Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-12T04:51:04Z

Kvvullo: /* Behavior */

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. Their body shape and loose skin facilitate squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy is its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

Naked mole rats spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, their [[soil]] burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affect the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies these creatures as [[extremophiles.]]<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior and Reproduction==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individual's position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. There are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. There is also a specialized role for [[foraging]], which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole rat is the longest-living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. Sequencing of the mole rat's genome suggests that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulatory capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202, peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:58:55Z

Kvvullo: /* Pest Control */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose [[soil.]] <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and [[insects]] are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive [[soil]] burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater [[soil]] moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil, [[soil processes]], [[soil organisms]], and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disturb soil ecosystems, and consume crops, disrupting [[agriculture.]] Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-09T21:53:55Z

Kvvullo: /* Behavior */

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. Their body shape and loose skin facilitate squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy is its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

Naked mole rats spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, their [[soil]] burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affect the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies these creatures as [[extremophiles.]]<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individual's position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. There are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. There is also a specialized role for [[foraging]], which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole rat is the longest-living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. Sequencing of the mole rat's genome suggests that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulatory capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202, peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:47:38Z

Kvvullo: /* Pest Control */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose [[soil.]] <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and [[insects]] are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive [[soil]] burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater [[soil]] moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil, [[soil organisms]], and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disturb soil ecosystems, and consume crops, disrupting [[agriculture.]] Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:44:03Z

Kvvullo: /* Pest Control */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose [[soil.]] <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and [[insects]] are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive [[soil]] burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater [[soil]] moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil, [[soil organisms]], and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disrupt soil ecosystems, and consume crops. Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:42:56Z

Kvvullo: /* Pest Control */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose [[soil.]] <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and [[insects]] are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive [[soil]] burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater [[soil]] moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil, other [[soil organisms]], [[plant roots]], and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disrupt soil ecosystems, and consume crops. Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:42:24Z

Kvvullo: /* Pest Control */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose [[soil.]] <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and [[insects]] are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive [[soil]] burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater [[soil]] moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil, other [[soil organisms]], and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disrupt soil ecosystems, and consume crops. Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:41:01Z

Kvvullo: /* Pest Control */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose [[soil.]] <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and [[insects]] are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive [[soil]] burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater [[soil]] moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil, including [[soil organic matter]] and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disrupt soil ecosystems, and consume crops. Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:38:56Z

Kvvullo: /* Mating & Reproduction */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose [[soil.]] <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and [[insects]] are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive [[soil]] burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater [[soil]] moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disrupt soil ecosystems, and consume crops. Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:38:25Z

Kvvullo: /* Life Cycle */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose [[soil.]] <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and [[insects]] are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive [[soil]] burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater soil moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disrupt soil ecosystems, and consume crops. Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:36:25Z

Kvvullo: /* Diet */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose [[soil.]] <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and [[insects]] are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater soil moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disrupt soil ecosystems, and consume crops. Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:35:21Z

Kvvullo: /* Habitat and Distribution */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose [[soil.]] <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and insects are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater soil moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disrupt soil ecosystems, and consume crops. Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:34:52Z

Kvvullo: /* Habitat and Distribution */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the [[soil]] in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose soil. <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and insects are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater soil moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disrupt soil ecosystems, and consume crops. Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:33:58Z

Kvvullo: /* Anatomy */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist [[soil]] during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the soil in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose soil. <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and insects are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater soil moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disrupt soil ecosystems, and consume crops. Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Mole cricket

2023-05-09T21:33:18Z

Kvvullo: /* Anatomy */

'''Mole crickets''' are fossorial [[insects]] belonging to the order Orthoptera and family Gryllotalpidae, spending most of their life underground. <ref name="underground">Endo, Chihiro. “The Underground Life of the Oriental Mole Cricket: An Analysis of Burrow Morphology.” Journal of Zoology 273, no. 4 (2007): 414–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00345.x.</ref> Mole crickets encompass seven genera and contain about 100 species worldwide. <ref> Ingrisch, Sigfrid, and D.C.F. Rentz. “Orthoptera: Grasshoppers, Locusts, Katydids, Crickets.” Essay. In Encyclopedia of Insects, Seconded., 732–43. Academic Press, 2009. </ref> Their specialized forelegs allow them to dig and construct burrows in the [[soil]]. Their burrows are carefully constructed and serve a variety of purposes. <ref name="underground" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Mole Cricket''' <ref>“Mole Cricket Control in Lawns and Turf.” ngturf.com, April 2022. https://ngturf.com/mole-cricket-control-in-lawns-and-turf/.</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(153,205,254)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Gryllotalpidae.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=102369#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molecricket.jpg|300px|Mole Cricket]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Arthropoda
|-
! Class
| Insecta
|-
! Order
| Orthoptera
|-
! Family
| Gryllotalpidae
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Different species have slight variations in anatomy. The mole cricket possesses two pairs of legs that resemble a cricket as well as a pair of forelegs that closely resemble those of [[moles]] and are specialized for digging burrows. Their skin is able to prevent adhesion by moist soil during the digging process because of a thin layer of down on the mole cricket's body. <ref name="john cricket"/> Antennae serve as the mole cricket's main olfactory organ and also serve as gustatory and mechanoreceptors. <ref name="antenna">Kostromytska, Olga, Michael E. Scharf, and Eileen A. Buss. “Types and Functions of Mole Cricket (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) Antennal and Palpal Sensilla.” Florida Entomologist 98, no. 2 (2015): 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.098.0232.</ref> Further, these antennae aid in warning mole crickets of approaching danger. The mole cricket's safety is further assured by its brown hue which allows it to blend into the [[soil.]] Most mole cricket species possess two pairs of wings that allow adults to fly short distances.<ref name="john cricket"/> However, some species of mole cricket, like the short-winged mole cricket, do not grow wings large enough to support flight. <ref name= florida"> “Basic Biology of Mole Crickets.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, n.d. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/molecrickets/MCRI0201.HTM.</ref> The body of the mole cricket can be broken down into three main parts which are the head, thorax, and abdomen. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:mole-cricket-location-map.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Locations <ref name="az">“Mole Cricket.” azanimals.com, 2021. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mole-cricket/. </ref>]]
Mole crickets live most of their life in the soil in burrows that average about 1/2 inch in diameter. <ref name="texas">“Mole Cricket.” texasinsects.tamu.edu, n.d. http://texasinsects.tamu.edu/mole-cricket/. </ref> Various species of mole crickets can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in any location with moist, loose soil. <ref name="az"/> However, they show a preference for sandy soil. They can often be found within the vicinity of meadows and fields, specifically of corn and barley. <ref name="john cricket">Kidd, John. “On the Anatomy of the Mole-Cricket.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 115 (1825): 203–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1825.0012.</ref> Mole crickets are rarely seen by people because of their underground habitat and nocturnal tendencies. <ref name="texas"/>

==Diet==
The diet of different species of mole crickets can vary, but many will feed on both plant and animal matter. Mole crickets will build their burrows in order to suit their diets. Herbivorous species will construct shallow burrows to feed on roots and grasses, while primarily carnivorous species dig deeper burrows to search for prey. <ref name="small"> Li, Tongchuan, Ming’an Shao, Yuhua Jia, Xiaoxu Jia, and Laiming Huang. “Small-Scale Observation on the Effects of the Burrowing Activities of Mole Crickets on [[Soil erosion|Soil Erosion]] and Hydrologic Processes.” [[Agriculture]], Ecosystems. and Environment 261 (2018): 136–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.04.010. </ref> The Tawny mole cricket and African mole cricket are examples of herbivorous species, while the Southern mole cricket is predominantly carnivorous. <ref name="underground"/> Vegetable crops, worms, larvae, and insects are also food options for most species of mole cricket.<ref name="creature">Capinera, John L, and Norman C Leppla. “Featured Creatures.” entnemdept.ufl.edu, 2001. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/turf/pest_mole_crickets.htm. </ref> It is not uncommon for some species to attack others and engage in cannibalistic behaviors. <ref name="john cricket"/>

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Lifecycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mole Cricket Life Cycle <ref name="Id">“Mole Cricket ID.” syngenturf.ae, n.d. https://www.syngentaturf.ae/mole-cricket-id. </ref>]]
The life cycle of the mole cricket follows incomplete metamorphosis. Individuals grow from egg to nymph to adult. The life cycle of a mole cricket lasts from 1-3 years with about 1 generation of mole crickets being produced per year. <ref name="Id"/> Mole crickets reach maturity in spring and early summer in the months of April and May. It is at this time that eggs are produced. Females deposit eggs into underground burrows between 5 and 30 centimeters deep. Females produce a mean of 4.8 egg clutches in their lifetime. Each egg cluster consists of 25 to 60 eggs and individuals spend 10 to 40 days in this stage. Nymphs resemble adult mole crickets but are smaller and lack developed wings. During the summer months, nymphs progress through approximately 8 to 10 stages of development. <ref name="creature"/> Adult mole crickets have fully developed wings and specialized forelegs that allow them to dig extensive burrows and fly, typically at night.<ref name= florida"/>

==Mating & Reproduction==
Male mole crickets attract females through stridulation from their underground burrows. Males produce their mating song for about 30 minutes to an hour an evening during their spring mating period. <ref name="peggy">Hill, Peggy S.M. “Lekking in Gryllotalpa Major, the Prairie Mole Cricket (Insecta: Gryllotalpidae): Lek Mating in the Prairie Mole Cricket.” Ethology 105 (1995): 531–45. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.1999.00417.x. </ref> Females selectively choose their mates based on factors like the intensity of the male mole cricket's song and the distance away the male mole cricket is. Larger males are often able to produce louder songs. Female mole crickets show a preference for nearby males because it requires less flying to reach them. While flying, female mole crickets are exposed to predators. The intensity of a male mole cricket's song may also reflect the soil conditions of their burrow. Greater soil moisture allows for better transmission of the male's song, which signals to females that their burrow would be a suitable location to lay eggs.<ref name="mate">Forrest, Timothy G. “Calling Songs and Mate Choice in Mole Crickets,” 1983, 185–204. https://doi.org/https://orthsoc.org/sina/g341lf83.pdf. </ref> After the successful attraction of a female, male mole crickets seal off and abandon their burrow.<ref name="peggy"/>

==Pest Control==

[[File:damage.gif|200px|thumb|left|Mole Cricket Damage <ref name= florida"> </ref>]]
Mole crickets have the ability to cause severe damage to soil and aboveground plant matter. They can sever [[plant roots]], disrupt soil ecosystems, and consume crops. Their damage leads to aboveground patches of dead grass. Mole crickets are considered a pest and their spread through the world has resulted in many mole cricket species becoming invasive. They can be found in many locations including farms, pastures, golf courses, and backyards. The main method to eliminate mole crickets from an area has been pesticides. However, these pesticides have proven harmful to other [[organisms]] in the soil environment. Utilizing biocontrol organisms has been a more recent development in combatting mole crickets. One biological control organism used to target mole crickets is the Larra wasp which is a host-specific organism proven effective in reducing mole cricket numbers. <ref name="pest">“Mole Crickets.” sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu, 2021. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/mole-crickets/. </ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-09T21:27:27Z

Kvvullo: /* Longevity and Cancer Resistance */

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. Their body shape and loose skin facilitate squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy is its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

Naked mole rats spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, their [[soil]] burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affect the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies these creatures as [[extremophiles.]]<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individual's position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. There are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. There is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole rat is the longest-living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. Sequencing of the mole rat's genome suggests that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulatory capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202, peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-09T21:25:19Z

Kvvullo: /* Behavior */

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. Their body shape and loose skin facilitate squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy is its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

Naked mole rats spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, their [[soil]] burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affect the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies these creatures as [[extremophiles.]]<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individual's position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. There are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. There is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-09T21:24:50Z

Kvvullo: /* Habitat and Distribution */

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. Their body shape and loose skin facilitate squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy is its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

Naked mole rats spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, their [[soil]] burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affect the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies these creatures as [[extremophiles.]]<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individuals position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. Their are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. Their is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-09T21:23:53Z

Kvvullo: /* Anatomy */

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. Their body shape and loose skin facilitate squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy is its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

The naked mole rat spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, their [[soil]] burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affect the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies these creatures as [[extremophiles.]]<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individuals position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. Their are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. Their is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-09T21:23:06Z

Kvvullo:

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. The body shape and loose skin facilitates squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy are its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

The naked mole rat spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, their [[soil]] burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affect the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies these creatures as [[extremophiles.]]<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individuals position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. Their are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. Their is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-09T21:22:49Z

Kvvullo:

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the [[animal]] kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. The body shape and loose skin facilitates squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy are its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

The naked mole rat spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, their [[soil]] burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affect the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies these creatures as [[extremophiles.]]<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individuals position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. Their are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. Their is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-09T21:21:34Z

Kvvullo: /* Habitat and Distribution */

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. The body shape and loose skin facilitates squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy are its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

The naked mole rat spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, their [[soil]] burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affect the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies these creatures as [[extremophiles.]]<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individuals position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. Their are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. Their is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-09T21:20:34Z

Kvvullo: /* Habitat and Distribution */

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. The body shape and loose skin facilitates squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy are its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

The naked mole rat spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, their [[soil]] burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affects the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies theses creatures as extremophiles.<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individuals position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. Their are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. Their is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-09T21:20:03Z

Kvvullo: /* Habitat and Distribution */

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. The body shape and loose skin facilitates squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy are its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

The naked mole rat spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, their soil burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affects the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies theses creatures as extremophiles.<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individuals position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. Their are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. Their is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T21:11:07Z

Kvvullo: /* Minirhizotrons */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like a plyboard, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored for up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically, (II) current roots are injured, (III) growth starts after a period of delay, (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered, and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off the living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation of this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high-resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction. The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T21:10:08Z

Kvvullo: /* Minirhizotrons */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like a plyboard, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored for up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically, (II) current roots are injured, (III) growth starts after a period of delay, (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered, and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off the living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation of this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high-resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T21:09:30Z

Kvvullo: /* Rhizotrons */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like a plyboard, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored for up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically, (II) current roots are injured, (III) growth starts after a period of delay, (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered, and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off the living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation of this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T21:08:05Z

Kvvullo: /* Root-Ingrowth */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like a plyboard, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored for up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically, (II) current roots are injured, (III) growth starts after a period of delay, (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered, and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off the living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation to this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T21:05:11Z

Kvvullo: /* The Harvest Method */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like a plyboard, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored for up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically (II) current roots are injured (III) growth starts after a period of delay (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation to this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T21:03:11Z

Kvvullo: /* Uses for Root Sampling */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like ply board, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically (II) current roots are injured (III) growth starts after a period of delay (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation to this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T21:02:06Z

Kvvullo: /* Uses for Root Sampling */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[ectomycorrhizal fungi]] and [[arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like ply board, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically (II) current roots are injured (III) growth starts after a period of delay (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation to this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T21:00:52Z

Kvvullo: /* Uses for Root Sampling */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like ply board, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically (II) current roots are injured (III) growth starts after a period of delay (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation to this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T20:59:14Z

Kvvullo: /* Overview */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth. Therefore, results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one-third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[Rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like ply board, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically (II) current roots are injured (III) growth starts after a period of delay (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation to this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T20:56:39Z

Kvvullo: /* Overview */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth, so results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[Rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like ply board, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically (II) current roots are injured (III) growth starts after a period of delay (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation to this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T20:54:56Z

Kvvullo: /* References */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth, so results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[Rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like ply board, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically (II) current roots are injured (III) growth starts after a period of delay (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation to this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. “Pedology Laboratory.” uidaho.edu, n.d. [https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory.]

11. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

12. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

13. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

14. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

15. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

16. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

17. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

18. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T20:42:21Z

Kvvullo: /* Destructive Sampling Methods */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth, so results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[Rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like ply board, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically (II) current roots are injured (III) growth starts after a period of delay (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation to this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

11. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

12. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

13. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

14. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

15. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

16. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

17. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Root sampling methods

2023-05-09T20:31:40Z

Kvvullo: /* Sources */

[[File:Roots1.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/root/tap-root-system/tap-root-system-definition-and-types-with-diagram/70193] Varying root sizes that are observed via root sampling]]

== Overview ==
Interest in root sampling was first stimulated on an ecological scale in 1960 by an ecologist testing soil water availability in plants[[#5.|[5]]. Methods have been developed since that are able to produce both rough estimations and almost exact measurements of root biomass. Rhizodeposition is a key factor in [[Plant establishment]] and these sampling methods become useful when gathering information on plant nutrient allocation and development. [[Plant roots]] are highly variable in growth, so results from any root sampling method can be challenging to interpret.[[#6.|[6]]] It’s been estimated that in order to have a 90% confidence interval using any technique, 40 or more samples must be taken, which is unfeasible for the majority of research purposes.[[#13.|[13]]]

=== Root Length Equation ===
=====[[File:Rootequation.JPG|250px|thumb|left|[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2401670.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Af987727f118cec3e6bcfcc38f93410fa]]]=====

Where '''''R''''' ''= total length of the root'', '''''N''''' ''= # of intersections between the root and straight lines'', '''''A''''' ''= area of the sampled rectangle'', and '''''H''''' ''= total length of the straight lines''. The line intersect method (including the root length equation) was created by E.I. Newman after he recognized that absorption of nutrients and water from the soil depends on root length and surface area rather than overall biomass.[[#9.|[9]]] Newman used various mathematical and ecological equations to create this method specifically for complicated root systems to avoid direct counting and measurement under a microscope. Through this calculation, ecologists were able to precisely measure the root lengths contained in a system in one third of the time it took prior.[[#14.|[14]]] This was one of the first methods offering a quicker, more accurate approach to counting roots and fine [[root hairs]].

== Uses for Root Sampling==
Root samples are useful for many agricultural, ecological, and educational purposes. Depending on the situation and ecosystem, different methods may be preferred over others. Generally, root data is collected to analyze the overall health and development of a tree or plant.

With the increasing occurrence of habitat restoration projects and wildlife rehabilitation, root sampling is a vital step to see the extent to which introduced plants have assimilated into new territory. [[Plant establishment]] will be checked at constant intervals after a site is designed, until the restoration efforts can be confirmed as successful. These experimental techniques allow the [[Rhizosphere]] of the modified ecosystems to be checked, and aid in detecting potential [[Ectomycorrhizal Fungi]] and [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] connections.[[#13.|[13]]]

== Destructive Sampling Methods ==

===The Harvest Method===

[[File:Monolith.jpg|275px|thumb|left|[https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-and-water-systems/research/pedology-laboratory/fosberg-monoliths] Monolith collection at the University of Idaho]]

The harvest method is performed by extracting an undisturbed, vertical sample of ground soil and keeping it preserved in situ to examine the characteristics of the different [[Soil Horizons]]. First, the size of the desired sample must be determined and the auger to extract the soil must be chosen. These auger devices may come in small, hand-held sizes or larger sizes which are mechanical and sometimes mounted on trucks.

The soil is either kept intact and preserved as a monolith or the roots in the sample are rinsed free of the soil particulates. Monoliths are created by cutting the cylindrical soil core in half and transferring one of the profiles to a solid surface, like ply board, using an acrylic bonding agent for mounting.[[#6.|[6]]][[#15.|[15]]] The other half not used for display purposes is used for lab sampling or classification purposes. Monoliths can be kept for decades if done correctly. When root samples are desired, water and patience are required. Roots are generally pre-soaked to minimize water usage, and in some cases dispersing chemicals are applied. [[#10.|[10]]] Separated root samples can be stored up to 10 weeks which allows for ample time to study the root systems.

Despite this being considered a destructive sampling technique, the harvest method minimizes site disturbance while allowing a lot of valuable information to be gathered.[[#6.|[6]]]

===Isotope-Dilution Method===
The isotope-dilution method is commonly used to determine below-ground biomass turnover in grasslands. It utilizes the 14C-dilution technique to sample roots. 12C is also incorporated into the structural tissues of root systems after the 14C. This is typically done a few weeks to months after 14C is added to root samples. A ratio of 14C/12C is later measured in the structural tissues of root samples to measure tissue loss. [[#3.|[3]]]

===Root-Ingrowth===
[[File:mesh.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx] A dug up mesh bag with fine root hairs visibly grown in]]

The root ingrowth method is beneficial for measuring the rate of growth for fine root hyphae (diameter <2 mm). It is very labor-intensive and one of the more controversial root sampling procedures.[[#10.|[10]]] This is because (I) natural growth patterns can easily be altered chemically and physically (II) current roots are injured (III) growth starts after a period of delay (IV) [[decomposition]] rates are not considered and (V) artificial and low densities are recorded in the cores for the majority of the experiment.[[#17.|[17]]]

First, the chosen ground area in the root zone of plants is cored wide and deep enough to fit the parameters of the experiment. This coring is what cuts off living roots of present systems. Mesh, nylon bags are filled with sieved soil free of any root hairs or nodules, brought to the site, and inserted into the cored space. Women’s stockings can be used for a tight-budget project. The mesh soil bags are left either long or short-term but must be kept buried long enough to allow for roots to transect and occupy the bag. This usually takes at least 2 months.[[#11.|[11]]] After the bags are collected, the roots are separated from the adhered soil using methods such as pre-soaking or dispersing chemicals which are also used in the Harvest Method (See above). Primary and secondary roots are left out to air dry while the fine root hyphae are oven dried at 50°C to constant weights.[[#17.|[17]]]

== Non-destructive Sampling Methods ==

===Rhizotrons===
[[File:Rhizotron1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/research/facilities/] The Northern Research Station's rhizotron located in Houghton, Michigan]]

Rhizotrons are underground walkways with glass walls on either one or both sides that expose the [[Rhizosphere]] including the [[Organisms]] and [[Soil]] surrounding the structure. These structures are unique because they allow scientists to go inside and study the root systems that are still living and developing. Individual roots are easy to keep track of and measure which is great for succession and development research. A big limitation to this type of research is that large rhizotrons can be very costly to construct and operate.[[#12.|[12]]]

More advanced structures are designed to change the temperature, pH, and other elements of the surrounding soil, altering the observed [[Soil processes]] and root behaviors. Cameras are often mounted and set on time lapse in the observatory facing the roots to account for any changes such as diurnal swelling and shrinking[[#1.|[1]]] that scientists may miss unless they were constantly monitoring the roots.

Miniature versions of rhizotrons, not to be confused with minirhizotrons, are more common as they are simple to build and cost less.

[[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|275px|thumb|right|[https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/science-and-technology--briefs-34343] Minirhizotron diagram]]

===Minirhizotrons===

Minirhizotrons consist of a transparent tube that is sometimes designed with a reflective surface mounted to the inside of it. The tube is inserted in the root zone of the soil and a high resolution, thin camera is drawn through the tube. Once inside, the camera provides clear, in situ root images which can then be further used for quantitative data analysis by converting two-dimensional image data into three-dimensional root biomass data.[[#8.|[8]]] Minirhizotrons are similar to rhizotrons in that they allow for a close-up study of root systems growing without human interaction or destruction.
pare
The obtained images are used to examine root biomass growth and are greatly beneficial for analyzing restoration efforts. Minirhizotrons can monitor soil moisture, temperature, and water potential using tensiometers, time domain reflectometer probes, and matrix water potential sensors.[[#2.|[2]]] Monitoring the [[Water Behavior in Soils]] is important along with root development because the two are so closely related.

==References==
1. “Science.” Science, 4434th ed., vol. 207, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1980, p. 975. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/207/4434/975/tab-article-info]

2. Cai, GC, et al. “Construction of Minirhizotron Facilities for Investigating Root Zone Processes.” VADOSE ZONE JOURNAL, vol. 15, no. 9, Sept. 2016, doi:10.2136/vzj2016.05.0043. [https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/vzj/abstracts/15/9/vzj2016.05.0043]

3. Coleman, D. C., Callahan Jr, M. A., & Crossley Jr., D. A. (2018). Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]] (3rd ed.). Academic Press.

4. Elmajdoub, Bannur, et al. “Response of Microbial Activity and Biomass in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soils to Increasing Salinity.” Plant and Soil, vol. 381, no. 1-2, 2014, pp. 297–306., doi:10.1007/s11104-014-2127-4. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271951978_Response_of_microbial_activity_and_biomass_in_rhizosphere_and_bulk_soils_to_increasing_salinity]

5. Gardener, W. R. “DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF WATER AVAILABILITY TO PLANTS.” SOIL SCIENCE, vol. 89, no. 2, Feb. 1960, pp. 63–73., journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx. [https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Citation/1960/02000/DYNAMIC_ASPECTS_OF_WATER_AVAILABILITY_TO_PLANTS.1.aspx]

6. Haddad, N.i., et al. “Improved Method of Making Soil Monoliths Using an Acrylic Bonding Agent and Proline Auger.” Geoderma, vol. 151, no. 3-4, 9 June 2009, pp. 395–400., doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.012. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/science/article/pii/S0016706109001694]

7. Johnson, Jane M.F., Morgan, Jack. “Sampling Protocols.” Plant Sampling Guidelines. IN Sampling Protocols, Ch. 2. R.F. Follett, editor. 2010, pp. 2-10. www.ars.usda.gov/research/GRACEnet [https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np212/Chapter%202.%20GRACEnet%20Plant%20Sampling%20Protocols.pdf]

8. Lee, Chol Gyu, et al. “Estimation of Fine Root Biomass Using a Minirhizotron Technique among Three Vegetation Types in a Cool-Temperate Brackish Marsh.” Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, vol. 62, no. 5-6, 2016, pp. 465–470., doi:10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00380768.2016.1205957]

9. Newman, E. I. “A Method of Estimating the Total Length of Root in a Sample.” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 3, no. 1, 1966, pp. 139–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2401670. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2401670?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

10. Soil Survey Staff. 2009. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 1.0. R. Burt (ed.). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Natural Resources Conservation Service. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052249.pdf]

11. Steingrobe, Bernd, et al. “The Use of the Ingrowth Core Method for Measuring Root Production of Arable Crops – Influence of Soil and Root Disturbance during Installation of the Bags on Root Ingrowth into the Cores.” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 15, no. 2, 5 Oct. 2001, pp. 143–151., doi:10.1016/s1161-0301(01)00100-9. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1161030101001009]

12. Taylor, H. M., et al. “Applications and Limitations of Rhizotrons and Minirhizotrons for Root Studies.” Plant and Soil, vol. 129, no. 1, 1990, p. 29. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00011688]

13. Taylor, H.M. 1986. Methods of studying root systems in the field. Hortscience 21:952-956. [http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US19870039868]

14. Tennant, D. “A Test of a Modified Line Intersect Method of Estimating Root Length.” Journal of [[Ecology]], vol. 63, no. 3, 1975, pp. 995–1001. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2258617. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258617?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents]

15. United States, Congress, Kiniry, Lauren N., and Conrad L. Neitsch. “Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*.” Monolith Collection and Preparation For Soils without Restrictive Layers*, 1994. [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455.pdf]

16. Vanderford, C. F. "The soils of Tennessee. Univ. Tennessee Agr. Experiment Station." Bulletin 10.3 (1897): 1-139. [https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1488&context=utk_agbulletin]

17. Xuefeng Li, Jiang Zhu, Holger Lange, Shijie Han, A modified ingrowth core method for measuring fine root production, mortality and decomposition in forests, Tree Physiology, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2013, Pages 18–25, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps124 [https://academic.oup.com/treephys/article/33/1/18/1729044]

Diatom

2023-05-08T16:46:51Z

Kvvullo: /* Taxonomy */

[[File:Diatom_Shapes.jpg|325px|thumb|right|Several diatom frustule shapes [1].]]

==Description==

Diatoms are tiny, single-celled algal plants that are made of silica and other minerals. They are typically found in marine environments, but can survive in other areas with enough moisture, including [[soil]] habitats. Each of the more than 8,000 species has a skeleton that is ornate and symmetrical, unique from that of every other species. The skeletons can take the shape of crescents, discs, rectangles, triangles, stars, or other different geometric shapes. One of its byproducts, called diatomaceous earth, has various practical applications due to its silica content and extremely small size [2].

==Taxonomy==

While diatoms belong to the supergroup chromalveolates, individual species can be incredibly difficult to identify due to their sheer numbers as well as inconsistency in how observations are interpreted. This results in multiple taxa being lumped together for ease of comparison. Even with 75,000 taxa already recognized, many regions of the earth have neither been explored for their presence or absence nor inventoried if they do exist. As a result of these conundrums, the identification of taxa depends on the precise observation of discrete and continuous features, primarily those seen in the diatoms' glassy cell walls. Many classification guides have been developed through the years with the goal of creating a standard with more clear categories and organization [3].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 12px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Taxonomic Ranks'''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Domain:
|style="min-width:6em; |Eukaryota
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Plantae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Clade:
|style="min-width:6em; |Diaphoretickes
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Gyrista
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Ochrophytina
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Superclass:
|style="min-width:6em; |Khakista
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bacillariophyceae
|-
|colspan="2" |[4]
|}

==Ecology==

The lack of data on the [[ecology]] of [[Terrestrial ecology|terrestrial]] diatoms is the greatest barrier to future research. [[Terrestrial ecology|Terrestrial]] diatoms can be used as indicators for the quality of both aquatic and [[soil]] environments. Also, land use and [[soil pH]] are important factors in determining the ecological condition of the diatom sites and have the greatest influence on how their communities are structured. Studies looking at [[soil]] algae populations as a whole have revealed that they are very sensitive to disturbance causes [5]. In a range of [[Terrestrial ecology|terrestrial]] environments, including [[soil]]s, [[moss]]es, wet walls, and rocks, many taxa may persist and reproduce. For diatoms, forests provide a stable microhabitat, and agricultural techniques, rather than seasonal variations in environmental factors, regulate the majority of the diatom communities' temporal fluctuation. Lastly, diatoms play a very crucial role in the [[Nutrient Cycling|carbon cycle]] by facilitating the production of chemical energy in organic compounds [6].

[[File:Diatom_Carbon_Cycle.jpg|350px|thumb|left|Role of diatoms in the carbon cycle [7].]]

==Anatomy==
Diatoms also have the ability to generate a porous silica cell wall, known as the frustule, that makes up the structure of their skeleton. These cell walls display a staggering variety of pore patterns and species-specific forms. They typically belong to one of two anatomical categories; centrales or pennates, characterized by either radial or bilateral symmetry of their frustule, respectively. In both situations, the live cell is enclosed by a hypotheca that is inserted into a somewhat larger epitheca inside the frustule. The frustule's size varies from a few microns to millimeters depending on the species. The hypotheca and epitheca can both be thought of as valves encircled by lateral girdles. Each layer of a valve is composed of a number of pores in more or less regular patterns, the size and location of which vary depending on the species and layer [8]. Their form and function are also made up of other morphological characteristics such as pore size, shape, porosity, and pore organization. For example, pore size and organization can be optimized to be smaller, which allows for more efficient blocking of viruses or other harmful particles [9]. Diatoms are so complex, there are even more structures and characteristics worth mentioning. A number of silica bands are connected by their borders to form the girdle, which connects the protoplasm with the frustule. The first girdle bands can be one of the factors in determining the overall shape and ability of the diatom. Research on their nanostructures will continue for quite some time, especially for engineering we can apply on a larger scale [10].

[[File:Diatom_Anatomy.JPG|300px|thumb|right|Anatomical orientation of a diatom [11].]]

==References==

[1] [https://www.flickr.com/photos/carolinabio/6622267417 "Mixed diatom frustules"] by [https://www.flickr.com/photos/carolinabio/ Carolina Biological Supply Company] is licensed under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/ CC BY-NC-ND 2.0]

[2] Calvert, R. (December 1930). "Diatomaceous earth". Journal of Chemical Education, 7(12), 2829. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed007p2829

[3] Blanco, S. (May 2020). "Diatom taxonomy and Identification Keys. Modern Trends in Diatom Identification". Developments in Applied Phycology, vol 10. Springer, Cham. 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39212-3_3

[4] Retrieved May 6, 2023, from the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) on-line database, www.itis.gov, CC0 https://doi.org/10.5066/F7KH0KBK

[5] Antonelli, M., C. E. Wetzel, L. Ector, A. J. Teuling, & L. Pfister. (April 2017). "On the potential for terrestrial diatom communities and diatom indices to identify anthropic disturbance in soils" Ecological Indicators 75:73–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.12.003

[6] Foets, J., C. E. Wetzel, A. J. Teuling, & L. Pfister. (January 2020). "Temporal and spatial variability of terrestrial diatoms at the catchment scale: Controls on communities". PeerJ 8. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.8296

[7] [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ocean_carbon_cycle_and_diatom_carbon_dioxide_concentration_mechanisms_2.jpg "Ocean carbon cycle and diatom carbon dioxide concentration mechanisms 2"] by Juan José Pierella Karlusich, Chris Bowler, and Haimanti Biswas is licensed under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC BY-SA 4.0]

[8] De Tommasi, E., J. Gielis, & A. Rogato. (July 2017). "Diatom frustule morphogenesis and Function: A multidisciplinary survey". Marine Genomics 35:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margen.2017.07.001

[9] Losic, D., G. Rosengarten, J. G. Mitchell, & N. H. Voelcker. (April 2006). "Pore architecture of diatom frustules: Potential nanostructured membranes for molecular and particle separations". Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 6:982–989. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2006.174

[10] De Stefano, M. & L. De Stefano. (January 2005). "Nanostructures in diatom frustules: Functional morphology of valvocopulae in Cocconeidacean monoraphid taxa". Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 5:15–24. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2005.001

[11] [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Longitudinal_Diatom_%28Labelled%29.JPG "Longitudinal Diatom (Labelled)"] by [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Esseh~commonswiki Esseh~commonswiki] is licensed under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en CC BY-SA 3.0]

Protura

2023-05-08T16:40:48Z

Kvvullo: /* Description */

[[File:Protura_Ecology.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Proturan in soil [6].]]

==Description==
Proturans, commonly nicknamed "coneheads", are a type of [[hexapod]] that reside in [[soil]] environments. These [[organisms]] are very small; either microscopic or barely visible to the naked eye. Proturans, despite having six legs, are not considered to be true [[insects]], though this is controversial. Instead, they are a unique order within the animal kingdom believed to be a sister group to [[collembola]], but may be considered their own separate class. They are collectively comprised of more than 800 species across most continents [1].

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 12px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Taxonomic Ranks'''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Domain:
|style="min-width:6em; |Eukaryota
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropod]]a
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Clade:
|style="min-width:6em; |Pancrustacea
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Hexapod]]a
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Protura]]
|-
|colspan="2" |[3]
|}

The determination of a proturan's morphological taxonomy is highly difficult, and only a small number of taxonomists possess the expertise to achieve this. The location and length ratio, particularly of some foretarsal bristles, play a key role in species identification when observing characteristics such as bristle arrangement or pattern. Alternatively, small splices of their DNA can be studied and compared for species identification. While their complete taxonomic rank is still being figured out, we do know that all proturans reside within a suborder of either eosentomoidea or acerentomoidea [2].

==Ecology==

Proturans have a poor capacity to disperse, which is mostly due to water and human-mediated transmission. They are also [[soil]]-obligate, meaning they are restricted to [[soil]] habitats and have "mutual" interactions with those environments. However, for up to five days, they can live and move when immersed in freshwater. This fact has helped us discover how proturans have used debris rafts for long-distance traveling, similar to that of other microscopic [[soil]]-dwelling [[arthropods]] such as [[mites]] [4]. Their distribution in aggregates is most likely influenced by their diet, the quality and availability of fungal hyphae, and the creation of aggregation pheromones. Proturans often group together to create species assemblages that represent certain environments. Additionally, they frequently have populations with a high ratio of females to males [5].

==Anatomy==

There are several main characteristics that may be shared throughout the various species of proturans. These include the presence or absence of a tracheal system, a rostrum, the size and shape of the mouthparts, the number of segments of the abdominal appendages, and the presence or absence of teeth on the lid covering the large glands on the sides of their exoskeleton [7]. Essentially all proturans do not have any antennae or compound eyes. To make up for the loss of the antenna, the growth and usage of abundant and diverse appendages, namely sensilla on their prolegs (fleshy stubs), may be used as sensory parts instead [8].

[[File:Protura_Anatomy.jpg|300px|thumb|center|Parts of a proturan [9].]]

==References==

[1] Tipping, C. (2004). "Proturans (Protura)". Encyclopedia of Entomology. Springer, Dordrecht:1842–1843. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-48380-7_3467

[2] Resch, M. C., J. Shrubovych, D. Bartel, N. U. Szucsich, G. Timelthaler, Y. Bu, M. Walzl, & G. Pass. (March 2014). "Where taxonomy based on subtle morphological differences is perfectly mirrored by huge genetic distances: DNA barcoding in Protura (hexapoda)". PLoS ONE 9. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090653

[3] Retrieved May 6, 2023, from the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) on-line database, www.itis.gov, CC0. https://doi.org/10.5066/F7KH0KBK

[4] Galli, L. & I. Rellini. (July 2020). "The geographic distribution of Protura (Arthropoda: Hexapoda): A Review". Biogeographia – The Journal of Integrative Biogeography 35. https://doi.org/10.21426/B635048595

[5] Galli, L., M. Capurro, E. Colasanto, T. Molyneux, A. Murray, C. Torti, and M. Zinni (January 2020). "A synopsis of the [[ecology]] of Protura (Arthropoda: Hexapoda)". Revue suisse de Zoologie 126(2), 155-164. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3463443

[6] [https://www.flickr.com/photos/andybadger/8643077843 "Festival of Proturans Part II poss. Acerentomon sp."] by [https://www.flickr.com/photos/andybadger/ Andy Murray] is licensed under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/ CC BY-SA 2.0]

[7] Galli, L., J. Shrubovych, Y. Bu, & M. Zinni. (July 2018). "Genera of the Protura of the world: Diagnosis, distribution, and key". ZooKeys 772:1–45. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.772.24410

[8] Allen, R. T., A. Lawrence, & R. L. Brown. (August 2014). "A comparative study of the sensory structures among three basal hexapodclades (Arthropoda: Collembola, Protura, [[Diplura]]) using scanning electronmicrographs". Microscopy and Microanalysis 20:1280–1281. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1431927614008137

[9] [https://www.flickr.com/photos/93467196@N02/21404515062 "protura_flickr"] by [https://www.flickr.com/photos/93467196@N02/ Frost Museum] is licensed under [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/ CC BY-SA 2.0]

Formicidae

2023-05-08T16:36:19Z

Kvvullo: /* Overview */

== Overview ==

[[File:Formicidae.jpg|300px|thumb|right]] Formicidae is a family, containing ants, that belongs to the order [[Hymenoptera]], which contains the ant's close relatives, bees and wasps. It's estimated that there are 22,000 species of ants, with roughly 15,000 of these species being classified. [1] They are incredibly numerous, being found everywhere in the world except for Antarctica as well as Greenland, Iceland, Hawai'i, and some Pacific Islands that don't have native species. [2] The mass of all the ants in the world is said to be greater than the mass of all birds and mammals combined, with an estimated human-to-ant ratio of 1:2,500,000. [3]

== Taxonomy ==
*Kingdom- Animalia ([[Animals]])
**Phylum- Arthropoda ([[Arthropods]])
***Class- Insecta ([[Insects]])
****Order- Hymenoptera (Ants, Bees, and Wasps)
*****Infraorder- Aculeata (Ants, Bees, and Wasps)
******Superfamily- Formicoidea (Ants)
*******Family- Formicidae (Ants)

== Description ==
[[File:HTA.png|250px|thumb|left|Figure 1]]
[[File:HMPG.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Figure 2]]
Most ant species found will be either red, brown, or black in color. [2] They can range anywhere from 1/16 of an inch long (Crazy Ant) [4], up to 1.6 inches long (Dinoponera, thought to be the biggest ant species in the world, found in South America). [5] Most common ants, however, are 1/16 to 1/2 an inch long. [6] Their bodies are broken down into three main segments (Figure 1), with the thorax and the abdomen being further broken down into three more subsegments (Figure 2).
===Head===
The head of an ant contains the mouth, five eyes, two antennae, and two strong jaws. Of the five eyes, two (located on the front of the head) are compound eyes that are good for acute movement but do not allow for high-resolution images, while the other three (located on the top of the head) are simple eyes that detect changes in light. The two antennae are sensory organs that allow ants to detect chemicals, air currents, and vibrations, as well as receive signals through touch. The strong jaws are used for defense, carrying food, and constructing nests. [1]
===Thorax===
The thorax is the middle part of an ant's body. It is powerful and muscular, with each of an ant's six legs attached to it. If an ant develops temporary wings, they will be attached to the thorax as well. [7]
===Abdomen===
The abdomen contains all the vital and reproductive organs of the ant. If a worker ant has a stinger, it can be found on the back of the abdomen. [7]
===Mesosoma===
The mesosoma is the first of the three subsegments of the ant's body. It is attached to the head, and it contains the thorax plus the first abdominal segment. [1]
===Petiole===
The petiole is the second of the three subsegments, located between the mesosoma and the garter. It acts similar to a waist in a human, allowing the ant flexibility when twisting and aids the ant when burrowing underground. [7]
===Gaster===
The gaster is the last of the three subsegments of the ant's body. It contains all of the abdominal segments included in the abdomen except for the ones included in the petiole. [1]

==Common Species in the Northeastern USA==
*Linepithema humile (Argentine Ant)
*Ochetellus glaber (Black House Ant)
*Camponotus pennsylvanicus (Carpenter Ant)
*Solenopsis invicta (Fire Ant)
*Tapinoma melanocephalum (Ghost Ant)
*Tapinoma sessile (Odorous House Ant)
*Tetramorium caespitum (Pavement Ant)
*Monomorium pharaonis (Pharaoh Ant)

== Life Cycle ==
[[File:LifeCycle.jpg|250px|thumb|right]]
Formicidae go through four basic life cycle stages in which there are three end results. Ants begin as eggs that are laid by the female queen. They then begin to go through complete metamorphosis, going through four or five larval stages. They are largely immobile during the larval stages and rely on worker ants to eat. In the earlier larval stages, they are provided with liquid food regurgitated by the workers. In the later larval stages, they will begin to be provided with more solid foods, such as pieces of prey, seeds, and trophic eggs. At the end of the larval stages, the ants will emerge as pupae, and the differentiation of the ants into the different castes will begin. If the original egg was not fertilized, the pupa will emerge as a winged male haploid drone. If the original egg was fertilized, the pupa will emerge as either a winged or wingless female diploid queen or a wingless female diploid worker. Whether the female becomes a queen or a worker largely depends on how much nutrients the ant receives during the larval stages. [1]

Female queens can live up to 30 years. Female workers can live one to three years. Male drones typically only live for a few weeks. [1]

== Ecological Importance ==
Within the ecosystem, ants are known predators of other insects, keeping their populations under control. They also keep the ecosystem clean by taking care of dead insect carcasses and helping with the [[decomposition]] of other plant and animal remains. [8]

Within the [[soil]], ants move about the same amount of soil as earthworms [8], turning it and aerating it to allow water, oxygen, and other nutrients to reach [[plant roots]]. [9] They also aid in seed dispersal, carrying seeds down into the soil with them that often grow into new plants. [9] They also keep the soil fertilized and full of nutrients during the transport of plant and animal remains used to create their nests. [8]

== References ==
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant

[2] https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Ants#:~:text=There%20are%20more%20than%2012%2C000,leaf%20litter%2C%20or%20decaying%20plants.

[3] https://www.npr.org/2022/09/21/1124216118/ants-number-study-quadrillion#:~:text=Press-,The%20number%20of%20ants%20on%20Earth%20is%20about%201%20trillion,million%20ants%20for%20every%20human.

[4] https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/26/science/next-to-fairyflies-ants-are-giants.html#:~:text=The%20smallest%20known%20ant%20is,by%20Bert%20Holldobler%20and%20E.O.

[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinoponera

[6] https://www.terminix.com/ants/#:~:text=Their%20legs%20and%20antennae%20are,if%20they%20invade%20your%20home.

[7] https://animals.mom.com/ants-body-parts-5992.html

[8] https://hortnews.extension.iastate.edu/ants-are-ecologically-beneficial

[9] https://harvardforest.fas.harvard.edu/ants/ecological-importance#:~:text=Ants%20play%20an%20important%20role,new%20plants%20(seed%20dispersal).

Jewel Beetle

2023-05-08T16:34:50Z

Kvvullo:

The Jewel Beetles is a group also known as the ''Buprestidae''. In this family of beetles, there are over 15,500 different species that can be found all over the world. Another common name for this group is the metallic wood-boring beetle. This is due to their shiny iridescent-like body [1]. This group is the most commonly collected beetle type for insect collectors, strictly due to its bright and showy colors. One of the most famous examples of a beetle from this family is the [[Emerald Ash Borer|emerald ash borer]], an invasive beetle that is terrorizing Ash trees across North America [2].

==Taxonomy==
'''Kingdom:''' Animalia
'''Phylum:''' Arthopoda
'''Subphylum:''' Uniramia
'''Class:''' Insecta
'''Order:''' Coleoptera
'''Sub Order:''' Polyphaga
'''Family:''' Buprestidae

[[File: EMB1.jpg |thumb|Emerald Ash Borer beetles on a leaf for scale]]

==Description==
Jewel Beetles are easily identified due to their elongated and oval bodies tapering to a point near the end. Their lengths can measure anywhere from 3mm to 80mm, however, many species are below the 20mm mark [2]. They are hard-bodied [[insects]], rather than flat. Their colors range from many different shades. Some examples being dull browns and blacks all the way to neon and chrome greens and purples [2]. Their color is created in a different way than many others. They have a textured cuticle which reflects the light differently, causing the bright patterns and different hues of colors [4]. The larvae tunnel their way inside the interior of the host's tree trunk and emerge from the bark when they are ready and matured [3]. Usually focusing on dead, decaying branches on healthy trees, this is where the first part of the life cycle beings for the Jewel Beetle family [4]. There are four stages of life within these beetles. The egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Once adults, they die in a relatively short time frame. Most species only live between a few days and 3 weeks [5]. There have been over 100 different species found that have been fossilized and not seen anywhere else yet [6].

==Diet & Food Behavior==
Mainly active during the day, Jewel Beetles spend their nights hiding under leaves and other plant material they can find along the ground. Their diet consists of leaves, nectar, stems, roots, and soft/dead trees and grasses. Some beetles tend to target crops on farm fields and can cause large amounts of economic damage [5].

==Habitat and Distribution==
Jewel beetles tend to live in forests and woodlands. Many species are found in Australia (1,200 current different species) and can be seen feeding on and flying around flowers and trees [1]. Some species like the above [[Emerald Ash Borer]] are extremely invasive and take over large areas. Jewel Beetles can be found all over the world, but tend to cluster in warmer climates. All over the world, these beetles have been used for generations in many different ways. Places that have large handmade jewelry businesses also can see a spike in these beetles [1]. Hence the name Jewel Beetle. Some are able to live very close if not in freshwater environments, while others are able to survive inside bright, high-up areas with no problem [4].

==Control Systems==
Controlling beetles can be very challenging and there are not many methods that are guaranteed to work. The first way is hand plucking the beetles off of the plant/tree [7]. This is a method that will remove the beetle without any other effects. When the beetles are in their larva state, spraying with certain pesticides is another common method for removal [7]. However, some beetles are so invasive and hard to get rid of, we simply just let them run their course. Mitigation of these resilient invasive bugs can be very difficult. Millions of dollars have been spent on eradication throughout the country with little success. The Emerald Ash Borer alone has caused .8-3.4 million dollars in landscape damages. The only way to remove all of the Borers is to let them run out of food (the ash trees) and die out naturally.

==References==
[1] Jewel Beetle. (n.d.). . https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/jewel-beetle/australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/jewel-beetle/.

[2] What Are Jewel Beetles? (n.d.). . https://www.thoughtco.com/jewel-beetles-family-buprestidae-1968126.

[3] Jewel Beetle 2. (2022). . https://www.insectidentification.org/insect-description.php?identification=Jewel-Beetle.

[4] Buprestidae. 2021, August 26. .

[5] Jewel Beetles: Natural History and Interesting Facts. 2020, March 25. .

[6] Fabio. (n.d.). Jewel Beetles - Learn About Nature. https://www.learnaboutnature.com/insects/beetles/jewel-beetle/.

[7] How to Protect Your Garden from Japanese Beetles. (n.d.). . https://www.thespruce.com/controlling-adult-japanese-beetles-1402495.

[8] The potential economic impacts of Emerald Ash Borer. (2007). .

Lignin

2023-05-08T16:29:04Z

Kvvullo: /* Ecological Importance */

[[File:LigninPic.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Microscopic view of rings, spirals, and networks formed by lignin within a plant stem.]]

== Description ==
'''Lignin''' is a complex polymer found in the cell walls of many plant species. Lignin is especially important in the formation of cell walls in rigid and woody plant species. Lignin is incredibly rigid, allowing tree species to grow tall, while also allowing for movement of the branches in the presence of stressors such as wind and animal inhabitance. Lignin also aids in the transportation of water and minerals throughout the organism [1]. Lastly, it provides the plant with mechanisms that resist damage from pathogens and invading pests. All plants containing lignin are called tracheophytes, which have a vascular system of roots, leaves, and stems. Plants without lignin are called bryophytes and are non-vascular with no roots, leaves, or stems [2].

== Structure ==
Lignin is formed by the crossing of lignols. There are three main types of lignols; coniferyl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol, and paracoumaryl alcohol. These lignols are found in all plant species containing lignin. However, their abundance will change according to the rigidity and type of the wood they are found in. Hardwoods have a higher abundance of coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol, while softwoods are more rich in coniferyl alcohol, and grasses have a higher abundance of sinapyl units. A higher concentration of lignin of any kind will result in a more rigid material [3].

[[File:Lignin.jpg|125px|thumb|left|structure of the 3 main lignols]]

[[File:oaktree.jpeg|125px|thumb|right|Oak Tree, very common Hardwood (contains more lignin)]]

[[File:pinetree.jpeg|150px|thumb|center|Pine Tree, very common Softwood (less lignin)]]

== Ecological Importance ==
Lignin plays a crucial role in the carbon cycle. Lignin absorbs atmospheric carbon and holds it within the plant tissue. It also is one of the slowest [[decomposing]] materials of a dead tree, becoming a very high fraction of the production of [[humus]] and top [[soil]]. Only a small amount of [[organisms]] are able to decompose lignin. Fungi are known to be the greatest [[decomposers]] of lignin since they have the ability to produce an extracellular peroxidase that can kick-start the [[decomposition]] of the material [4].

Lignin fills in the extracellular space between cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin creating a dense, rigid structure to support the plant. In addition to providing rigidity and support, lignin also aids in the transport of water through the plant. While a plant's leaf tissue can easily absorb water, lignin itself is hydrophobic, or water-repellent. Its presence in the tissue of the leaves acts as a barrier, slowing down the absorption of water, which allows the plant to transport it more efficiently [5]. The last major significance of lignin is its ability to act as a antimicrobial defense polymer, meaning it can protect the plants that contain it from pathogens. It does this by activating various pathogen-fighting genes when an attack is detected, all with the help of the enzyme polymerase [6].

== References==
[1] Bodo, S. & Lehnen, R. (July 2007). "Lignin". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. https://doi.org/10.1002/14356007.a15_305.pub3

[2] Jing-Ke W., Xu, L., Stout, J., & Chappel, C. (June 2008). "Independent origins of syringyl lignin in vascular plants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801696105

[3] Boerjan, W., Ralph, J., & Baucher, M. (June 2003). "Lignin biosynthesis". Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 54 (1): 519–549. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134938

[4] Gadd, G. & Sariaslani, S. (March 2013). Advances in applied microbiology. Vol. 82. Oxford: Academic. pp. 1–28. ISBN 9780124076792. OCLC 841913543

[5] Sarkanen, K. V. & Ludwig, C. H. (eds) (March 1972). "Lignins: Occurrence, Formation, Structure, and Reactions". Journal of Polymer Science New York: Wiley Interscience. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1972.110100315

[6] Xie, M., J. Zhang, T. J. Tschaplinski, G. A. Tuskan, J. G. Chen, & W. Muchero. (September 2018). "Regulation of lignin biosynthesis and its role in growth-defense tradeoffs". Frontiers in Plant Science 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01427

Lignin

2023-05-08T16:28:22Z

Kvvullo: /* Ecological Importance */

[[File:LigninPic.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Microscopic view of rings, spirals, and networks formed by lignin within a plant stem.]]

== Description ==
'''Lignin''' is a complex polymer found in the cell walls of many plant species. Lignin is especially important in the formation of cell walls in rigid and woody plant species. Lignin is incredibly rigid, allowing tree species to grow tall, while also allowing for movement of the branches in the presence of stressors such as wind and animal inhabitance. Lignin also aids in the transportation of water and minerals throughout the organism [1]. Lastly, it provides the plant with mechanisms that resist damage from pathogens and invading pests. All plants containing lignin are called tracheophytes, which have a vascular system of roots, leaves, and stems. Plants without lignin are called bryophytes and are non-vascular with no roots, leaves, or stems [2].

== Structure ==
Lignin is formed by the crossing of lignols. There are three main types of lignols; coniferyl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol, and paracoumaryl alcohol. These lignols are found in all plant species containing lignin. However, their abundance will change according to the rigidity and type of the wood they are found in. Hardwoods have a higher abundance of coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol, while softwoods are more rich in coniferyl alcohol, and grasses have a higher abundance of sinapyl units. A higher concentration of lignin of any kind will result in a more rigid material [3].

[[File:Lignin.jpg|125px|thumb|left|structure of the 3 main lignols]]

[[File:oaktree.jpeg|125px|thumb|right|Oak Tree, very common Hardwood (contains more lignin)]]

[[File:pinetree.jpeg|150px|thumb|center|Pine Tree, very common Softwood (less lignin)]]

== Ecological Importance ==
Lignin plays a crucial role in the carbon cycle. Lignin absorbs atmospheric carbon and holds it within the plant tissue. It also is one of the slowest [[decomposing]] materials of a dead tree, becoming a very high fraction of the production of [[humus]] and top [[soil]]. Only a small amount of [[organisms]] are able to decompose lignin. Fungi are known to be the greatest [[decomposers]] of lignin since they have the ability to produce an extracellular peroxidase that can kick-start the [[decomposition]] of the material [4].

Lignin fills in the extracellular space between cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin creating a dense, rigid structure to support the plant. In addition to providing rigidity and support, lignin also aids in the transport of water through the plant. While a plant's leaf tissue can easily absorb water, lignin itself is hydrophobic, or water-repellent. Its presence in the tissue of the leaves acts as a barrier, slowing down the absorption of water, which allows the plant to transport it more efficiently [5]. The last major significance of lignin is its ability to act as an antimicrobial defense polymer, meaning it can protect the plants that contain it from pathogens. It does this by activating various pathogen-fighting genes when an attack is detected, all with the help of the enzyme polymerase [6].

== References==
[1] Bodo, S. & Lehnen, R. (July 2007). "Lignin". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. https://doi.org/10.1002/14356007.a15_305.pub3

[2] Jing-Ke W., Xu, L., Stout, J., & Chappel, C. (June 2008). "Independent origins of syringyl lignin in vascular plants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801696105

[3] Boerjan, W., Ralph, J., & Baucher, M. (June 2003). "Lignin biosynthesis". Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 54 (1): 519–549. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134938

[4] Gadd, G. & Sariaslani, S. (March 2013). Advances in applied microbiology. Vol. 82. Oxford: Academic. pp. 1–28. ISBN 9780124076792. OCLC 841913543

[5] Sarkanen, K. V. & Ludwig, C. H. (eds) (March 1972). "Lignins: Occurrence, Formation, Structure, and Reactions". Journal of Polymer Science New York: Wiley Interscience. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1972.110100315

[6] Xie, M., J. Zhang, T. J. Tschaplinski, G. A. Tuskan, J. G. Chen, & W. Muchero. (September 2018). "Regulation of lignin biosynthesis and its role in growth-defense tradeoffs". Frontiers in Plant Science 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01427

Lignin

2023-05-08T16:27:52Z

Kvvullo: /* Ecological Importance */

[[File:LigninPic.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Microscopic view of rings, spirals, and networks formed by lignin within a plant stem.]]

== Description ==
'''Lignin''' is a complex polymer found in the cell walls of many plant species. Lignin is especially important in the formation of cell walls in rigid and woody plant species. Lignin is incredibly rigid, allowing tree species to grow tall, while also allowing for movement of the branches in the presence of stressors such as wind and animal inhabitance. Lignin also aids in the transportation of water and minerals throughout the organism [1]. Lastly, it provides the plant with mechanisms that resist damage from pathogens and invading pests. All plants containing lignin are called tracheophytes, which have a vascular system of roots, leaves, and stems. Plants without lignin are called bryophytes and are non-vascular with no roots, leaves, or stems [2].

== Structure ==
Lignin is formed by the crossing of lignols. There are three main types of lignols; coniferyl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol, and paracoumaryl alcohol. These lignols are found in all plant species containing lignin. However, their abundance will change according to the rigidity and type of the wood they are found in. Hardwoods have a higher abundance of coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol, while softwoods are more rich in coniferyl alcohol, and grasses have a higher abundance of sinapyl units. A higher concentration of lignin of any kind will result in a more rigid material [3].

[[File:Lignin.jpg|125px|thumb|left|structure of the 3 main lignols]]

[[File:oaktree.jpeg|125px|thumb|right|Oak Tree, very common Hardwood (contains more lignin)]]

[[File:pinetree.jpeg|150px|thumb|center|Pine Tree, very common Softwood (less lignin)]]

== Ecological Importance ==
Lignin plays a crucial role in the carbon cycle. Lignin absorbs atmospheric carbon and holds it within the plant tissue. It also is one of the slowest [[decomposing]] materials of a dead tree, becoming a very high fraction of the production of [[humus]] and top [[soil]]. Only a small amount of [[organisms]] are able to decompose lignin. Fungi are known to be the greatest [[decomposers]] of lignin since they have the ability to produce an extracellular peroxidase that can kick-start the [[decomposition]] of the material [4].

Lignin fills in the extracellular space between cellulose and hemicellulose and pectin creating a dense, rigid structure to support the plant. In addition to providing rigidity and support, lignin also aids in the transport of water through the plant. While a plant's leaf tissue can easily absorb water, lignin itself is hydrophobic, or water-repellent. Its presence in the tissue of the leaves acts as a barrier, slowing down the absorption of water, which allows the plant to transport it more efficiently [5]. The last major significance of lignin is its ability to act as an antimicrobial defense polymer, meaning it can protect the plants that contain it from pathogens. It does this by activating various pathogen-fighting genes when an attack is detected, all with the help of the enzyme polymerase [6].

== References==
[1] Bodo, S. & Lehnen, R. (July 2007). "Lignin". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. https://doi.org/10.1002/14356007.a15_305.pub3

[2] Jing-Ke W., Xu, L., Stout, J., & Chappel, C. (June 2008). "Independent origins of syringyl lignin in vascular plants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801696105

[3] Boerjan, W., Ralph, J., & Baucher, M. (June 2003). "Lignin biosynthesis". Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 54 (1): 519–549. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134938

[4] Gadd, G. & Sariaslani, S. (March 2013). Advances in applied microbiology. Vol. 82. Oxford: Academic. pp. 1–28. ISBN 9780124076792. OCLC 841913543

[5] Sarkanen, K. V. & Ludwig, C. H. (eds) (March 1972). "Lignins: Occurrence, Formation, Structure, and Reactions". Journal of Polymer Science New York: Wiley Interscience. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1972.110100315

[6] Xie, M., J. Zhang, T. J. Tschaplinski, G. A. Tuskan, J. G. Chen, & W. Muchero. (September 2018). "Regulation of lignin biosynthesis and its role in growth-defense tradeoffs". Frontiers in Plant Science 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01427

Lignin

2023-05-08T16:26:41Z

Kvvullo: /* Structure */

[[File:LigninPic.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Microscopic view of rings, spirals, and networks formed by lignin within a plant stem.]]

== Description ==
'''Lignin''' is a complex polymer found in the cell walls of many plant species. Lignin is especially important in the formation of cell walls in rigid and woody plant species. Lignin is incredibly rigid, allowing tree species to grow tall, while also allowing for movement of the branches in the presence of stressors such as wind and animal inhabitance. Lignin also aids in the transportation of water and minerals throughout the organism [1]. Lastly, it provides the plant with mechanisms that resist damage from pathogens and invading pests. All plants containing lignin are called tracheophytes, which have a vascular system of roots, leaves, and stems. Plants without lignin are called bryophytes and are non-vascular with no roots, leaves, or stems [2].

== Structure ==
Lignin is formed by the crossing of lignols. There are three main types of lignols; coniferyl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol, and paracoumaryl alcohol. These lignols are found in all plant species containing lignin. However, their abundance will change according to the rigidity and type of the wood they are found in. Hardwoods have a higher abundance of coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol, while softwoods are more rich in coniferyl alcohol, and grasses have a higher abundance of sinapyl units. A higher concentration of lignin of any kind will result in a more rigid material [3].

[[File:Lignin.jpg|125px|thumb|left|structure of the 3 main lignols]]

[[File:oaktree.jpeg|125px|thumb|right|Oak Tree, very common Hardwood (contains more lignin)]]

[[File:pinetree.jpeg|150px|thumb|center|Pine Tree, very common Softwood (less lignin)]]

== Ecological Importance ==
Lignin plays a crucial role in the carbon cycle. Lignin absorbs atmospheric carbon and holds it within the plant tissue. It also is one of the slowest [[decomposing]] materials of a dead tree, becoming a very high fraction of the production of [[humus]] and top [[soil]]. Only a small amount of [[organisms]] are able to decompose lignin. Fungi are known to be the greatest [[decomposers]] of lignin since they have the ability produce an extracellular peroxidase that can kick start the [[decomposition]] of the material [4].

Lignin fills in the extracellular space between cellulose and hemicellulose and pectin creating a dense, rigid structure to support the plant. In addition to providing rigidity and support, lignin also aids in the transport of water through the plant. While a plant's leaf tissue can easily absorb water, lignin itself is hydrophobic, or water-repellent. Its presence in the tissue of the leaves acts as a barrier, slowing down the absorption of water, which allows the plant to transport it more efficiently [5]. The last major significance of lignin is its ability to act as an antimicrobial defense polymer, meaning it can protect the plants that contain it from pathogens. It does this by activating various pathogen-fighting genes when an attack is detected, all with the help of the enzyme polymerase [6].

== References==
[1] Bodo, S. & Lehnen, R. (July 2007). "Lignin". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. https://doi.org/10.1002/14356007.a15_305.pub3

[2] Jing-Ke W., Xu, L., Stout, J., & Chappel, C. (June 2008). "Independent origins of syringyl lignin in vascular plants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801696105

[3] Boerjan, W., Ralph, J., & Baucher, M. (June 2003). "Lignin biosynthesis". Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 54 (1): 519–549. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134938

[4] Gadd, G. & Sariaslani, S. (March 2013). Advances in applied microbiology. Vol. 82. Oxford: Academic. pp. 1–28. ISBN 9780124076792. OCLC 841913543

[5] Sarkanen, K. V. & Ludwig, C. H. (eds) (March 1972). "Lignins: Occurrence, Formation, Structure, and Reactions". Journal of Polymer Science New York: Wiley Interscience. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1972.110100315

[6] Xie, M., J. Zhang, T. J. Tschaplinski, G. A. Tuskan, J. G. Chen, & W. Muchero. (September 2018). "Regulation of lignin biosynthesis and its role in growth-defense tradeoffs". Frontiers in Plant Science 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01427

Black Willow

2023-05-08T16:23:51Z

Kvvullo: /* Cultural Uses */

[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]

== Overview ==

[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg|200px|thumb|left]] ''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks, and drainage ditches. It can grow almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast-growing, yet short-lived, tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. It can grow from 30 to 60 feet tall on a single or multiple trunks, with a crown spread of 30 to 60 feet. Under the best conditions, Salix nigra has been known to reach heights of 140 feet. The leaves are up to 6 inches long, tapering at the end, are medium to dark green, and fine-toothed. The bark is dark brown and rough in texture. [14] Black willow trees are a dioecious species, meaning the males and females appear as separate trees. The flowering season begins in February in the southern range and goes through the end of June in the north. The blooms are tiny (about 2 inches long), insignificant, and yellow to green in color. [14] The flowers contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by [[insects]]. The pollen can still be carried by the wind as well. The seeds of ''Salix nigra'' are small, light brown to yellow, have a capsule shape, and begin to break open and release seedlings that are coated in little hairs.
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]

== Classification ==

*Kingdom- Plantae (Plant)
**Subkingdom- Viridiplantae (Green Plants)
***Infrakingdom- Streptophyta (Land Plants)
****Superdivision- Embryophyta (Land Plants)
*****Division- Tracheophyta (Vascular Plants)
******Subdivision- Spermatophytina (Seed Plants)
*******Class- Magnoliopsida (Flowering [[Dicots]])
********Superorder- Rosanae (Flowering Plants)
*********Order- Malpighiales (Flowering Plants)
**********Family- Salicaceae (Willows)
***********Genus- Salix (Willows)
************Species- Salix nigra (Black Willow)

== Ecological Significance ==

Various different vertebrate [[animals]] rely on the Black Willows as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves. The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and waterfowl species such as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds during the spring when their other food sources are a little more scarce. Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willows also happen to be one of the tree species that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into in order to feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges.

They are tolerant of floods, herbivory, and erosion, making them good trees to grow on shore banks to prevent [[soil erosion]] and increase marshland stability.

== Cultural Uses ==

''Salix nigra'' is very useful for treating minor aches and pains, as it contains salicin, the primary ingredient in aspirin. The wood of the Black Willow is the most commercially used of the different species of willow for its strength, shock resistance, light weight, and the fact that it doesn’t splinter that easily. It’s mostly used in the construction of boxes, crates, and furniture as well as woodturning, table tops, wood carvings, etc. It is the only native willow species in the United States to be used as timber.

Historically, it was used by Native Americans to make baskets as well as treat fevers, headaches, and coughs. They also recognized that the bark and the leaves could be used to treat rheumatism.

== Soil Restoration Techniques ==

In addition to all the cultural uses for this species, the ways in which this willow species can remove heavy metals from the [[soil]] are being studied. They are starting to be used in remediation efforts, and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the tree's tissues have shown to have the capacity to enhance the tree's growth. These trees also possess a resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors like that of [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by ''Salix nigra'' into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, which is why many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. [[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]

== References ==
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/

2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm

3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.

4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.

5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.

6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.

7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.

8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. [[Ecology]] 54(l):118-126.

9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.

10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.

11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus

12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004

13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230

14. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=286793

Black Willow

2023-05-08T16:22:39Z

Kvvullo: /* Ecological Significance */

[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]

== Overview ==

[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg|200px|thumb|left]] ''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks, and drainage ditches. It can grow almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast-growing, yet short-lived, tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. It can grow from 30 to 60 feet tall on a single or multiple trunks, with a crown spread of 30 to 60 feet. Under the best conditions, Salix nigra has been known to reach heights of 140 feet. The leaves are up to 6 inches long, tapering at the end, are medium to dark green, and fine-toothed. The bark is dark brown and rough in texture. [14] Black willow trees are a dioecious species, meaning the males and females appear as separate trees. The flowering season begins in February in the southern range and goes through the end of June in the north. The blooms are tiny (about 2 inches long), insignificant, and yellow to green in color. [14] The flowers contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by [[insects]]. The pollen can still be carried by the wind as well. The seeds of ''Salix nigra'' are small, light brown to yellow, have a capsule shape, and begin to break open and release seedlings that are coated in little hairs.
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]

== Classification ==

*Kingdom- Plantae (Plant)
**Subkingdom- Viridiplantae (Green Plants)
***Infrakingdom- Streptophyta (Land Plants)
****Superdivision- Embryophyta (Land Plants)
*****Division- Tracheophyta (Vascular Plants)
******Subdivision- Spermatophytina (Seed Plants)
*******Class- Magnoliopsida (Flowering [[Dicots]])
********Superorder- Rosanae (Flowering Plants)
*********Order- Malpighiales (Flowering Plants)
**********Family- Salicaceae (Willows)
***********Genus- Salix (Willows)
************Species- Salix nigra (Black Willow)

== Ecological Significance ==

Various different vertebrate [[animals]] rely on the Black Willows as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves. The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and waterfowl species such as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds during the spring when their other food sources are a little more scarce. Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willows also happen to be one of the tree species that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into in order to feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges.

They are tolerant of floods, herbivory, and erosion, making them good trees to grow on shore banks to prevent [[soil erosion]] and increase marshland stability.

== Cultural Uses ==

''Salix nigra'' is very useful for treating minor aches and pains, as it contains salicin, the primary ingredient in aspirin. The wood of the Black Willow is the most commercially used of the different species of willow for its strength, shock resistance, light weight, and due to the fact that it doesn’t splinter that easily. It’s mostly used in the construction of boxes, crates, and furniture as well as woodturning, table tops, wood carvings, etc. It is the only native willow species in the United States to be used as timber.

Historically, it was used by Native Americans to make baskets as well as treat fevers, headaches, and coughs. They also recognized that the bark and the leaves could be used to treat rheumatism.

== Soil Restoration Techniques ==

In addition to all the cultural uses for this species, the ways in which this willow species can remove heavy metals from the [[soil]] are being studied. They are starting to be used in remediation efforts, and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the tree's tissues have shown to have the capacity to enhance the tree's growth. These trees also possess a resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors like that of [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by ''Salix nigra'' into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, which is why many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. [[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]

== References ==
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/

2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm

3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.

4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.

5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.

6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.

7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.

8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. [[Ecology]] 54(l):118-126.

9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.

10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.

11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus

12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004

13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230

14. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=286793

Black Willow

2023-05-08T16:20:54Z

Kvvullo: /* Overview */

[[File:BLACK_WILLOW_TREE2__35557.1542957430.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]

== Overview ==

[[File:Bl_willow1.jpg|200px|thumb|left]] ''Salix nigra'' is a deciduous tree species that excels in areas of high moisture content such as swamps, river banks, and drainage ditches. It can grow almost anywhere that contains adequate lighting and water. These locations usually occur in areas that are near or just below the water level. It is a fast-growing, yet short-lived, tree that has an extensive range through Eastern North America as well as parts of California and the Southwest. It can grow from 30 to 60 feet tall on a single or multiple trunks, with a crown spread of 30 to 60 feet. Under the best conditions, Salix nigra has been known to reach heights of 140 feet. The leaves are up to 6 inches long, tapering at the end, are medium to dark green, and fine-toothed. The bark is dark brown and rough in texture. [14] Black willow trees are a dioecious species, meaning the males and females appear as separate trees. The flowering season begins in February in the southern range and goes through the end of June in the north. The blooms are tiny (about 2 inches long), insignificant, and yellow to green in color. [14] The flowers contain nectar meaning that the majority of the pollination process is done by [[insects]]. The pollen can still be carried by the wind as well. The seeds of ''Salix nigra'' are small, light brown to yellow, have a capsule shape, and begin to break open and release seedlings that are coated in little hairs.
[[File:Salix_nigra_range_map_1.png|250px|thumb|right]]

== Classification ==

*Kingdom- Plantae (Plant)
**Subkingdom- Viridiplantae (Green Plants)
***Infrakingdom- Streptophyta (Land Plants)
****Superdivision- Embryophyta (Land Plants)
*****Division- Tracheophyta (Vascular Plants)
******Subdivision- Spermatophytina (Seed Plants)
*******Class- Magnoliopsida (Flowering [[Dicots]])
********Superorder- Rosanae (Flowering Plants)
*********Order- Malpighiales (Flowering Plants)
**********Family- Salicaceae (Willows)
***********Genus- Salix (Willows)
************Species- Salix nigra (Black Willow)

== Ecological Significance ==

Various different vertebrates [[animals]] rely on the Black Willows as a food source or as a provider of protective habitat. Both the Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) and Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) feed on fallen willow leaves. The Ruffed Grouse, White-throated Sparrow, and waterfowl species such as the Mallard and Northern Pintail feed on willow buds during the spring when their other food sources are a little more scarce. Some birds, including the Rusty Grackle, Yellow Warbler, and Warbling Vireo, occasionally use willows as the location for their nests. Black Willows also happen to be one of the tree species that the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into in order to feed on the sap. Deer, elk, and cattle are known to browse occasionally on the leaves and twigs of this tree, while beavers feed on the wood and use the branches in the construction of their dams and lodges.

They are tolerant of floods, herbivory, and erosion, making them good trees to grow on shore banks to prevent [[soil erosion]] and increase marshland stability.

== Cultural Uses ==

''Salix nigra'' is very useful for treating minor aches and pains, as it contains salicin, the primary ingredient in aspirin. The wood of the Black Willow is the most commercially used of the different species of willow for its strength, shock resistance, light weight, and due to the fact that it doesn’t splinter that easily. It’s mostly used in the construction of boxes, crates, and furniture as well as woodturning, table tops, wood carvings, etc. It is the only native willow species in the United States to be used as timber.

Historically, it was used by Native Americans to make baskets as well as treat fevers, headaches, and coughs. They also recognized that the bark and the leaves could be used to treat rheumatism.

== Soil Restoration Techniques ==

In addition to all the cultural uses for this species, the ways in which this willow species can remove heavy metals from the [[soil]] are being studied. They are starting to be used in remediation efforts, and the [[endophytes]] that are living within the tree's tissues have shown to have the capacity to enhance the tree's growth. These trees also possess a resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors like that of [[nitrogen fixation]] and the production of phytohormones. Mercury and selenium can also be converted by ''Salix nigra'' into a volatile form to release and dilute into the atmosphere. Black willows are very effective when it comes to soil stabilization, which is why many projects that require erosion control such as river restoration will often use this species in their efforts. [[File:Live_staking.jpg|300px|thumb|right]]

== References ==
1. https://www.ernstseed.com/products/bioengineering-materials/

2. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/bl_willow.htm

3. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148 p.

4. Johnson, R. L., and J. S. McKnight. 1969. Benefits from thinning black willow. USDA Forest Service, Research Note SO-89. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. 6 p.
Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees (native and naturalized). U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Agriculture Handbook 541. Washington, DC. 375 p.

5. McKnight, J. S. 1965. Black willow (Salix nigra Marsh.). In Silvics of forest trees of the United States. p. 650-652. H. A. Fowells, comp. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 271. Washington, DC.

6. McLeod, K. W., and J. K. McPherson. 1972. Factors limiting the distribution of Salix nigra. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 100(2):102-110.

7. Randall, W. K. 1971. Willow clones differ in susceptibility to cottonwood leaf beetle. In Proceedings, Eleventh Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. Southern Forest Tree Improvement Committee Sponsored Publication 33. p. 108-111. Eastern Tree Seed Laboratory, Macon, GA.

8. Sakai, A., and C. J. Wiser. 1973. Freezing resistance of trees in North America with reference to tree regions. [[Ecology]] 54(l):118-126.

9. Taylor, F. W. 1975. Wood property differences between two stands of sycamore and black willow. Wood and Fiber 7(3):187-191.

10. Vines, Robert A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press Austin 1104 p.

11. Article homeguides.sfgate.com/willow-tree-fungus

12. http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id=ifor0555-004

13. http://ontariotrees.com/main/species.php?id=2230

14. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=286793

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-04-22T21:53:18Z

Kvvullo:

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. The body shape and loose skin facilitates squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy are its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

The naked mole rat spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, the burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as he mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affects the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies theses creatures as extremophiles.<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individuals position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. Their are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. Their is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer=living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-04-22T21:47:37Z

Kvvullo:

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref>Sartore, Joel. A Naked Mole Rat Photographed at Saint Louis Zoo in Missouri. Photograph. National Geographic. St. Louis. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/naked-mole-rat. </ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. The body shape and loose skin facilitates squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy are its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

The naked mole rat spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, the burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as he mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affects the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies theses creatures as extremophiles.<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individuals position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. Their are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. Their is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer=living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />