Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Hydnellum peckii

2023-05-10T14:19:17Z

Kellifal:

Common names include Devil's Tooth, the Strawberry and Cream mushroom, and Bleeding Tooth fungus.

Located in forested, often mountainous, areas in North America, Europe, Iran, and South Korea, the Bleeding Tooth Fungus has a symbiotic relationship with the coniferous trees amongst whose roots it is located. The trees provide the fungus with access to a fixed source of carbon dioxide, while the fungus produces enzymes that convert amino acids and minerals found in the [[soil]] into forms that the host trees can better use. The fungi's presence is indicative of an old, species-rich forest, and scientists express concern when it disappears from an area, as seems to be happening in areas of Europe, where nitrogen deposits caused by pollution may be a problem.<ref name="GFRLI"></ref>

Along with it's medicinal [[properties]], the ''H. peckii'' is valued by natural dyers, who dry it and use it alone to create a beige dye or combine it with mordants (substances, such as allum or iron, that cause a dye to set into fabric and other surfaces) to create blue-green hues.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(250,160,160)|''Scientific Classification <ref name="GFRLI">[http://iucn.ekoo.se/iucn/species_view/414442/#:~:text=They%20are%20found%20primarily%20in,of%20nitrogen%20in%20the%20soil "Hydnellum peckii"], The Global Fungal Red List Initiative. (n.d.). Hydnellum peckii. Natalie Tan. Retrieved 3/30/2023</ref>''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:teef.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Fungi
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Basidiomycota]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Basidiomycetes
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Thelephorales
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bankeraceae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Hydnellum''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''H. peckii''
|}

== Habitat and Distribution ==
Commonly found in the Pacific Northwest of the North American continent, ''Hydnellum peckii'' is also distributed in other parts of North Korea and Europe. Recently, it has been reported in Korea, segments of the Middle East, and Russia.<ref>
[https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/hydnellum-peckii.php Hydnellum peckii banker - devil's tooth], O'Reilly, P. (n.d.). Retrieved 3/30/2023.</ref>

The approximate global population as of 2020 was approximately 40,000 individuals. The population trend is improving, however, they are reported to be extinct in the Netherlands and appreciably reduced in population in Germany. The United Kingdom sited them as a vulnerable species in 2004 and further demoted them to endangered in 2006.<ref name="GFRLI"></ref>

[[File:Distribution_Map.png|center|thumb|400px|Global distribution of ''H. peckii''. Red indicates countries of occupation. Green indicates no specimens have been spotted in this region]]

== Is it Edible? ==
While not classified as poisonous, the Devil’s Tooth fungus is incredibly bitter, and eating it is not recommended.<ref name= RM>
[https://www.realmushrooms.com/weird-mushrooms-strangest-fungi/ Real Mushrooms], 2022, March 4. Weird mushrooms: Profiling 9 of the world's strangest fungi. Retrieved 3/31/2023.</ref>

== Identification Guide<ref> [https://ultimate-mushroom.com/inedible/55-hydnellum-peckii.html Hydnellum peckii: The Ultimate Mushroom Guide], (n.d.). ultimate-mushroom.com. Retrieved 4/1/2023.</ref> ==
=== Fruit Bodies ===
Characterized by a teeth-like hymenium, rather than gills or pores on the underside of the mushroom cap. These “teeth” cover the cap’s underside and are specialized structures used to produce spores. Fruit bodies grow in close proximity and often appear to merge together. They can reach a height of up to 10.5cm. Young specimens, lump-like in appearance, exude a striking, thick red fluid when they are moist.

[[File:Oldboi.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Mature ''H. peckii'' specimen, indicated by its brownish color]]
=== Cap ===
The cap’s surface is convex to flattened, more or less uneven, and sometimes is found to have a slightly depressed region in the cap’s center. It is usually covered with “hairs” that give it a texture similar to velvet. As the fungus ages, these hairs are sloughed off, leaving the caps of mature individuals smooth. Its shape varies from somewhat round to irregular, and 4 to 10cm wide. As a result of confluence, the merging of separate specimens due to their close growth proximity, cap width can reach a width of up to 20cm in diameter. Initially, the cap is whitish in color, but later turns slightly brownish with irregular dark-brown to nearly black blotches if it becomes bruised. In maturity, the surface is fibrous and tough, scaly and jagged, somewhat woody, and with grayish brown in the upper parts of the cap.

[[File:Spore_cap.jpg|left|thumb|250px|'Teeth" covering the cap's underside are specialized structures that produce the fungus's spores]]
=== Spines ===
Spines are slender, cylindrical, and tapering. They are typically less than 5mm long and become shorter and closer to the cap edge. They are crowded together, typically between three and five teeth per square millimeter. Color-wise, they are initially pinkish white and as they age, they become a greyish brown.

=== Stem ===
The stem is thick, very short, and often deformed in some capacity. It becomes bulbous where it penetrates the ground and roots may expand into the soil for several centimeters. Although it may reach up to 5cm in total length, only about 0.1 to 1cm appear above ground. The upper part of the stem is covered with the same teeth found on the underside of the cap, whereas the lower segments are hairy and often encased in debris from the forest floor.

=== Flesh ===
The flesh of the specimen is a pale, pinkish brown.

=== Odor ===
The odor of the fruit body has been previously described as “mild to disagreeable” or, as described in the original description by Howard James Banker, who discovered the species in 1912, similar to hickory nuts.

=== Spore Print ===
Brown in color.

=== Microscopic Features ===
The spores of ''Hydnellum peckii'' are brown, roughly spherical, with small nodules on their surface. They range in size from 4.0-5.3 um. They are inamyloid, meaning they do not absorb iodine when stained. The hyphae that form the cap are translucent, smooth, and thin-walled, with an average thickness of 3-4um. They have cellular compartments and clamp connections, forming an intricate tangle with a longitudinal tendency. The basidia, spore-bearing cells in the hymenium, are club-shaped, four-spored, and measure 35-40 by 4.7-6um. Collapsed hyphae can be revived with a weak solution of potassium hydroxide.

== Medicinal Applications ==
Sap of the Devil’s Tooth mushroom contains a chemical compound called atromentin, a compound that has anticoagulant properties and is commonly used to help prevent blood clots from forming. The pigment-producing compound found in several fungi species, atromenin also acts as a smooth muscle stimulant and has antibacterial and antineoplastic (anticancer) properties.<ref> [https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Atromentin Atromentin.] (n.d.). . U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 4/1/2023.</ref>
[[File:Atromentin.png|left|thumb|300px|Chemical compound, Atromentin]]

== References ==
<references />

Methods for Sampling Macroarthropods

2023-04-21T22:05:44Z

Kellifal: Created page with "Macroarthropods are a wildly diverse group, with several of their species scattered throughout the orders of Arthropoda. Most are large enough in size that they can be sampled..."

Macroarthropods are a wildly diverse group, with several of their species scattered throughout the orders of Arthropoda. Most are large enough in size that they can be sampled as individuals and counted with the naked eye, allowing for hand collection and sorting to be a viable means of population sampling.[1]
[[File:Millipedelitter.png|thumb|right|Diplopoda]]
Many techniques rely on the natural characteristics of the specimen to aid in sampling of individuals. Cryptozoa, for instance, are crepuscular (active during twilight) or nocturnal and sampling techniques for these groupings rely on the use of light to drive individuals through the substrate towards a sampling mechanism.[2] Dependence on humidity levels or other defense mechanisms also drive many of the sampling techniques for this grouping of [[soil]] [[organisms]].

==Berlese or Tullgren Extraction==
[[File:Tullgren.jpg|thumb|right|Berlese-Tullgren extraction funnel diagram]]
A Berlese-Tullgren funnel, also known as a Berlese trap, utilizes a desiccation gradient to move specimen through the substrate towards a collection vessel. Heat applied to the upper layers of a collected mass of substrate slowly dries it out from the top down, forcing the [[invertebrates]] to migrate down through the soil as they chase their desired levels of humidity. At the very bottom lies a collection vessel containing either a 70% alcohol solution or ethylene glycol which acts as a preservative.[2]

===Sample Size===
Sample sizes for this technique can very but are limited to a 0.1-2.5 m2 collection.[1] Larger samples may be necessary for taxa which happen to have smaller population densities. This occurs if the population density is smaller than 1-2 individuals per mm2. In cases such as these, it may be necessary to conduct a thorough examination on the soil sample and hand sort collected specimens.

===DIY===
[[File:Tullgran funnels.jpg|thumb|left|Berlese-Tullgren funnel lab setup]]
Formerly, manufactured funnels are available for purchase however, these can be expensive with some units costing between $100 to $600 for a more complicated unit[2]. Many choose to construct their own versions using cheaper materials. Regardless of design, all have the same foundational structure. A heat lamp is placed over a funnel containing some sort of large diameter sieve to prevent debris from falling down the funnel opening. Below the opening of the funnel, a container filled with a preservative sits to collect specimens who travel down through the substrate.[3]

====''Materials Required'' [3]====
* 1-Gallon plastic jug (e.g., milk jug)
* Jar or container (e.g., 1-qt canning jar)
* Mesh screen (1/4" hardware cloth)
* Ethanol (70-95%) or Isopropanol (70%)
* Lamp with moveable neck (and incandescent bulb, for heat)

====''Assembly'' [3]====
# Cut the bottom off the 1-gallon jug. Only the top will be needed.
# Into the jar or container, pour a few centimeters of the ethanol or isopropanol.
# Take the mesh screen and bend it so that it fits securely within inverted top of the 1-gallon jug. This will act as a stable platform for the sample.
# Place soil sample or leaf litter into funnel, resting it gently on top of mesh screen.
# Place lamp directly over soil sample. Bulb should be approximately 20 cm away from the surface of the soil sample. Do not let bulb touch the top of the soil itself.

==Flotation==
[[File:Extraction_flotation.png|thumb|right|Extraction of Collembola using flotation method]]
Flotation methods are based on the principle that organic materials will have a density that is less than water allowing macroarthropod specimens to float to the top while minerals and soils will have a greater density, causing it to sink. Soil cores of 5-25mm in diameter and approximately 10-25 mm deep are taken as a indicator for macroarthropod population density.[1] Soil and solution are shaken together and allowed to settle. Organisms which float to the top of the water are then able to be collected and studied for population surveys.[4]

Some studies have shown benefits to utilizing various hydrocarbon solvents such as gasoline as another layer of separation. Organisms were found to be caught in the gasoline layer, which floats on top of the water, while the soil, leave and other bits of organic matter from the sample were stuck in the water layer.[5]

==Pitfall Trapping==
[[File:Pitfall.png|thumb|left|Diagram of a pitfall trap to collect ground dwelling insect]]
While an inexpensive and rapid method for assessing community populations of macroarthropods, pitfall traps have limited capabilities when it comes to determining population size. Catches reflect both the density and mobility of [[arthropods]]. Ideal for species that spend most of their time on the ground, at its most basic form the pitfall trap consists of a container buried within the soil deep enough so that the top is flush with the ground’s surface. To prevent the organisms from escaping or eating other creatures that fall into the trap, a killing or preserving agent is placed in the bottom. This is usually solutions such as soapy water or ethyl alcohol.[6]

==References==
[1] Coleman, D. C. 2004. Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]. Elsevier Amstherdan.

[2] McWilliam, S. J. (n.d.). INVERTEBRATE CAPTURE TECHNIQUES. http://www.stevemcwilliam.co.uk/entomol/invcapt6.htm#:~:text=Tullgren%20funnels%20work%20extremely%20well,downwards%20to%20higher%20humidity%20levels.

[3] Constructing Berlese funnels to study invertebrate density and biodiversity. (n.d.). . https://www.carolina.com/teacher-resources/Interactive/constructing-berlese-funnels-study-invertebrate-density-biodiversity/tr19101.tr.

[4] Fowler, F., T. Wilcox, S. Orr, and W. Watson. 2020, November 1. Sampling efficacy and survival rates of labarrus pseudolividus ([[Coleoptera]]: Scarabaeidae) and onthophagus taurus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) using flotation and Sieve-Separation Methodology. U.S. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7751142/.

[5] Hale, W. G. 1964. A flotation method for extracting [[collembola]] from organic soils. The Journal of Animal Ecology 33:363.

[6] Virginia Tech. (n.d.). Using Pitfall Traps to Monitor Insect Activity. https://www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/content/dam/pubs_ext_vt_edu/444/444-041/444-041(ENTO-295P).pdf.

File:Pitfall.png

2023-04-21T22:04:15Z

Kellifal:

File:Extraction flotation.png

2023-04-21T22:02:55Z

Kellifal:

File:Tullgran funnels.jpg

2023-04-21T22:00:50Z

Kellifal:

File:Millipedelitter.png

2023-04-21T21:56:10Z

Kellifal: source: https://louisvillezoo.org/animalsandplants/millipedes/

== Summary ==
source: https://louisvillezoo.org/animalsandplants/millipedes/

Hydnellum peckii

2023-04-01T23:27:38Z

Kellifal:

Common names include Devil's Tooth, the Strawberry and Cream mushroom, and Bleeding Tooth fungus.

Located in forested, often mountainous, areas in North America, Europe, Iran, and South Korea, the Bleeding Tooth Fungus has a symbiotic relationship with the coniferous trees amongst whose roots it is located. The trees provide the fungus with access to a fixed source of carbon dioxide, while the fungus produces enzymes that convert amino acids and minerals found in the [[soil]] into forms that the host trees can better use. The fungi's presence is indicative of an old, species-rich forest, and scientists express concern when it disappears from an area, as seems to be happening in areas of Europe, where nitrogen deposits caused by pollution may be a problem.<ref name="GFRLI"></ref>

Along with it's medicinal [[properties]], the ''H. peckii'' is valued by natural dyers, who dry it and use it alone to create a beige dye or combine it with mordants (substances, such as allum or iron, that cause a dye to set into fabric and other surfaces) to create blue-green hues.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(250,160,160)|''Scientific Classification <ref name="GFRLI">[http://iucn.ekoo.se/iucn/species_view/414442/#:~:text=They%20are%20found%20primarily%20in,of%20nitrogen%20in%20the%20soil "Hydnellum peckii"], The Global Fungal Red List Initiative. (n.d.). Hydnellum peckii. Natalie Tan. Retrieved 3/30/2023</ref>''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:teef.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Fungi
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Basidiomycota]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Basidiomycetes
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Thelephorales
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bankeraceae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Hydnellum''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''H. peckii''
|}

== Habitat and Distribution ==
Commonly found in the Pacific Northwest of the North American continent, ''Hydnellum peckii'' is also distributed in other parts of North Korea and Europe. Recently, it has been reported in Korea, segments of the Middle East and Russia.<ref>
[https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/hydnellum-peckii.php Hydnellum peckii banker - devil's tooth], O'Reilly, P. (n.d.). Retrieved 3/30/2023.</ref>

The approximate global population as of 2020 was approximately 40,000 individuals. Population trend is improving, however they are reported to be extinct in the Netherlands and appreciably reduced in population in Germany. The United Kingdom sited them as a vulnerable species in 2004 and further demoted them to endangered in 2006.<ref name="GFRLI"></ref>

[[File:Distribution_Map.png|left|thumb|400px|Global distribution of ''H. peckii''. Red indicates countries of occupation. Green indicates no specimens have been spotted in this region]]

== Is it Edible? ==
While not classified as poisonous, the Devil’s Tooth fungus is incredibility bitter and eating it is not recommended.<ref name= RM>
[https://www.realmushrooms.com/weird-mushrooms-strangest-fungi/ Real Mushrooms], 2022, March 4. Weird mushrooms: Profiling 9 of the world's strangest fungi. Retrieved 3/31/2023.</ref>

== Identification Guide<ref> [https://ultimate-mushroom.com/inedible/55-hydnellum-peckii.html Hydnellum peckii: The Ultimate Mushroom Guide], (n.d.). ultimate-mushroom.com. Retrieved 4/1/2023.</ref> ==
=== Fruit Bodies ===
Characterized by a teeth-like hymenium, rather than gills or pores on the underside of the mushroom cap. These “teeth” cover the cap’s underside and are specialized structures used to produce spores. Fruit bodies grow in close proximity and often appear to merge together. They can reach a height of up to 10.5cm. Young specimens, lump-like in appearance, exude a striking, thick red fluid when they are moist.

[[File:Oldboi.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Mature ''H. peckii'' specimen, indicated by its brownish color]]
=== Cap ===
The cap’s surface is convex to flattened, more or less uneven, and sometimes is found to have a slightly depressed region in the cap’s center. It is usually covered with “hairs” that give it a texture similar to velvet. As the fungus ages, these hairs are sloughed off, leaving the caps of mature individuals smooth. Its shape varies from somewhat round to irregular, and 4 to 10cm wide. As a result of confluence, the merging of who separate specimens due to their close growth proximity, cap width can reach a width of up to 20cm in diameter. Initially, the cap is whitish in color, but later turns slightly brownish with irregular dark-brown to nearly black blotches if it becomes bruised. In maturity, the surface is fibrous and tough, scaly and jagged, somewhat woody, and with grayish brown in the upper parts of the cap.

[[File:Spore_cap.jpg|left|thumb|250px|'Teeth" covering the cap's underside are specialized structures that produce the fungus's spores]]
=== Spines ===
Spines are slender, cylindrical, and tapering. They are typically less than 5mm long and become shorter closer to the cap edge. They are crowded together, typically between three and five teeth per square millimeter. Color wise, they are initially pinkish white and as they age, they become a greyish brown.

=== Stem ===
The stem is thick, very short and often deformed in some capacity. It becomes bulbous where it penetrates the ground and roots may expand into the soil for several centimeters. Although it may reach up to 5cm in total length, only about 0.1 to 1cm appear above ground. The upper part of the stem is covered with the same teeth found on the underside of the cap, whereas the lower segments are hairy and often encased in debris from the forest floor.

=== Flesh ===
The flesh of the specimen is a pale, pinkish brown.

=== Odor ===
The odor of the fruit body has been previously described as “mild to disagreeable” or, as described in the original description by Howard James Banker, who discovered the species in 1912, similar to hickory nuts.

=== Spore Print ===
Brown in color.

=== Microscopic Features ===
The spores of ''Hydnellum peckii'' are brown, roughly spherical, with small nodules on their surface. They range in size from 4.0-5.3 um. They are inamyloid, meaning they do not absorb iodine when stained. The hyphae that form the cap are translucent, smooth, and thin-walled, with an average thickness of 3-4um. They have cellular compartments and clamp connections, forming an intricate tangle with a longitudinal tendency. The basidia, spore-bearing cells in the hymenium, are club-shaped, four-spored, and measure 35-40 by 4.7-6um. Collapsed hyphae can be revived with a weak solution of potassium hydroxide.

== Medicinal Applications ==
Sap of the Devil’s Tooth mushroom contains a chemical compound call atromentin, a compound that has anticoagulant properties and is commonly used to help prevent blood clots from forming. The pigment producing compound found in several fungi species, atromenin also acts as a smooth muscle stimulant and has anibacterial and antineoplastic (anticancer) properties.<ref> [https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Atromentin Atromentin.] (n.d.). . U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 4/1/2023.</ref>
[[File:Atromentin.png|left|thumb|300px|Chemical compound, Atromentin]]

== References ==
<references />

Hydnellum peckii

2023-04-01T23:26:05Z

Kellifal: Created page with "Common names include Devil's Tooth, the Strawberry and Cream mushroom, and Bleeding Tooth fungus. Located in forested, often mountainous, areas in North America, Europe, Iran..."

Common names include Devil's Tooth, the Strawberry and Cream mushroom, and Bleeding Tooth fungus.

Located in forested, often mountainous, areas in North America, Europe, Iran, and South Korea, the Bleeding Tooth Fungus has a symbiotic relationship with the coniferous trees amongst whose roots it is located. The trees provide the fungus with access to a fixed source of carbon dioxide, while the fungus produces enzymes that convert amino acids and minerals found in the [[soil]] into forms that the host trees can better use. The fungi's presence is indicative of an old, species-rich forest, and scientists express concern when it disappears from an area, as seems to be happening in areas of Europe, where nitrogen deposits caused by pollution may be a problem.<ref name="GFRLI"></ref>

Along with it's medicinal [[properties]], the ''H. peckii'' is valued by natural dyers, who dry it and use it alone to create a beige dye or combine it with mordants (substances, such as allum or iron, that cause a dye to set into fabric and other surfaces) to create blue-green hues.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(250,160,160)|''Scientific Classification <ref name="GFRLI">[http://iucn.ekoo.se/iucn/species_view/414442/#:~:text=They%20are%20found%20primarily%20in,of%20nitrogen%20in%20the%20soil "Hydnellum peckii"], The Global Fungal Red List Initiative. (n.d.). Hydnellum peckii. Natalie Tan. Retrieved 3/30/2023</ref>''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:teef.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Fungi
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Basidiomycota]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Basidiomycetes
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Thelephorales
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bankeraceae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Hydnellum''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''H. peckii''
|}

== Habitat and Distribution ==
Commonly found in the Pacific Northwest of the North American continent, ''Hydnellum peckii'' is also distributed in other parts of North Korea and Europe. Recently, it has been reported in Korea, segments of the Middle East and Russia.<ref>
[https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/hydnellum-peckii.php Hydnellum peckii banker - devil's tooth], O'Reilly, P. (n.d.). Retrieved 3/30/2023.</ref>

The approximate global population as of 2020 was approximately 40,000 individuals. Population trend is improving, however they are reported to be extinct in the Netherlands and appreciably reduced in population in Germany. The United Kingdom sited them as a vulnerable species in 2004 and further demoted them to endangered in 2006.<ref name="GFRLI"></ref>

[[File:Distribution_Map.png|left|thumb|400px|Global distribution of ''H. peckii''. Red indicates countries of occupation. Green indicates no specimens have been spotted in this region]]

== Is it Edible? ==
While not classified as poisonous, the Devil’s Tooth fungus is incredibility bitter and eating it is not recommended.<ref name= RM>
[https://www.realmushrooms.com/weird-mushrooms-strangest-fungi/ Real Mushrooms], 2022, March 4. Weird mushrooms: Profiling 9 of the world's strangest fungi. Retrieved 3/31/2023.</ref>

== Identification Guide<ref> [https://ultimate-mushroom.com/inedible/55-hydnellum-peckii.html Hydnellum peckii: The Ultimate Mushroom Guide], (n.d.). ultimate-mushroom.com. Retrieved 4/1/2023.</ref> ==
=== Fruit Bodies ===
Characterized by a teeth-like hymenium, rather than gills or pores on the underside of the mushroom cap. These “teeth” cover the cap’s underside and are specialized structures used to produce spores. Fruit bodies grow in close proximity and often appear to merge together. They can reach a height of up to 10.5cm. Young specimens, lump-like in appearance, exude a striking, thick red fluid when they are moist.

[[File:Oldboi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mature ''H. peckii'' specimen, indicated by its brownish color]]
=== Cap ===
The cap’s surface is convex to flattened, more or less uneven, and sometimes is found to have a slightly depressed region in the cap’s center. It is usually covered with “hairs” that give it a texture similar to velvet. As the fungus ages, these hairs are sloughed off, leaving the caps of mature individuals smooth. Its shape varies from somewhat round to irregular, and 4 to 10cm wide. As a result of confluence, the merging of who separate specimens due to their close growth proximity, cap width can reach a width of up to 20cm in diameter. Initially, the cap is whitish in color, but later turns slightly brownish with irregular dark-brown to nearly black blotches if it becomes bruised. In maturity, the surface is fibrous and tough, scaly and jagged, somewhat woody, and with grayish brown in the upper parts of the cap.

[[File:Spore_cap.jpg|left|thumb|200px|'Teeth" covering the cap's underside are specialized structures that produce the fungus's spores]]
=== Spines ===
Spines are slender, cylindrical, and tapering. They are typically less than 5mm long and become shorter closer to the cap edge. They are crowded together, typically between three and five teeth per square millimeter. Color wise, they are initially pinkish white and as they age, they become a greyish brown.

=== Stem ===
The stem is thick, very short and often deformed in some capacity. It becomes bulbous where it penetrates the ground and roots may expand into the soil for several centimeters. Although it may reach up to 5cm in total length, only about 0.1 to 1cm appear above ground. The upper part of the stem is covered with the same teeth found on the underside of the cap, whereas the lower segments are hairy and often encased in debris from the forest floor.

=== Flesh ===
The flesh of the specimen is a pale, pinkish brown.

=== Odor ===
The odor of the fruit body has been previously described as “mild to disagreeable” or, as described in the original description by Howard James Banker, who discovered the species in 1912, similar to hickory nuts.

=== Spore Print ===
Brown in color.

=== Microscopic Features ===
The spores of ''Hydnellum peckii'' are brown, roughly spherical, with small nodules on their surface. They range in size from 4.0-5.3 um. They are inamyloid, meaning they do not absorb iodine when stained. The hyphae that form the cap are translucent, smooth, and thin-walled, with an average thickness of 3-4um. They have cellular compartments and clamp connections, forming an intricate tangle with a longitudinal tendency. The basidia, spore-bearing cells in the hymenium, are club-shaped, four-spored, and measure 35-40 by 4.7-6um. Collapsed hyphae can be revived with a weak solution of potassium hydroxide.

== Medicinal Applications ==
Sap of the Devil’s Tooth mushroom contains a chemical compound call atromentin, a compound that has anticoagulant properties and is commonly used to help prevent blood clots from forming. The pigment producing compound found in several fungi species, atromenin also acts as a smooth muscle stimulant and has anibacterial and antineoplastic (anticancer) properties.<ref> [https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Atromentin Atromentin.] (n.d.). . U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 4/1/2023.</ref>
[[File:Atromentin.png|left|thumb|400px|Chemical compound, Atromentin]]

== References ==
<references />

File:Oldboi.jpg

2023-04-01T23:20:20Z

Kellifal: Mature H. peckii

== Summary ==
Mature H. peckii

File:Spore cap.jpg

2023-04-01T23:16:59Z

Kellifal: H. peckii spore cap

== Summary ==
H. peckii spore cap

File:Atromentin.png

2023-04-01T22:24:44Z

Kellifal: chemical compound atromentin

== Summary ==
chemical compound atromentin

File:Distribution Map.png

2023-04-01T22:24:07Z

Kellifal: H. peckii global distribution

== Summary ==
H. peckii global distribution

File:Teef.jpg

2023-04-01T22:23:28Z

Kellifal: H. peckii specimen

== Summary ==
H. peckii specimen

Critical zone

2023-03-10T18:42:42Z

Kellifal:

== '''The Critical Zone''' ==
[[File:CriticalZone.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Artistic Depiction of the Critical Zone [8]]]
[[File:CZ_diagram.png|400px|thumb|left|Physical, chemical, and biological processes in the critical zone are influenced and altered by climate, tectonic and anthropogenic forces. These lead to responses in the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and pedosphere over both long and short timescales.[3]]]
The Critical Zone is a term first adopted by the US National Research Council to describe the region of Earth’s surface that houses all life and the systems that support it. Officially, the Critical Zone is described as the “heterogeneous, near-surface environment in which complex interactions involving, rock, [[soil]], water, air, and living [[organisms]] regulate the natural habitat and determine the availability of life-sustaining resources”.[1] From this original statement, many definitions have been crafted to determine the boundary of this zone, including all regions between the bottom of Earth’s weathering zone or aquifer base up to the top of the vegetation canopy. In layman’s terms, the Critical Zone is the Earth’s outer skin; the region where rock, soil, water, air, and all living organisms interact and work in tandem to shape the Earth’s surface.[2][3]

Complex biogeochemical-physical processes combine to transform rock and biomass into soil which in turn supplies much of the terrestrial biosphere with nutrients required for survival.[4] Simply put, the Critical Zone is the Earth’s life support system, and entire areas of study have been dedicated to understanding the complex processes and cycles that interact with one another to support Earth’s multitude of lifeforms.

=== '''Scale''' ===
Processes within the Critical Zone take place across an extremely wide temporal scale, ranging from multimillion-year time frames of plate tectonics and weathering to rapid transformations of short-term events like water cycling or impacts from pollutant introduction like heavy metals into soils.

Along with wide ranges in temporal scales, [[properties]] of the Critical Zone vary over distance. Soil composition, biomass type and availability, water resources and overall climate all contribute to processes within the Critical Zone, making Critical Zone science a complex and interdisciplinary study.

The key to Critical Zone science is to use observatories as “time telescopes” that allow focus not only on the processes occurring in present day but allow for comparisons against past and future process records, as well as comparisons across distances to compare interactions and cycle influences.[3]

== '''Critical Zone Observatories (CZOs)''' ==
CZOs are natural watershed laboratories used to study various aspects of the Critical Zone with the intent of gaining a better understanding of its complex systems.[5] CZOs integrate the study of Earth’s surface processes, such as landscape evolution, weathering, hydrology, geochemistry, climatology, and [[ecology]], across multiple spatial and temporal scales to study anthropogenic impacts on Earth’s vital systems. [3][7]

The research at each CZO includes field and theoretical approaches, as well as emphasizing education and outreach to students aged anywhere from K-12 to graduate levels. Although funded individually, the U.S. based CZOs work together to better understand scientific processes and impacts within the Critical Zone, aiming to increase their knowledge of how the CZ operates and evolves, with a key focus on looking into a predictive ability to how processes will respond to changes in climate and land use.[8]

[[File:CZO.png|800px|thumb|center|Global network of Critical Zone Observatories (CZOs) and CZO-like sites. Red dots indicate NSF funded US locations; orange dots indicate Terrestrial Environment Observatories (TERENO) CZOs in Germany; dark red dots indicate CZOs established by Soil Transformations in European Catchments (SoilTrEC), located in Switzerland, Austria, Greece, and Czechia. Blue dots indicate other CZO-like sites registered under SoilTrEC. This map of global network CZOs may not be complete.[3]]]

=== '''NSF Funded Locations within US and US Governed Territories'''[7] ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Observatory
! Generalized Location
! Climate
! Land Cover
! Area of Study
! Status
|-
| Boulder Creek CZO || Colorado || Temperate, Subhumid || Alpine Tundra, Mixed Forest, Grassland/Herbaceous, Agriculture-Pasture, Developed-Low || Erosion and weathering impacts on Critical Zone architecture and evolution, concentrating on slope, climate, ecosystems, and rock properties || Active
|-
| Calhoun CZO || South Carolina || Humid, Subtropical || Grassland/Herbaceous, Mixed Forest || Impacts of reforestation efforts on hydrology, geomorphology, biology, and biogeochemistry in areas with serious agricultural land and water degradation || Active
|-
| Eel River CZO || California || Mediterranean, Hyper humid || Grassland/Herbaceous, Mixed Forest, Developed-High, Agriculture-Crops || Exploring how the Critical Zone will mediate watershed responses in changing environments. Climate change and ecosystem impacts within watersheds || Active
|-
| Intensively Managed Landscapes CZO || Illinois/Iowa/Minnesota || Temperate, Humid || Agriculture-Crops, Grassland/Herbaceous, Shrubland || Works to understand how land use changes effect of the long-term resilience of the Critical Zone || Active
|-
| Santa Catalina Mountains & Jemez River Basin CZO || Arizona/New Mexico || Temperature, Subhumid || Barren Land, Evergreen Forest, Grassland/Herbaceous, Mixed Forest || Measurements of geomorphic, hydrologic, and biogeochemical interactions that drive theory and modeling of Critical Zone evolution. Focuses on elevation gradients and impacts to arid/semi-arid systems || Active
|-
| Luquillo CZO || Puerto Rico || Tropical, Humid || Deciduous Forest, Developed-Low || How Critical Zone processes and water balances differ in landscapes with contrasting [[bedrock]] but similar climatic and environmental histories || Active
|-
| Reynolds Creek CZO || Idaho || Mediterranean, Dry || Grassland/Herbaceous, Evergreen Forest, Shrubland, Annual Grasses || Prediction of soil carbon storage and flux from pedon to landscape scales, focus on processes that govern carbon sequestration || Active
|-
| Susquehanna Shale Hills CZO || Pennsylvania || Temperature, Humid || Deciduous Forest, Agriculture-Pasture || Quantitative prediction of Critical Zone creation and structure, focusing on pathways and rates of water, solutes, and sediments || Active
|-
| Southern Sierra CZO || California || Mediterranean, Humid || Evergreen Forest, Shrubland, Grassland/Herbaceous || Investigates critical zone across mountainous elevation gradient, focusing on water balance, [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]], and weathering processes || Active
|-
| Christina River Basin CZO || Delaware/Pennsylvania || Temperate, Humid || Deciduous Forest, Agriculture-Crops, Developed-Low || Understanding of water, mineral and carbon cycle fluxes to better quantify human impacts on carbon sequestration in Critical Zones || Inactive
|}

==References==
[1] National Research Council. Basic Research Opportunities in Earth Science. 2000. nap.nationalacademies.org, https://doi.org/10.17226/9981.

[2] Giardino, J. R., C. Houser, and ScienceDirect (Online service). Principles and dynamics of the critical zone. Page 1 online resource. Developments in earth surface processes volume 19.

[3] Guo, L., and H. Lin. 2016. Critical zone research and observatories; current status and future perspectives. Vadose zone journal 15:1-14.

[4] Lin, H. S. 2009. Earth’s Critical Zone and hydropedology:65.

[5] White, T., S. Brantley, and S. Banwart. 2015. The Role of Critical Zone Observatories in Critical Zone Science. Pages 15–78 in Principles and dynamics of the Critical Zone. essayElsevier.

[6] Coddington, N. 2017. Explore the Critical Zone. Youtube. WSKG Public Media.

[7] Observatories: National critical zone observatory. (n.d.). . https://czo-archive.criticalzone.org/national/infrastructure/observatories-1national/.

[8] The Critical Zone: National Critical Zone Observatory. (n.d.). . https://czo-archive.criticalzone.org/national/research/the-critical-zone-1national/.

Critical zone

2023-03-10T18:20:01Z

Kellifal: edits assignment 03/10/2023

== '''The Critical Zone''' ==
[[File:CriticalZone.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Artistic Depiction of the Critical Zone[8]]]
[[File:CZ_diagram.png|400px|thumb|left|Physical, chemical, and biological processes in the critical zone are influenced and altered by climate, tectonic and anthropogenic forces. These lead to responses in the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and pedosphere over both long and short timescales.[3]]]
The Critical Zone is a term first adopted by the US National Research Council to describe the region of Earth’s surface that houses all life and the systems that support it. Officially, the Critical Zone is described as the “heterogeneous, near-surface environment in which complex interactions involving, rock, [[soil]], water, air, and living [[organisms]] regulate the natural habitat and determine the availability of life-sustaining resources”.[1] From this original statement, many definitions have been crafted to determine the boundary of this zone, including all regions between the bottom of Earth’s weathering zone or aquifer base up to the top of the vegetation canopy.[2][3] In layman’s terms, the Critical Zone is the Earth’s outer skin; the region where rock, soil, water, air, and all living organisms interact and work in tandem to shape the Earth’s surface.

Complex biogeochemical-physical processes combine to transform rock and biomass into soil which in turn supplies much of the terrestrial biosphere with nutrients required for survival.[4] Simply put, the Critical Zone is the Earth’s life support system, and entire areas of study have been dedicated to understanding the complex processes and cycles that interact with one another to support Earth’s multitude of lifeforms.

=== '''Scale''' ===
Processes within the Critical Zone take place across an extremely wide temporal scale, ranging from multimillion-year time frames of plate tectonics and weathering to rapid transformations of short-term events like water cycling or impacts from pollutant introduction like heavy metals into soils.

Along with wide ranges in temporal scales, [[properties]] of the Critical Zone vary over distance. Soil composition, biomass type and availability, water resources and overall climate all contribute to processes within the Critical Zone, making Critical Zone science a complex and interdisciplinary study.

The key to Critical Zone science is to use observatories as “time telescopes” that allow focus not only on the processes occurring in present day but allow for comparisons against past and future process records, as well as comparisons across distances to compare interactions and cycle influences.[3]

== '''Critical Zone Observatories (CZOs)''' ==
CZOs are natural watershed laboratories used to study various aspects of the Critical Zone with the intent of gaining a better understanding of its complex systems.[5] CZOs integrate the study of Earth’s surface processes, such as landscape evolution, weathering, hydrology, geochemistry, climatology, and [[ecology]], across multiple spatial and temporal scales to study anthropogenic impacts on Earth’s vital systems. [3][7]

The research at each CZO includes field and theoretical approaches, as well as emphasizing education and outreach to students aged anywhere from K-12 to graduate levels. Although funded individually, the U.S. based CZOs work together to better understand scientific processes and impacts within the Critical Zone, aiming to increase their knowledge of how the CZ operates and evolves, with a key focus on looking into a predictive ability to how processes will respond to changes in climate and land use.[8]

[[File:CZO.png|800px|thumb|center|Global network of Critical Zone Observatories (CZOs) and CZO-like sites. Red dots indicate NSF funded US locations; orange dots indicate Terrestrial Environment Observatories (TERENO) CZOs in Germany; dark red dots indicate CZOs established by Soil Transformations in European Catchments (SoilTrEC), located in Switzerland, Austria, Greece, and Czechia. Blue dots indicate other CZO-like sites registered under SoilTrEC. This map of global network CZOs may not be complete.[3]]]

=== '''NSF Funded Locations within US and US Governed Territories'''[7] ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Observatory
! Generalized Location
! Climate
! Land Cover
! Area of Study
! Status
|-
| Boulder Creek CZO || Colorado || Temperate, Subhumid || Alpine Tundra, Mixed Forest, Grassland/Herbaceous, Agriculture-Pasture, Developed-Low || Erosion and weathering impacts on Critical Zone architecture and evolution, concentrating on slope, climate, ecosystems, and rock properties || Active
|-
| Calhoun CZO || South Carolina || Humid, Subtropical || Grassland/Herbaceous, Mixed Forest || Impacts of reforestation efforts on hydrology, geomorphology, biology, and biogeochemistry in areas with serious agricultural land and water degradation || Active
|-
| Eel River CZO || California || Mediterranean, Hyper humid || Grassland/Herbaceous, Mixed Forest, Developed-High, Agriculture-Crops || Exploring how the Critical Zone will mediate watershed responses in changing environments. Climate change and ecosystem impacts within watersheds || Active
|-
| Intensively Managed Landscapes CZO || Illinois/Iowa/Minnesota || Temperate, Humid || Agriculture-Crops, Grassland/Herbaceous, Shrubland || Works to understand how land use changes effect of the long-term resilience of the Critical Zone || Active
|-
| Santa Catalina Mountains & Jemez River Basin CZO || Arizona/New Mexico || Temperature, Subhumid || Barren Land, Evergreen Forest, Grassland/Herbaceous, Mixed Forest || Measurements of geomorphic, hydrologic, and biogeochemical interactions that drive theory and modeling of Critical Zone evolution. Focuses on elevation gradients and impacts to arid/semi-arid systems || Active
|-
| Luquillo CZO || Puerto Rico || Tropical, Humid || Deciduous Forest, Developed-Low || How Critical Zone processes and water balances differ in landscapes with contrasting [[bedrock]] but similar climatic and environmental histories || Active
|-
| Reynolds Creek CZO || Idaho || Mediterranean, Dry || Grassland/Herbaceous, Evergreen Forest, Shrubland, Annual Grasses || Prediction of soil carbon storage and flux from pedon to landscape scales, focus on processes that govern carbon sequestration || Active
|-
| Susquehanna Shale Hills CZO || Pennsylvania || Temperature, Humid || Deciduous Forest, Agriculture-Pasture || Quantitative prediction of Critical Zone creation and structure, focusing on pathways and rates of water, solutes, and sediments || Active
|-
| Southern Sierra CZO || California || Mediterranean, Humid || Evergreen Forest, Shrubland, Grassland/Herbaceous || Investigates critical zone across mountainous elevation gradient, focusing on water balance, nutrient cycling, and weathering processes || Active
|-
| Christina River Basin CZO || Delaware/Pennsylvania || Temperate, Humid || Deciduous Forest, Agriculture-Crops, Developed-Low || Understanding of water, mineral and carbon cycle fluxes to better quantify human impacts on carbon sequestration in Critical Zones || Inactive
|}

==References==

[1] National Research Council. Basic Research Opportunities in Earth Science. 2000. nap.nationalacademies.org, https://doi.org/10.17226/9981.

[2] Giardino, J. R., C. Houser, and ScienceDirect (Online service). Principles and dynamics of the critical zone. Page 1 online resource. Developments in earth surface processes volume 19.

[3] Guo, L., and H. Lin. 2016. Critical zone research and observatories; current status and future perspectives. Vadose zone journal 15:1-14.

[4] Lin, H. S. 2009. Earth’s Critical Zone and hydropedology:65.

[5] White, T., S. Brantley, and S. Banwart. 2015. The Role of Critical Zone Observatories in Critical Zone Science. Pages 15–78 in Principles and dynamics of the Critical Zone. essayElsevier.

[6] Coddington, N. 2017. Explore the Critical Zone. Youtube. WSKG Public Media.

[7] Observatories: National critical zone observatory. (n.d.). . https://czo-archive.criticalzone.org/national/infrastructure/observatories-1national/.

[8] The Critical Zone: National Critical Zone Observatory. (n.d.). . https://czo-archive.criticalzone.org/national/research/the-critical-zone-1national/.

File:CZO.png

2023-03-10T16:42:27Z

Kellifal: Map of Critical Zone Observatories

== Summary ==
Map of Critical Zone Observatories

File:CZ diagram.png

2023-03-10T16:38:22Z

Kellifal: Critical Zone flow diagram

== Summary ==
Critical Zone flow diagram