH and water deficiency. These microbes are said to be psychrophiles (-2°C to 20°C), thermophiles (60°C to 115°C), halophiles (2-5M), acidophiles (pH<4), alkaliphiles (pH>9) and xerophiles (water potential 0.75 kPa) [2]. Though not intensively studied until recently, extremophiles may have huge potential in the application of agriculture, biotechnology and bioremediation [3].

==Plant Health and Agriculture==
[[File:Penicillium notatum.jpg|thumb|Penicillium chrysogenum, a rhizobacteria used both in penicillin production and a bio-fertilizer.]]
Extremophilic microbes found in soils and within plants present a of variety of benefits towards increasing overall plant health. They have ability to produce phytohormones, solubilize nutrients, and attack pathogens.

There has been success in applying these microbes as biofertilizers for crop improvement and soil health as a sustainable option[2]. Two rhizobacteria root endophytes that are found in Antarctica, Penicillium chrysogenum and Penicillium brevicompactum, increased fitness in cayenne, lettuce, onion, and tomato in high salinity environments by limiting the intake of salt. This has useful application in reduction of saline stress on plants that are not saline tolerant, such as lettuce [4].

In another study, endophytic mycorrhizae isolated from the roots of a tomato grown in intense drought and saline conditions was found to activate and stimulate defense mechanisms in plants through the use of phytohormones to achieve improved growth [5]. There is an extreme interest in extremophilic microbes found in cold environments due to their ability to thrive in what is often a high salinity and arid environment, but full potential of these microbes in agriculture is still being discovered and researched, for example the recent increase in the reports of acidophiles found in plants growing within acidic soil [2].

==Bioremediation==
[[File:ValleLuna-002.jpg|thumb|The Atacama desert, subject of intensive research due to the diverse extremophilic organisms found residing there.]]
[[File:Aspergillus sp. 4.5X (1).JPG|left|250px|Aspergillus, a diverse fungi that contains many extremophiles.|thumb]]
Bioremediation refers to the use of an organism in degradation of contaminants that pose environmental and human risks. There has been a number of extremophilic organisms successful in remediation of contaminated soil [3].

Deinococcus radiodurans is a radiation-resistant bacteria occurring naturally in the cracks of rocks in Antarctica that has been genetically engineered by insertion of the mercuric reductase gene from Escherichia coli to be useful in remediation of heavy metals and radiation in nuclear waste sites. The gene combined with the bacteria's ability to tolerate radiation has made it a reliable option degrade mercury in radiation enriched soil environments [6].

Acidophiles have been successfully utilized in remediation of heavy metal soil sites. The fungi in ''Aspergillus'', which also contains the species that causes black mold, and the bacteria ''A.ferrooxidans'', have been used to remove nickel from contaminated soil and wastewater. Extremophilic bacteria cereus and B. thuringiensis have been shown to increase extraction of Cd and Zn from Cd-rich soil and soil polluted with effluent from metal industry [14]. ''Acidithiobacillus sp'' has been successful in removing sulfur from coal in order to help prevent acid rain [8]. The soil of the Atacama desert, noted for its similarity to mars, is now being heavily studied due to the vast variety of extremophilic organisms found there with high bioremediation potential [9].

==Biotechnology==
In a process known as bio-leaching, g, the removal of insoluble metal sulfides or oxides by using microorganisms, extremophiles are used as a sustainble option to mine ores, referred to as biomining. This is much more eco-friendly to soils and the surrounding environment. Biomining techniques have successfully been employed to mine metals such as gold, silver, copper, zinc, nickel, and uranium. The organisms used in this process are acidophiles such as Acidithiobacillus and Ferroplasma. In certain mining conditions there is extreme heat present, where thermophilic organisms Sulfolobus and Metallosphaera are utilized [15].

[[File:Blue-green algae and mineral deposits in Waimangu Stream (Hot Water Creek).jpg|thumb|Waimangu Stream, an example of where the acidophilc algae Cyanidium caldarium can be found.]]
Extremophilic organisms have been increasingly researched as an option for a cleaner fuel source. ''Cyanidium caldarium'' and ''galdieria sulphuraria'' contain long chain hydrocarbons similar to those found in petroleum. They can be found in bogs and moist acidic soil all over the world and grown in open containers as the high salinity required for growth inhibits most other microbes [10].

Extremophilic microbes have also shown great promise in medical applications. Antimicrobial peptides have been found in halophiles belonging to numerous species that reside in soils. Peptides from halophiles are referred to as halocins, which have been shown to be effective at killing archaeal cells [11]. There has also been numerous research done showing the ability of extremophiles to assist canines in recovery from surgery [12].
Diketopiperazines, also found in halophiles, have shown to ability to reduce tumors and reduce blood clotting. An example of this is ''Naloterrigena hispanica'', found in the soils of an extremely salty lake in Fuente de Piedra, Spain.

An extremely intriguing contribution from extremophiles may come from an alternative method for vaccines. Halobacterium, another organism found in extremely salty environments, produce internal gas vesicles and small gas-filled proteinaceous structures [13]. These structures have been engineered to show a recombinant form of an immunodeficiency virus on the external surface of the bacterium. These newly formed vesicles have shown a strong antibody response and long lasting immune memory when administered nasally to mice. The vaccine showed no toxicity in mice and is being further studied [13].

==Refrences==
[1] Rampelotto P. H. (2013). Extremophiles and extreme environments. Life (Basel, Switzerland), 3(3), 482–485. doi:10.3390/life3030482

[2] Yadav, Ajar Nath. (2017). Beneficial role of extremophilic microbes for plant health and soil fertility. Journal of Agricultural Science and Botany. 1. 1-4.

[3] Kristjánsson, J.K. & Hreggvidsson. (2017). G.O. World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 11: 17. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00339134

[4 ]Acuña-Rodríguez Ian S., Hansen Hermann, Gallardo-Cerda Jorge, Atala Cristian, Molina-Montenegro Marco A. (2019). Antarctic Extremophiles: Biotechnological Alternative to Crop Productivity in Saline Soils. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 22.

[5] Khan, A.L., Waqas, M., Khan, A.R. et al. World J Microbiol Biotechnol (2013) 29: 2133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-013-1378-1

[6] Rew, D. A (1 August 2003). "Deinococcus radiodurans". European Journal of Surgical Oncology (EJSO). 29 (6): 557–558. doi:10.1016/S0748-7983(03)00080-5

[7] Mohapatra, S.; Bohidar, S.; Pradhan, N.; Kar, R.N.; Sukla, L.B. (2007). "Microbial extraction of nickel from Sukinda chromite overburden by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Aspergillus strains".

[8] Rai, Charanjit; Reyniers, Jon P. (1988). "Microbial Desulfurization of Coals by Organisms of the Genus Pseudomonas". Biotechnology Progress. 4 (4): 225–30. doi:10.1002/btpr.5420040406.

[9] Orellana, R., Macaya, C., Bravo, G., Dorochesi, F., Cumsille, A., Valencia, R., … Seeger, M. (2018). Living at the Frontiers of Life: Extremophiles in Chile and Their Potential for Bioremediation. Frontiers in microbiology, 9, 2309. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.02309.

[10] Pulz O, Gross W.(2004).Valuable products from biotechnology of microalgae. Applied Microbiol Biotechnology;65(6):635–48. 10.1007/s00253-004-1647-x

[11] DasSarma P, Coker JA, Huse V, et al. : Halophiles, Industrial Applications. In: Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.2009.

[12] Shand RF, Leyva K: Archaeal antimicrobials: an undiscovered country. In: Paul Blum ed. Archaea: new models for prokaryotic biology Norfolk, UK: Caister Academic Press,2008;233–44.

[13] Stuart ES, Morshed F, Sremac M, et al. : Antigen presentation using novel particulate organelles from halophilic archaea. J Biotechnol. 2001;88(2):119–28. 10.1016/S0168-1656(01)00267-X

[14] G. U. Chibuike and S. C. Obiora,2014,“Heavy Metal Polluted Soils: Effect on Plants and Bioremediation Methods,” Applied and Environmental Soil Science, vol.article ID 752708, 12 pages, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/752708.

[15] Coker J. A. (2016). Extremophiles and biotechnology: current uses and prospects. F1000Research, 5, F1000 Faculty Rev-396. doi:10.12688/f1000research.7432.1

Myriapoda

2019-05-08T05:28:07Z

Kyledesi:

== Myriapoda Overview ==

[[File:Giantmilli.jpg|thumb|center|African Millipede for scale[9]]]

Myriapoda is a subphylum of [[Arthropoda]] and contains over 13,000 species, almost all of which are terrestrial. Species include various millipedes and centipedes, among others. The group is named “Myriapod” after one of their most distinguishable features, their myriad of legs. While this suggests their number of legs is countless, in reality myriapods range anywhere from having nearly 200 pairs of appendages to fewer than ten. The size of these [[organisms]] can vary as well; some species are microscopic while others can reach lengths of over 30 cm [1].

== Anatomy and Body Structure==
[[File:MyriaAnat.jpg|thumb|right|Example of Myriapoda anatomy. Notice segements and appendages. The relationship between these body parts varies between classes and species [10]]]

Because Myriapoda are part of the group Arthopoda, this means they are [[invertebrates]] with segmented bodies. Pairs of appendages are connected to these segments and are used for movement, sensory, hunting, etc. They also have a single pair of antennae, with many species having eyes.The mouth lies on the underside of the head, with a pair of mandibles inside. The heart in myriapods is a long tubular organ that extends through the body instead of having blood vessels [2].

== Reproduction ==

In order to reproduce, the male myriapod produces a [[spermatophore]], or sperm capsule which is transferred to the female externally. The female uses this capsule to lay its eggs. When they hatch, the [[larvae]] appear as smaller versions of the adults, with only a few segments and few pairs of legs. Additional segments and leg pairs develop as the organism moults and grows [3].

== Classification ==

There are four groups of Myriapoda. Each of these groups is believed to be [[monophyletic]], meaning they descended from a common ancestor, however the specific relationships between them are less certain and not yet completely understood [1].

===[[Chilopoda]]===

[[File:Centipede1.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Chilopoda [11]]]
This class includes true centipedes like the one shown. These organisms have only one pair of legs per body segment, including a modified pair of claws or mandibles at the front of the insect. Centipedes can have a varying number of legs, ranging from 30 to 354, although they will always have an odd number of pairs of legs. Some species are equipped with poison glands, which are used to hunt/capture prey, meaning centipedes are carnivorous. There are an estimated 8,000 species of centipede while only 3,000 have been described [4].

===[[Diplopoda]]===

[[File:Millipede1.png|thumb||Millipede [12]]]

This class is dominated by myriapods called Millipedes. The segments that make up the bodies of these organisms were formed by the fusion of two adjacent embryonic segments; meaning, each segment of a millipede bears two pairs of legs. This explains the name Diplopoda which means “double legs”. There are 16 orders and around 140 families classified off this class, making Diplopoda the largest of the myriapoda classes. Millipedes are unlike centipedes in that they are very slow moving and are [[detrivores]], meaning they feed on decaying litter and vegetation. However, some eat fungi and a very small minority are predatory [5].

===[[Symphyla]]===
[[File:Symphyla1.jpg|thumb|right|Symphyla [13]]]
This class consists of very small, soil-dwelling, myriapods that resemble translucent centipedes (although are more closely related to millipedes). Juveniles have six pairs of legs, but as they grow, eventually develop twelve pairs of legs. These organisms use their long antennae as sense organs because they lack eyes. They are typically found in soil from the surface down to a depth of about 50 cm. They move through the pores between soil particles and consume decaying vegetation. Despite this, Symphyla are considered [[pests]] and can do considerable harm to [[agriculture]] [6].

===[[Pauropoda]]===
[[File:Pauropoda1.jpg|thumb||150px|Pauropoda [14]]]
This class is often referred to as pseudocentipedes because of how similar in appearance they are to their relatives. However, the similarities mostly stop there. These organisms are very small and pale and feed on mold and different forms of fungi [7].

== History ==
[[File:GiantMyria.png|thumb|right|Ancient Myriapoda with scale [15]]]
There are Cambrian fossils that exist which resemble myriapods, however the oldest unequivocal myriapod fossil is of a millipede from around 428 million years ago (Silurian Period)[8].

An ancient class of Myriapoda, [[Arthropleuridea]] are now extinct. Dying out in the Permian, some members of this class are most famously known as giant millipedes. These arthropods were some of the largest to ever live, were probably herbivorous, and were thought to reach sizes of 3 metres long [8].

== References ==
[1]Waggoner, Ben. “Introduction to the Myriapoda.” University Of California Museum of Paleontology, University Of California at Berkeley, 21 Feb. 1996, www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/uniramia/myriapoda.html.

[2]David A. Grimaldi and Michael S. Engel, 2010,“The Geological Record and Phylogeny of the Myriapoda.” 2nd-3rd ed., vol. 39, Elsevier. pp. 174–190.

[3]K. G. Adiyodi et al.,1988, “Anthropoda - Myriapoda.” Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates. Accessory Sex Glands, byvol. 3, John Wiley & Sons,473–476.

[4] Minelli A. (ed) (2013) Chilobase: A web resource for Chilopoda taxonomy

[5]Sierwald, Petra; Bond, Jason E. (2007). "Current status of the myriapod class Diplopoda (Millipedes): Taxonomic diversity and phylogeny". Annual Review of Entomology. 52 (1): 401–420

[6]C. A. Edwards (1990). "Symphyla". In Daniel L. Dindal (ed.). Soil Biology Guide. New York: Wiley. pp. 891–910.

[7]Scheller, Ulf (2008). "A reclassification of the Pauropoda (Myriapoda)". International Journal of Myriapodology.

[8]David A. Grimaldi and Michael S. Engel,2010,“The Geological Record and Phylogeny of the Myriapoda.”,2nd-3rd ed., vol. 39, Elsevier, 2010, pp. 174–190.

[9]Cleverly, Jonathan. “Meet the African Giant Millipedes .” Jonathan's Jungle Roadshow, www.jonathansjungleroadshow.co.uk/meet-the-african-giant-millipedes.html.

[10]“Centipede Anatomy | Diagrams and Facts About Centipedes.” Animal Corner, 29 Apr. 2008, animalcorner.co.uk/centipede-anatomy/.

[11]“Facts about Centipede: Appearance, Habitat, Symptoms, and Treatments.” Insect Pest Facts, 10 Jan. 2018, www.insectpestfacts.com/centipede/.

[12][1]Haulter, Josh. “How Do I Create a BioActive Vivarium?” TheBioDude, 2 Jan. 2017, www.thebiodude.com/blogs/how-do-i-create-a-bioactive-vivarium.

[13]“Garden Symphylans.” Symphylan Identification, Oregon State University, mint.ippc.orst.edu/symphid.htm.

[14] Tree of Life Web Project. 2002. Pauropoda. pauropods. Version 01 January 2002 (temporary). http://tolweb.org/Pauropoda/2531/2002.01.01 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/

[15] Tree of Life Web Project. 2002. Pauropoda. pauropods. Version 01 January 2002 (temporary). http://tolweb.org/Pauropoda/2531/2002.01.01 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.or

Myriapoda

2019-05-08T05:27:33Z

Kyledesi:

Myriapoda

2019-05-08T05:27:16Z

Kyledesi:

Myriapoda

2019-05-08T05:27:01Z

Kyledesi:

2019-05-08T04:48:44Z

Kyledesi:

== Myriapoda Overview ==

[[File:Giantmilli.jpg|thumb|center|African Millipede for scale[7]]]

Myriapoda is a subphylum of [[Arthropoda]] and contains over 13,000 species, almost all of which are terrestrial. Species include various millipedes and centipedes, among others. The group is named “Myriapod” after one of their most distinguishable features, their myriad of legs. While this suggests their number of legs is countless, in reality myriapods range anywhere from having nearly 200 pairs of appendages to fewer than ten. The size of these [[organisms]] can vary as well; some species are microscopic while others can reach lengths of over 30 cm [1].

== Anatomy and Body Structure==
[[File:MyriaAnat.jpg|thumb|right|Example of Myriapoda anatomy. Notice segements and appendages. The relationship between these body parts varies between classes and species [6]]]

Because Myriapoda are part of the group Arthopoda, this means they are [[invertebrates]] with segmented bodies. Pairs of appendages are connected to these segments and are used for movement, sensory, hunting, etc. They also have a single pair of antennae, with many species having eyes.The mouth lies on the underside of the head, with a pair of mandibles inside. The heart in myriapods is a long tubular organ that extends through the body instead of having blood vessels [2].

== Reproduction ==

In order to reproduce, the male myriapod produces a [[spermatophore]], or sperm capsule which is transferred to the female externally. The female uses this capsule to lay its eggs. When they hatch, the [[larvae]] appear as smaller versions of the adults, with only a few segments and few pairs of legs. Additional segments and leg pairs develop as the organism moults and grows [3].

== Classification ==

There are four groups of Myriapoda. Each of these groups is believed to be [[monophyletic]], meaning they descended from a common ancestor, however the specific relationships between them are less certain and not yet completely understood [1].

===[[Chilopoda]]===

[[File:Centipede1.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Chilopoda [2]]]
This class includes true centipedes like the one shown. These organisms have only one pair of legs per body segment, including a modified pair of claws or mandibles at the front of the insect. Centipedes can have a varying number of legs, ranging from 30 to 354, although they will always have an odd number of pairs of legs. Some species are equipped with poison glands, which are used to hunt/capture prey, meaning centipedes are carnivorous. There are an estimated 8,000 species of centipede while only 3,000 have been described [4].

===[[Diplopoda]]===

[[File:Millipede1.png|thumb||Millipede [1]]]

This class is dominated by myriapods called Millipedes. The segments that make up the bodies of these organisms were formed by the fusion of two adjacent embryonic segments; meaning, each segment of a millipede bears two pairs of legs. This explains the name Diplopoda which means “double legs”. There are 16 orders and around 140 families classified off this class, making Diplopoda the largest of the myriapoda classes. Millipedes are unlike centipedes in that they are very slow moving and are [[detrivores]], meaning they feed on decaying litter and vegetation. However, some eat fungi and a very small minority are predatory [5].

===[[Symphyla]]===
[[File:Symphyla1.jpg|thumb|right|Symphyla [3]]]
This class consists of very small, soil-dwelling, myriapods that resemble translucent centipedes (although are more closely related to millipedes). Juveniles have six pairs of legs, but as they grow, eventually develop twelve pairs of legs. These organisms use their long antennae as sense organs because they lack eyes. They are typically found in soil from the surface down to a depth of about 50 cm. They move through the pores between soil particles and consume decaying vegetation. Despite this, Symphyla are considered [[pests]] and can do considerable harm to [[agriculture]] [6].

===[[Pauropoda]]===
[[File:Pauropoda1.jpg|thumb||150px|Pauropoda [4]]]
This class is often referred to as pseudocentipedes because of how similar in appearance they are to their relatives. However, the similarities mostly stop there. These organisms are very small and pale and feed on mold and different forms of fungi [7].

== History ==
[[File:GiantMyria.png|thumb|right|Ancient Myriapoda with scale [5]]]
There are Cambrian fossils that exist which resemble myriapods, however the oldest unequivocal myriapod fossil is of a millipede from around 428 million years ago (Silurian Period)[8].

An ancient class of Myriapoda, [[Arthropleuridea]] are now extinct. Dying out in the Permian, some members of this class are most famously known as giant millipedes. These arthropods were some of the largest to ever live, were probably herbivorous, and were thought to reach sizes of 3 metres long [8].

== References ==
[1]Waggoner, Ben. “Introduction to the Myriapoda.” University Of California Museum of Paleontology, University Of California at Berkeley, 21 Feb. 1996, www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/uniramia/myriapoda.html.

[2]David A. Grimaldi and Michael S. Engel, 2010,“The Geological Record and Phylogeny of the Myriapoda.” 2nd-3rd ed., vol. 39, Elsevier. pp. 174–190.

[3]K. G. Adiyodi et al.,1988, “Anthropoda - Myriapoda.” Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates. Accessory Sex Glands, byvol. 3, John Wiley & Sons,473–476.

[4] Minelli A. (ed) (2013) Chilobase: A web resource for Chilopoda taxonomy

[5]Sierwald, Petra; Bond, Jason E. (2007). "Current status of the myriapod class Diplopoda (Millipedes): Taxonomic diversity and phylogeny". Annual Review of Entomology. 52 (1): 401–420

[6]C. A. Edwards (1990). "Symphyla". In Daniel L. Dindal (ed.). Soil Biology Guide. New York: Wiley. pp. 891–910.

[7]Scheller, Ulf (2008). "A reclassification of the Pauropoda (Myriapoda)". International Journal of Myriapodology.

[8]David A. Grimaldi and Michael S. Engel,2010,“The Geological Record and Phylogeny of the Myriapoda.”,2nd-3rd ed., vol. 39, Elsevier, 2010, pp. 174–190.

[9]Cleverly, Jonathan. “Meet the African Giant Millipedes .” Jonathan's Jungle Roadshow, www.jonathansjungleroadshow.co.uk/meet-the-african-giant-millipedes.html.

[10]“Centipede Anatomy | Diagrams and Facts About Centipedes.” Animal Corner, 29 Apr. 2008, animalcorner.co.uk/centipede-anatomy/.

[11]“Facts about Centipede: Appearance, Habitat, Symptoms, and Treatments.” Insect Pest Facts, 10 Jan. 2018, www.insectpestfacts.com/centipede/.

[12][1]Haulter, Josh. “How Do I Create a BioActive Vivarium?” TheBioDude, 2 Jan. 2017, www.thebiodude.com/blogs/how-do-i-create-a-bioactive-vivarium.

[13]“Garden Symphylans.” Symphylan Identification, Oregon State University, mint.ippc.orst.edu/symphid.htm.

[14] Tree of Life Web Project. 2002. Pauropoda. pauropods. Version 01 January 2002 (temporary). http://tolweb.org/Pauropoda/2531/2002.01.01 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/

[15] Tree of Life Web Project. 2002. Pauropoda. pauropods. Version 01 January 2002 (temporary). http://tolweb.org/Pauropoda/2531/2002.01.01 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.or

Myriapoda

2019-05-08T04:48:13Z

Kyledesi:

2019-05-08T03:08:09Z

Kyledesi: /* Pauropoda */

== Myriapoda Overview ==

[[File:Giantmilli.jpg|thumb|center|African Millipede for scale[7]]]

Myriapoda is a subphylum of [[Arthropoda]] and contains over 13,000 species, almost all of which are terrestrial. Species include various millipedes and centipedes, among others. The group is named “Myriapod” after one of their most distinguishable features, their myriad of legs. While this suggests their number of legs is countless, in reality myriapods range anywhere from having nearly 200 pairs of appendages to fewer than ten. The size of these [[organisms]] can vary as well; some species are microscopic while others can reach lengths of over 30 cm.

== Anatomy and Body Structure==
[[File:MyriaAnat.jpg|thumb|right|Example of Myriapoda anatomy. Notice segements and appendages. The relationship between these body parts varies between classes and species [6]]]

Because Myriapoda are part of the group Arthopoda, this means they are [[invertebrates]] with segmented bodies. Pairs of appendages are connected to these segments and are used for movement, sensory, hunting, etc. They also have a single pair of antennae, with many species having eyes.The mouth lies on the underside of the head, with a pair of mandibles inside. The heart in myriapods is a long tubular organ that extends through the body instead of having blood vessels.

== Reproduction ==

In order to reproduce, the male myriapod produces a [[spermatophore]], or sperm capsule which is transferred to the female externally. The female uses this capsule to lay its eggs. When they hatch, the [[larvae]] appear as smaller versions of the adults, with only a few segments and few pairs of legs. Additional segments and leg pairs develop as the organism moults and grows.

== Classification ==

There are four groups of Myriapoda. Each of these groups is believed to be [[monophyletic]], meaning they descended from a common ancestor, however the specific relationships between them are less certain and not yet completely understood.

===[[Chilopoda]]===

[[File:Centipede1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Chilopoda [2]]]
This class includes true centipedes like the one shown. These organisms have only one pair of legs per body segment, including a modified pair of claws or mandibles at the front of the insect. Centipedes can have a varying number of legs, ranging from 30 to 354, although they will always have an odd number of pairs of legs. Some species are equipped with poison glands, which are used to hunt/capture prey, meaning centipedes are carnivorous. There are an estimated 8,000 species of centipede while only 3,000 have been described.

===[[Diplopoda]]===

[[File:Millipede1.png|thumb||Millipede [1]]]

This class is dominated by myriapods called Millipedes. The segments that make up the bodies of these organisms were formed by the fusion of two adjacent embryonic segments; meaning, each segment of a millipede bears two pairs of legs. This explains the name Diplopoda which means “double legs”. There are 16 orders and around 140 families classified off this class, making Diplopoda the largest of the myriapoda classes. Millipedes are unlike centipedes in that they are very slow moving and are [[detrivores]], meaning they feed on decaying litter and vegetation. However, some eat fungi and a very small minority are predatory.

===[[Symphyla]]===
[[File:Symphyla1.jpg|thumb|right|Symphyla [3]]]
This class consists of very small, soil-dwelling, myriapods that resemble translucent centipedes (although are more closely related to millipedes). Juveniles have six pairs of legs, but as they grow, eventually develop twelve pairs of legs. These organisms use their long antennae as sense organs because they lack eyes. They are typically found in soil from the surface down to a depth of about 50 cm. They move through the pores between soil particles and consume decaying vegetation. Despite this, Symphyla are considered [[pests]] and can do considerable harm to [[agriculture]].

===[[Pauropoda]]===
[[File:Pauropoda1.jpg|thumb||150px|Pauropoda [4]]]
This class is often referred to as pseudocentipedes because of how similar in appearance they are to their relatives. However, the similarities mostly stop there. These organisms are very small and pale and feed on mold and different forms of fungi.

== History ==

There are Cambrian fossils that exist which resemble myriapods, however the oldest unequivocal myriapod fossil is of a millipede from around 428 million years ago (Silurian Period).

An ancient class of Myriapoda, [[Arthropleuridea]] are now extinct. Dying out in the Permian, some members of this class are most famously known as giant millipedes. These arthropods were some of the largest to ever live, were probably herbivorous, and were thought to reach sizes of 3 metres long. [[File:GiantMyria.png|thumb|right|Ancient Myriapoda with scale [5]]]

== References ==
[5]
“8 Earth History.” An Introduction to Geology, Salt Lake Community College, opengeology.org/textbook/8-earth-history/.

“Anthropoda - Myriapoda.” Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates. Accessory Sex Glands, by K. G. Adiyodi et al., vol. 3, John Wiley & Sons, 1988, pp. 473–476.

[6]
“Centipede Anatomy | Diagrams and Facts About Centipedes.” Animal Corner, 29 Apr. 2008, animalcorner.co.uk/centipede-anatomy/.

[7]
Cleverly, Jonathan. “Meet the African Giant Millipedes .” Jonathan's Jungle Roadshow, www.jonathansjungleroadshow.co.uk/meet-the-african-giant-millipedes.html.

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