File:Red Symphyla.jpeg

2022-05-11T01:32:21Z

Kawalsh:

Symphyla

2022-05-11T01:32:06Z

Kawalsh: /* Life Cycle and Habitat */

[[File:Symphyla_Diagram.jpg |thumb| Symphyla, species ''Scutigerella immaculata'' - ''Retrieved from'' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphyla]]

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Subphylum
! scope="col" | Class
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Myriapoda
| Symphyla
|}

[[File:symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scutigerellidae Symphyla, characterized by their rounded head. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]
[[File:Flat_head_symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scolopendrellidae Symphyla. Notice the flatter head compared to that of the Scutigerellidae. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]

== Description ==
Symphylans are small pseudocentipedes in the phylum Arthropoda and the subphylum [[Myriapoda]]. Though they resemble centipedes, they are much smaller ranging in size from 2 to 30 millimeters depending on location, and are translucent in color [1]. Colored symphyla only occur when they absorb color from food, usually yellow or red [2]. Symphyla have two body regions, a head and a segmented trunk, containing a range of segments from 15-24 with 12 pair of legs throughout on the trunk which allow them to move rapidly throughout the [[soil]], and segmented antennae on the head [1]. Each leg has a stiff spine at the base, promoting movement, and a small sac, which allows for fluid exchange and regulation in the creature [2]. Younger symphylans only have 6 pairs of legs, but these increase to 12 throughout their lifetimes [1]. Symphylans also have a postantennal organ on their head region, similar to [[collembola]], and 3 mouth parts [1]. There are two families of symphylans, being the ''Scutigerellidae'' and the ''Scolopendrellidae'', which can only be easily differentiated by the rounded head of the ''Scutigerellidae'' opposed to the flatter of the ''Scolopendrellidae'' [2], and form a combined species total of around 200 [1]. Both families lack eyes and are blind, so their antennae serve as a sensory tool [1].

== Life Cycle and Habitat==
[[File:Symphyla_Eggs.jpg |thumb|left| White, ridged eggs of the symphyla - ''Retrieved from'' https://twitter.com/invertophiles/status/1177470262129778689]]
Symphylan eggs can be found in any season, but typically the most eggs are found in the fall and early spring when weather is cooler [3]. Increasing egg numbers can also be found in April to August in the upper layers of the soil [4]. Eggs are white with predominant and interestingly shaped ridges when first laid, and turn a light tan color throughout their cycle [4], and can be produced in groups anywhere between 4 and 25. These eggs typically hatch in about 40 days [3], producing young symphylans or nymphs. This means that nymphs and adults are active in late fall to winter and the spring [4]. Nymphs have less trunk segments compared to adults, and only have 6 pairs of legs as opposed to 12. While life cycle and span depend on different conditions, such as soil temperatures, soil moistures, and [[Soil Structures|soil structures]], it typically takes around 4 months for a nymph to progress into an adult in moderate conditions, meaning the full egg to adult process takes about 5 months [4]. These [[arthropods]] can be found worldwide but are predominant in the tropics, and are located in the northeast, north central, and western United States [3]. Since they cannot burrow holes into soil themselves, they rely on gaps created by [[plant roots]], and larger creatures such as the [[earthworm]], much like the other soil [[mesofauna]] [2]. There are usually one to two generations per year [3], and their full life cycle is typically 6 to 12 months, shedding their casings several times [2].

== Feeding ==
The quick moving symphyla primarily feed on decaying plant material and fungi, and are considered [[detritivores]], eating and helping to break down [[Organic Matter]] [1]. Some species can be herbivores and are considered pests to certain crops, such as ''Scutigerella immaculata'' or the garden centipede [1]. When available, they will feed on the seedlings or root fibers of these crops, causing damage [5]. Few species can be predatory [1]. More commonly however, they will consume dead plant and animal matter, which as mentioned can lead to a change in color from white or translucent to red or yellow.

== References ==

Symphyla

2022-05-11T01:31:42Z

Kawalsh: /* Feeding */

[[File:Symphyla_Diagram.jpg |thumb| Symphyla, species ''Scutigerella immaculata'' - ''Retrieved from'' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphyla]]

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Subphylum
! scope="col" | Class
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Myriapoda
| Symphyla
|}

[[File:symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scutigerellidae Symphyla, characterized by their rounded head. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]
[[File:Flat_head_symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scolopendrellidae Symphyla. Notice the flatter head compared to that of the Scutigerellidae. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]

== Description ==
Symphylans are small pseudocentipedes in the phylum Arthropoda and the subphylum [[Myriapoda]]. Though they resemble centipedes, they are much smaller ranging in size from 2 to 30 millimeters depending on location, and are translucent in color [1]. Colored symphyla only occur when they absorb color from food, usually yellow or red [2]. Symphyla have two body regions, a head and a segmented trunk, containing a range of segments from 15-24 with 12 pair of legs throughout on the trunk which allow them to move rapidly throughout the [[soil]], and segmented antennae on the head [1]. Each leg has a stiff spine at the base, promoting movement, and a small sac, which allows for fluid exchange and regulation in the creature [2]. Younger symphylans only have 6 pairs of legs, but these increase to 12 throughout their lifetimes [1]. Symphylans also have a postantennal organ on their head region, similar to [[collembola]], and 3 mouth parts [1]. There are two families of symphylans, being the ''Scutigerellidae'' and the ''Scolopendrellidae'', which can only be easily differentiated by the rounded head of the ''Scutigerellidae'' opposed to the flatter of the ''Scolopendrellidae'' [2], and form a combined species total of around 200 [1]. Both families lack eyes and are blind, so their antennae serve as a sensory tool [1].

== Life Cycle and Habitat==
[[File:Symphyla_Eggs.jpg |thumb|left| White, ridged eggs of the symphyla - ''Retrieved from'' https://twitter.com/invertophiles/status/1177470262129778689]]
Symphylan eggs can be found in any season, but typically the most eggs are found in the fall and early spring when weather is cooler [3]. Increasing egg numbers can also be found in April to August in the upper layers of the soil [4]. Eggs are white with predominant and interestingly shaped ridges when first laid, and turn a light tan color throughout their cycle [4], and can be produced in groups anywhere between 4 and 25. These eggs typically hatch in about 40 days [3], producing young symphylans or nymphs. This means that nymphs and adults are active in late fall to winter and the spring [4]. Nymphs have less trunk segments compared to adults, and only have 6 pairs of legs as opposed to 12. While life cycle and span depend on different conditions, such as soil temperatures, soil moistures, and soil structure, it typically takes around 4 months for a nymph to progress into an adult in moderate conditions, meaning the full egg to adult process takes about 5 months [4]. These [[arthropods]] can be found worldwide but are predominant in the tropics, and are located in the northeast, north central, and western United States [3]. Since they cannot burrow holes into soil themselves, they rely on gaps created by [[plant roots]], and larger creatures such as the [[earthworm]], much like the other soil [[mesofauna]] [2]. There are usually one to two generations per year [3], and their full life cycle is typically 6 to 12 months, shedding their casings several times [2].

== Feeding ==
The quick moving symphyla primarily feed on decaying plant material and fungi, and are considered [[detritivores]], eating and helping to break down [[Organic Matter]] [1]. Some species can be herbivores and are considered pests to certain crops, such as ''Scutigerella immaculata'' or the garden centipede [1]. When available, they will feed on the seedlings or root fibers of these crops, causing damage [5]. Few species can be predatory [1]. More commonly however, they will consume dead plant and animal matter, which as mentioned can lead to a change in color from white or translucent to red or yellow.

== References ==

Symphyla

2022-05-11T01:31:27Z

Kawalsh:

[[File:Symphyla_Diagram.jpg |thumb| Symphyla, species ''Scutigerella immaculata'' - ''Retrieved from'' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphyla]]

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Subphylum
! scope="col" | Class
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Myriapoda
| Symphyla
|}

[[File:symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scutigerellidae Symphyla, characterized by their rounded head. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]
[[File:Flat_head_symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scolopendrellidae Symphyla. Notice the flatter head compared to that of the Scutigerellidae. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]

== Description ==
Symphylans are small pseudocentipedes in the phylum Arthropoda and the subphylum [[Myriapoda]]. Though they resemble centipedes, they are much smaller ranging in size from 2 to 30 millimeters depending on location, and are translucent in color [1]. Colored symphyla only occur when they absorb color from food, usually yellow or red [2]. Symphyla have two body regions, a head and a segmented trunk, containing a range of segments from 15-24 with 12 pair of legs throughout on the trunk which allow them to move rapidly throughout the [[soil]], and segmented antennae on the head [1]. Each leg has a stiff spine at the base, promoting movement, and a small sac, which allows for fluid exchange and regulation in the creature [2]. Younger symphylans only have 6 pairs of legs, but these increase to 12 throughout their lifetimes [1]. Symphylans also have a postantennal organ on their head region, similar to [[collembola]], and 3 mouth parts [1]. There are two families of symphylans, being the ''Scutigerellidae'' and the ''Scolopendrellidae'', which can only be easily differentiated by the rounded head of the ''Scutigerellidae'' opposed to the flatter of the ''Scolopendrellidae'' [2], and form a combined species total of around 200 [1]. Both families lack eyes and are blind, so their antennae serve as a sensory tool [1].

== Life Cycle and Habitat==
[[File:Symphyla_Eggs.jpg |thumb|left| White, ridged eggs of the symphyla - ''Retrieved from'' https://twitter.com/invertophiles/status/1177470262129778689]]
Symphylan eggs can be found in any season, but typically the most eggs are found in the fall and early spring when weather is cooler [3]. Increasing egg numbers can also be found in April to August in the upper layers of the soil [4]. Eggs are white with predominant and interestingly shaped ridges when first laid, and turn a light tan color throughout their cycle [4], and can be produced in groups anywhere between 4 and 25. These eggs typically hatch in about 40 days [3], producing young symphylans or nymphs. This means that nymphs and adults are active in late fall to winter and the spring [4]. Nymphs have less trunk segments compared to adults, and only have 6 pairs of legs as opposed to 12. While life cycle and span depend on different conditions, such as soil temperatures, soil moistures, and soil structure, it typically takes around 4 months for a nymph to progress into an adult in moderate conditions, meaning the full egg to adult process takes about 5 months [4]. These [[arthropods]] can be found worldwide but are predominant in the tropics, and are located in the northeast, north central, and western United States [3]. Since they cannot burrow holes into soil themselves, they rely on gaps created by [[plant roots]], and larger creatures such as the [[earthworm]], much like the other soil [[mesofauna]] [2]. There are usually one to two generations per year [3], and their full life cycle is typically 6 to 12 months, shedding their casings several times [2].

== Feeding ==
The quick moving symphyla primarily feed on decaying plant material and fungi, and are considered [[detritivores]], eating and helping to break down [[Organic Matter]] [1]. Some species can be herbivores and are considered pests to certain crops, such as ''Scutigerella immaculata'' or the garden centipede [1]. When available, they will feed on the seedlings or root fibers of these crops, causing damage [5]. Few species can be predatory [1]. More commonly however, they will consume dead plant an animal matter, which as mentioned can lead to a change in color from white or translucent to red or yellow.

== References ==

File:Symphyla Eggs.jpg

2022-05-11T01:25:25Z

Kawalsh:

Symphyla

2022-05-11T01:23:53Z

Kawalsh:

[[File:Symphyla_Diagram.jpg |thumb| Symphyla, species ''Scutigerella immaculata'' - ''Retrieved from'' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphyla]]

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Subphylum
! scope="col" | Class
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Myriapoda
| Symphyla
|}

[[File:symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scutigerellidae Symphyla, characterized by their rounded head. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]
[[File:Flat_head_symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scolopendrellidae Symphyla. Notice the flatter head compared to that of the Scutigerellidae. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]

== Description ==
Symphylans are small pseudocentipedes in the phylum Arthropoda and the subphylum [[Myriapoda]]. Though they resemble centipedes, they are much smaller ranging in size from 2 to 30 millimeters depending on location, and are translucent in color [1]. Colored symphyla only occur when they absorb color from food, usually yellow or red [2]. Symphyla have two body regions, a head and a segmented trunk, containing a range of segments from 15-24 with 12 pair of legs throughout on the trunk which allow them to move rapidly throughout the [[soil]], and segmented antennae on the head [1]. Each leg has a stiff spine at the base, promoting movement, and a small sac, which allows for fluid exchange and regulation in the creature [2]. Younger symphylans only have 6 pairs of legs, but these increase to 12 throughout their lifetimes [1]. Symphylans also have a postantennal organ on their head region, similar to [[collembola]], and 3 mouth parts [1]. There are two families of symphylans, being the ''Scutigerellidae'' and the ''Scolopendrellidae'', which can only be easily differentiated by the rounded head of the ''Scutigerellidae'' opposed to the flatter of the ''Scolopendrellidae'' [2], and form a combined species total of around 200 [1]. Both families lack eyes and are blind, so their antennae serve as a sensory tool [1].

== Life Cycle and Habitat==
Symphylan eggs can be found in any season, but typically the most eggs are found in the fall and early spring when weather is cooler [3]. Increasing egg numbers can also be found in April to August in the upper layers of the soil [4]. Eggs are white with ridges when first laid, and turn a light tan color throughout their cycle [4], and can be produced in groups anywhere between 4 and 25. These eggs typically hatch in about 40 days [3], producing young symphylans or nymphs. This means that nymphs and adults are active in late fall to winter and the spring [4]. Nymphs have less trunk segments compared to adults, and only have 6 pairs of legs as opposed to 12. While life cycle and span depend on different conditions, such as soil temperatures, soil moistures, and soil structure, it typically takes around 4 months for a nymph to progress into an adult in moderate conditions, meaning the full egg to adult process takes about 5 months [4]. These [[arthropods]] can be found worldwide but are predominant in the tropics, and are located in the northeast, north central, and western United States [3]. Since they cannot burrow holes into soil themselves, they rely on gaps created by [[plant roots]], and larger creatures such as the [[earthworm]], much like the other soil [[mesofauna]] [2]. There are usually one to two generations per year [3], and their full life cycle is typically 6 to 12 months, shedding their casings several times [2].

== Feeding ==
The quick moving symphyla primarily feed on decaying plant material and fungi, and are considered [[detritivores]], eating and helping to break down [[Organic Matter]] [1]. Some species can be herbivores and are considered pests to certain crops, such as ''Scutigerella immaculata'' or the garden centipede [1]. When available, they will feed on the seedlings or root fibers of these crops, causing damage [5]. Few species can be predatory [1].

== References ==

Symphyla

2022-05-11T01:21:45Z

Kawalsh:

== Taxonomy ==
[File:Symphyla_Diagram.jpg|thumb| Symphyla, species ''Scutigerella immaculata'' - ''Retrieved from'' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphyla]]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Subphylum
! scope="col" | Class
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Myriapoda
| Symphyla
|}

[[File:symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scutigerellidae Symphyla, characterized by their rounded head. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]
[[File:Flat_head_symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scolopendrellidae Symphyla. Notice the flatter head compared to that of the Scutigerellidae. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]

== Description ==
Symphylans are small pseudocentipedes in the phylum Arthropoda and the subphylum [[Myriapoda]]. Though they resemble centipedes, they are much smaller ranging in size from 2 to 30 millimeters depending on location, and are translucent in color [1]. Colored symphyla only occur when they absorb color from food, usually yellow or red [2]. Symphyla have two body regions, a head and a segmented trunk, containing a range of segments from 15-24 with 12 pair of legs throughout on the trunk which allow them to move rapidly throughout the [[soil]], and segmented antennae on the head [1]. Each leg has a stiff spine at the base, promoting movement, and a small sac, which allows for fluid exchange and regulation in the creature [2]. Younger symphylans only have 6 pairs of legs, but these increase to 12 throughout their lifetimes [1]. Symphylans also have a postantennal organ on their head region, similar to [[collembola]], and 3 mouth parts [1]. There are two families of symphylans, being the ''Scutigerellidae'' and the ''Scolopendrellidae'', which can only be easily differentiated by the rounded head of the ''Scutigerellidae'' opposed to the flatter of the ''Scolopendrellidae'' [2], and form a combined species total of around 200 [1]. Both families lack eyes and are blind, so their antennae serve as a sensory tool [1].

== Life Cycle and Habitat==
Symphylan eggs can be found in any season, but typically the most eggs are found in the fall and early spring when weather is cooler [3]. Increasing egg numbers can also be found in April to August in the upper layers of the soil [4]. Eggs are white with ridges when first laid, and turn a light tan color throughout their cycle [4], and can be produced in groups anywhere between 4 and 25. These eggs typically hatch in about 40 days [3], producing young symphylans or nymphs. This means that nymphs and adults are active in late fall to winter and the spring [4]. Nymphs have less trunk segments compared to adults, and only have 6 pairs of legs as opposed to 12. While life cycle and span depend on different conditions, such as soil temperatures, soil moistures, and soil structure, it typically takes around 4 months for a nymph to progress into an adult in moderate conditions, meaning the full egg to adult process takes about 5 months [4]. These [[arthropods]] can be found worldwide but are predominant in the tropics, and are located in the northeast, north central, and western United States [3]. Since they cannot burrow holes into soil themselves, they rely on gaps created by [[plant roots]], and larger creatures such as the [[earthworm]], much like the other soil [[mesofauna]] [2]. There are usually one to two generations per year [3], and their full life cycle is typically 6 to 12 months, shedding their casings several times [2].

== Feeding ==
The quick moving symphyla primarily feed on decaying plant material and fungi, and are considered [[detritivores]], eating and helping to break down [[Organic Matter]] [1]. Some species can be herbivores and are considered pests to certain crops, such as ''Scutigerella immaculata'' or the garden centipede [1]. When available, they will feed on the seedlings or root fibers of these crops, causing damage [5]. Few species can be predatory [1].

== References ==

File:Symphyla Diagram.jpg

2022-05-11T01:19:59Z

Kawalsh:

Symphyla

2022-05-11T01:13:30Z

Kawalsh:

== Taxonomy ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Subphylum
! scope="col" | Class
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Myriapoda
| Symphyla
|}

[[File:symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scutigerellidae Symphyla, characterized by their rounded head. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]
[[File:Flat_head_symphyla.jpeg|thumb| A Scolopendrellidae Symphyla. Notice the flatter head compared to that of the Scutigerellidae. - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.chaosofdelight.org/symphyla]]

== Description ==
Symphylans are small pseudocentipedes in the phylum Arthropoda and the subphylum [[Myriapoda]]. Though they resemble centipedes, they are much smaller ranging in size from 2 to 30 millimeters depending on location, and are translucent in color [1]. Colored symphyla only occur when they absorb color from food, usually yellow or red [2]. Symphyla have two body regions, a head and a segmented trunk, containing a range of segments from 15-24 with 12 pair of legs throughout on the trunk which allow them to move rapidly throughout the [[soil]], and segmented antennae on the head [1]. Each leg has a stiff spine at the base, promoting movement, and a small sac, which allows for fluid exchange and regulation in the creature [2]. Younger symphylans only have 6 pairs of legs, but these increase to 12 throughout their lifetimes [1]. Symphylans also have a postantennal organ on their head region, similar to [[collembola]], and 3 mouth parts [1]. There are two families of symphylans, being the ''Scutigerellidae'' and the ''Scolopendrellidae'', which can only be easily differentiated by the rounded head of the ''Scutigerellidae'' opposed to the flatter of the ''Scolopendrellidae'' [2], and form a combined species total of around 200 [1]. Both families lack eyes and are blind, so their antennae serve as a sensory tool [1].

== Life Cycle and Habitat==
Symphylan eggs can be found in any season, but typically the most eggs are found in the fall and early spring when weather is cooler [3]. Increasing egg numbers can also be found in April to August in the upper layers of the soil [4]. Eggs are white with ridges when first laid, and turn a light tan color throughout their cycle [4], and can be produced in groups anywhere between 4 and 25. These eggs typically hatch in about 40 days [3], producing young symphylans or nymphs. This means that nymphs and adults are active in late fall to winter and the spring [4]. Nymphs have less trunk segments compared to adults, and only have 6 pairs of legs as opposed to 12. While life cycle and span depend on different conditions, such as soil temperatures, soil moistures, and soil structure, it typically takes around 4 months for a nymph to progress into an adult in moderate conditions, meaning the full egg to adult process takes about 5 months [4]. These [[arthropods]] can be found worldwide but are predominant in the tropics, and are located in the northeast, north central, and western United States [3]. Since they cannot burrow holes into soil themselves, they rely on gaps created by [[plant roots]], and larger creatures such as the [[earthworm]], much like the other soil [[mesofauna]] [2]. There are usually one to two generations per year [3], and their full life cycle is typically 6 to 12 months, shedding their casings several times [2].

== Feeding ==
The quick moving symphyla primarily feed on decaying plant material and fungi, and are considered [[detritivores]], eating and helping to break down [[Organic Matter]] [1]. Some species can be herbivores and are considered pests to certain crops, such as ''Scutigerella immaculata'' or the garden centipede [1]. When available, they will feed on the seedlings or root fibers of these crops, causing damage [5]. Few species can be predatory [1].

== References ==

Symphyla

2022-05-04T20:03:43Z

Kawalsh: Created blank page

Invertebrates

2022-04-28T13:42:54Z

Kawalsh:

== Definition ==
Invertebrates are any [[animal]] that does not have a spinal column. They comprise the vast majority (almost 97%) of all animal species and include a diverse range of organisms, such as [[insects]], [[crustaceans]], [[worms]], and coral.<ref>Center for Biological [[Diversity]]. Invertebrates. https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/invertebrates/</ref> On a phylogenetic tree, invertebrates include all [[animals]] that do not fall in the subphylum Vertebrata. Although the term "invertebrates" does not officially define a specific phylum or subphylum like Vertebrata (vertebrates) does, the term has persisted out of convenience.<ref>Louis Aggassiz. (2013). Essay on Classification. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-15135-9.</ref>[[File:AnimalTree-1.png|300px|thumb|right|Overarching phylogenetic tree of animals.]]

== Soil Invertebrates ==
The main groups of invertebrates within [[soil]] are [[flatworms]] ([[Platyhelminthes]]), [[snails]] and [[slugs]] (Mollusca), worms (Annelida), [[nematodes]] (Nematoda), and [[arthropods]] (Arthropoda).<ref>Georgia Tech. (2019). Animals: Invertebrates. https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/biodiversity/animals-invertebrates-2019/</ref>

Flatworms are most diverse in tropical regions and are usually found under rocks or in leaf litter where conditions are humid and moist. They do not have the ability to retain water on their own and will desiccate without an external water source.<ref>Álvarez‐Presas, M., Mateos, E., & Riutort, M. (2018). Hidden diversity in forest soils: Characterization and comparison of terrestrial flatworm’s communities in two national parks in Spain. Ecology and evolution, 8(15), 7386-7400. DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4178</ref> They are predators and typically eat other invertebrates, including arthropods, earthworms, snails, and slugs. Invasive flatworms can have a damaging effect on an ecosystem when they consume native species. This is especially concerning when native [[earthworm]] populations are affected, as earthworms are important soil fauna. <ref>Bertone, M., Crawley, S., & Waldvogel, M. (2020). Terrestrial Flatworms, Land Planarians & Hammerhead Worms. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/terrestrial-flatwormshammerhead-worms</ref>

[[File:snailvsslug.jpg|300px|thumb|left|A snail (left) and a slug (right).]]Snails and slugs are typically found in leaf litter in forests, but can also be found in gardens, fields, river banks, and urban areas. Most are considered decomposers and feed on plants, [[fungi]], and algae, but can also consume empty shells, scat, and decaying animals. Some species are carnivorous and will eat nematodes and other snails and slugs. They are also important sources of food for many predators such as [[beetles]], millipedes, small mammals, reptiles, and birds. Snails are important for calcium cycling as they uptake calcium from their food and use it to create their shells, and then are eaten by predators. Calcium availability, soil moisture, and land use strongly affect snail populations.<ref>Hotopp, K. (2005). Land Snail [[Ecology]]. https://www.carnegiemnh.org/science/mollusks/landsnailecology.html</ref>

[[File:amynthas.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Amynthas agrestis, an invasive earthworm in North America.]]Although [[annelids]] include leeches and ragworms, the most ecologically important type that occurs in soil are earthworms. Earthworms decompose dead [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and are major drivers of nutrient and water cycling, plant growth, and changes to soil structure. Some species live at the very surface of soil and within leaf litter, while others live in the upper layer of the soil. Some types are deep burrowers and create permanent burrows several meters long that they use to pull [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] from the surface down into the soil. Earthworms also consume fungi and bacteria, and are commonly preyed upon by mammals and birds. Since earthworms majorly affect [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and microbial populations in soil, they indirectly influence the amount and distribution of other soil fauna.<ref>Edwards, C. The Living Soil: Earthworms. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053863</ref> Invasive species of earthworms can also be extremely damaging to ecosystems. Invasive earthworms negatively affect abundance and diversity of both macro- and [[microorganisms]] in the soil and cause changes to the physical and chemical [[properties]] of the soil. These effects can in turn negatively affect overall ecosystem functioning and services.<ref>Ferlian, O., Eisenhauer, N., Aguirrebengoa, M., Camara, M., Ramirez‐Rojas, I., Santos, F., ... & Thakur, M. P. (2018). Invasive earthworms erode soil biodiversity: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Animal Ecology, 87(1), 162-172. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12746</ref>

Nematodes are small, non-segmented worms that are found in forest, grassland, and agricultural soils. Food sources differ between species, with some nematodes feeding on fungi, others on bacteria, and some on [[protozoa]] or other nematodes. They are typically found where their food sources are concentrated. Nematodes are preyed upon by insects and predatory nematodes, and are parasitized by bacteria and fungi. A few species cause diseases in plants, but beneficial nematodes are important for [[nutrient cycling]] and dispersing microbes within the soil. <ref>Ingham, E. The Living Soil: Nematodes. Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053866</ref>

[[File:arthropods.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Different types of arthropods and their respective classes.]]Arthropods are an extremely diverse and prolific group of soil fauna, comprising up to 85% of the species present in soil.<ref>Bagyaraj, D., Nethravathi, C., & Nitin, K. (2016). Soil Biodiversity and Arthropods: Role in Soil Fertility. In: Chakravarthy, A., Sridhara, S. (eds) Economic and Ecological Significance of Arthropods in Diversified Ecosystems. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1524-3_2</ref> They include crustaceans, arachnids, insects, myriapods (centipedes and millipedes), and scorpions. Due to their multitude and diversity, arthropods carry out a wide range of functions and processes within soil. Shredders break down plant litter and residue, contributing to [[decomposition]] and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. Some arthropods feed on fungi, which also contributes to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. Arthropods can also be herbivores or predators, and many act as a biocontrol to crop pests or as crop pests themselves. Although some are pests, most arthropods are beneficial to soil ecosystems. The majority inhabit the top few inches of soil, with abundance and species diversity diminishing with depth. <ref>Moldenke, A. Living Soil: Arthropods. Natural Resource Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2_053861</ref>

== Role in the Ecosystem ==
Because of their diversity and abundance, soil invertebrates play many roles in the ecosystem. As part of the food web, invertebrates both consume and are a source of food for other [[organisms]], altering the composition and abundance of species of both plants and animals in a community.<ref>McCary, M. & Schmitz, O. (2021). Invertebrate functional traits and terrestrial [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]: Insights from a global meta-analysis. Journal of Animal Ecology 90, 1714-1726. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13489</ref> Many invertebrates are also drivers of nutrient and water cycling. By breaking down decaying plant matter and contributing to decomposition, nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon become available for plants to uptake, which in turn stimulates plant growth.<ref>Griffiths, H. M., Ashton, L. A., Parr, C. L., & Eggleton, P. (2021). The impact of invertebrate decomposers on plants and soil. New Phytologist, 231(6), 2142-2149. DOI: 10.1111/nph.17553</ref>

They can also be used as bioindicators of soil quality and health. Invertebrate populations are affected by soil contamination, ecosystem clearing, and land management practices. The presence of indicator species and diversity are indicative of higher soil quality.<ref>Nuria, R., Jérôme, M., Léonide, C., Christine, R., Gérard, H., Etienne, I., & Patrick, L. (2011). IBQS: A synthetic index of soil quality based on soil macro-invertebrate communities. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 43(10), 2032-2045. DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.05.019</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Pioneer species

2022-04-28T13:40:33Z

Kawalsh:

==Definition==

'''Pioneer Species''' are a group of species that are the first to colonize a new habitat created by a previous disturbance. These disturbances could be a fire, flood, or volcanic activity that causes very fine or non-existent [[soil]], high heat, or lack of water.

[[File:moss.jpg|400px|left|thumb| [1] ]]

==Ecological Succession==
Ecological succession the process that allows pioneer species to become apparent in disturbed habitats. This is a change in structure that occurs within a community or ecosystem and has multiple phases dependent on different patterns of regrowth within an ecosystem. Ecosystems advance until they reach a [[climax community]], where all of the resources are efficiently used and the total mass of vegetation reaches a peak. The concept of ecological succession has two types; [[primary succession]] and [[secondary succession]]. Primary succession is when soils are not yet formed in an area, allowing for no vegetation to be grown. Over time, small [[organisms]] and erosion break down these rocks into soils allowing for the introduction of pioneer species into the area. More often, pioneer species are brought about through secondary succession, a process that as long as the soil is not destroyed within a natural disaster-affected ecosystem can flourish with pioneer species. [2]

[[File:secondary.jpg|right|thumb| https://cdn-acgla.nitrocdn.com/bvIhcJyiWKFqlMsfAAXRLitDZjWdRlLX/assets/static/optimized/rev-5131b73/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Secondary-Succession-300x117.jpg [2]]]

==Pioneer Flora==
Flora are the first to become pioneer species across all types of natural disaster sites. Due to a lack of nutrients in the soil most pioneer species have to be hardy plants with adaptions such as long roots and the ability to live in harsh conditions with a lack of water and sunlight. The seeds also have to be able to [[germinate]] easily, allowing species to propagate even after years of dormancy and be able to disperse via wind. This is due to the lack of other forms of dispersal like fauna distribution. The propagule size of the seeds must also be small due to the realization of succession goals and the ability to disperse seeds within small crevices surrounding the habitat. Their lifecycles must also be short as pioneer species cannot stay in one place with little to no nutrients for long. [3]

These species are needed in order to develop and reform ecosystems, allowing for development in a nutrient-poor environment.

Examples of Pioneering plant species:
*'''[[Lichen]]''': A fungus and an alga typically found on rocks and shady places
*'''[[Moss]]''': Non-vascular plants that form dense green clumps in damp and shady areas
*'''Grass''': Small-seeded blades of plant that grow in crevices

==Pioneer Fauna==
While pioneer fauna is harder to find and typically does not appear until the pioneer flora has first established an area, there are still some species that are more so present in the early stages of disaster-struck areas. Some examples of pioneer fauna are soil [[invertebrates]] like worms, ants, snails, and possibly even some toads. These species are important to the soil of the area, as they both help the pioneer flora to flourish but also bring nutrients back into the soil that it was once lacking. Once the introduction of pioneer fauna is present, the area will continue to advance at a rapid pace and more species will start to migrate towards the ecosystem.

==References==

[1] Sataksig. (2019, February 3). Pioneer plants: What is it, and what does it do? Earth Buddies. Retrieved April 20, 2022, from https://earthbuddies.net/pioneer-plants/

[2] Editors, B. D., (2019, October 5). Ecological succession - definition, examples and types. Biology Dictionary. Retrieved April 20, 2022, from https://biologydictionary.net/ecological-succession/

[3] Pioneer species - definition and examples - biology online dictionary. Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online. (2022, January 13). Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/pioneer-species

[4] Dalling, J. W. (2008, January 1). Pioneer species. University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://experts.illinois.edu/en/publications/pioneer-species

[5] Futura-Sciences. (n.d.). Pioneer species. Futura. Retrieved April 21, 2022, from http://www.futura-sciences.us/dico/d/botany-pioneer-species-50002180/

Salamanders

2022-04-28T03:13:56Z

Kawalsh:

[[File: EasternRedbackedSalamander2.jpg|thumb|Eastern Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon cinereus) - ''Retrieved from'' https://herpsofnc.org/red-backed-salamander/]]
== Description ==

Salamanders are a group of amphibians in the order Caudata [1], with over 740 species of salamander in 10 families, with the largest family being Cryptobranchidae [1]. Salamanders are characterized as amphibians which have tails as adults, which stores fats and proteins and assists with movement [1]. Salamanders are typically small [[animals]], usually reaching no more than 4 to 6 inches when fully grown [1]. There are notable exceptions however, with some species, reaching much larger sizes. Most notably, the Japanese giant salamander can reach up to 5.6 feet in length [1]. Other well known examples of salamanders include axolotls, hellbenders, sirens, and newts [1]. Salamanders can be found in temperate and tropical climates worldwide, with most of their [[diversity]] occurring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere [1].

== Habitat and Range ==

Salamanders can be found throughout almost the entire northern hemisphere with the one exception being the Amazon basin in South America [3]. The greatest amount of salamander diversity can be found in the United States, with all but one of the families being found there, the Hynobiidae or Asiatic salamanders [2]. All species of salamanders require access to a nearby water source, as it is essential for them to keep their skin moist in order to survive [2]. Some groups, particularly newts, spend most of their time out of the water while others, such as hellbenders, are almost fully aquatic [2]. Some other species are cave specialists and spend most, if not all of their lives in total darkness [4]. Salamanders of all species will tend to be secretive, and burrow in moist leaf litter to avoid being seen [5].

== Life Cycle ==
[[File: Salamander-Life-Cycle.jpg|thumb|Typical Salamander Life Cycle - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.animalspot.net/salamander]]
Salamanders are amphibians and like most amphibians they reproduce by laying eggs. In most species, reproduction is done via internal fertilization although a few species use external fertilization [3]. After fertilization, eggs are typically laid in clusters in shallow water. Some species however, lay eggs in moist terrestrial locations, such as under logs or on leaves [3]. Once the eggs are laid, it is common for the female to stay with them until they hatch [3]. Most salamander species begin their lives as a fully aquatic larva which then undergoes a metamorphosis before transitioning to a more terrestrial adult [3]. Not all species do this though. A number of species never fully metamorphize and the adults retain several juvenile features, a process called paedomorphosis [3]. The most well known species to undergo paedomorphosis is the Axolotl [3].

[[File:salamander_feeding.jpg|thumb|left| A Blue Spotted Salamander Feeding on its Prey - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.flickr.com/photos/26500525@N08/4561488710]]

== Diet ==

All species of salamanders are carnivores with [[insects]] being the most common prey item [3]. Diet does vary widely across species, mostly depending on the size of a particular species. Small salamanders eat mostly insects and other small [[invertebrates]] while some of the largest species have diets that include larger prey items, including fish, crustaceans, and small mammals [4]. Salamanders are mostly slow moving animals and this limits their ability to catch fast prey items [4]. This limitation is partially made up for in some, mostly tropical, species which have specialized tongues which can be rapidly protruded from the mouths to grab prey items [3].

== References ==

[1] salamander | Species, lifestyle, & facts. (n.d.).. https://www.britannica.com/animal/salamander

[2] Facts About Salamanders | Live Science. 2015, October 29.. https://www.livescience.com/52627-salamanders.html

[3] Caudata | Characteristics & Facts | Britannica. (n.d.).. https://www.britannica.com/animal/Caudata

[4] Salamander and Newt | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants. (n.d.).. https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/salamander-and-newt#:~:text=HABITAT%20AND%20DIET,dug%20in%20the%20damp%20earth.

[5] Spotted salamander. (n.d.). . https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Wildlife/Fact-Sheets/Spotted-Salamander.