Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Mayapple

2025-05-09T18:16:02Z

Kadencam:

Ghost Ant

2025-04-30T18:35:13Z

Kadencam:

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Order
! scope="col" | Family
! scope="col" | Genus
! scope="col" | Species
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Insecta
| [[Hymenoptera]]
| [[Formicidae]]
| Tapinoma
| Melanocephalum
|}

==Species Description==
[[File: Ghost_Ant_Side_Profile.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The image shows a clear side profile of a mature ghost ant worker.<ref name= "AntWeb">“Specimen: CASENT0008659 Tapinoma melanocephalum.” AntWeb, https://www.antweb.org/bigPicture.do?name=casent0008659&shot=p&number=1</ref>]]

The ghost ant (''Tapinoma melanocephalum'') is a small species of ant belonging to the phylum [["Arthropoda"|"Arthropoda"]] that is found in tropical regions throughout the world. Much like other members of the family [[Formicidae|"Formicidae"]], ''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' are eusocial and have a caste system within their colonies. The workers of ghost ant colonies are small, typically growing to roughly 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) in length. The ants are bicolored, with their head and thorax being black in color, while the abdomen and legs of the worker appear to be a pale color that looks almost translucent.<ref name= "A&M">“Ghost Ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum.” Urban and Structural Entomology Program at Texas A&M University, https://urbanentomology.tamu.edu/urban-pests/ants/ghost/</ref> The species also gets their name from their unique color pattern. Due to their small size and almost transparent body they can be difficult to see, and can be described as "fading" or even "ghostly" when they are being observed. The fading affect is enhanced when the ants are seen on lighter colored surfaces, which makes them more difficult to see.<ref name= "Imperial">“What Are Ghost Ants and How Do I Kill Them.” Imperial Pest Prevention, https://www.imperialpestprevent.com/post/ghost-ants-and-how-to-kill-them#:~:text=What%20Do%20Ghost%20Ants%20Look,abdomen%20and%20legs%20is%20key.</ref>

==Distribution==

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Distribution.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The map shows the distribution of known populations of ''Tapinoma melanocephalum''.<ref name= "UWI"/>]]

The ghost ant is an invasive species in many parts of the world. The origin of the ants was thought to be in the tropics of Africa or Asia.<ref name= "UWI">“Tapinoma melanocephalum (Ghost Ant).”UWI-The Online Guide to the [[Animals]] of Trinidad and Tobago, https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Tapinoma_melanocephalum%20-%20Ghost%20Ant.pdf</ref> Due to the rapid spread of the [[insects]], the exact location for their origin is unknown. They are found commonly in the Southern United States, in tropical environments like Florida, but have been seen in temperate climates, and have been identified as far north as Winnipeg, Canada.<ref name= "A&M"/> They are more common in tropical habitats, but due to the species being highly invasive and having a high survivability, they are able to inhabit temperate areas by nesting indoors. They are more likely to do this while they are in search of food, seeking protection from the harsh weather, or evading predators. Regardless, this behavior results in the species being labeled as a pest in residential areas. Typically though, they will nest in [[soil]] under places like rock, logs, or in leaf litter and rotting wood.<ref name= "Imperial"/> Their incredible survivability is, largely due to their means of communication with other worker ants within the colony. By using pheromones to signal to other workers within their colony of 6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one and actinidine, the ants can send out alarm signals to warn them of any violent encounters. Other pheromones are equally important, including signals sent to notify the colony of food sources.<ref name= "UWI"/>

==Diet==

Ghost ants are generalists and omnivores. In an outdoor setting, the worker ants of the colonies will go out and forage for food such as small insect larvae, living and dead insects, as well as food that is higher in carbohydrate concentrations such as honeydew. The honeydew that is harvested is secreted by aphids or other insects that primarily feed on plant material. The worker ants will bring these foods back to their colonies to share with the other workers and the queens.<ref name= "UWI"/><ref name= "Terro">“Common Ant Species: Ghost Ants” Terro, https://www.terro.com/ghost-ants#:~:text=Diet,ghost%20ants%20usually%20prefer%20sweets.</ref> Because the species is a common pest species that tends to nest indoors in search of food, they will typically change their diet in an indoor setting. While they are indoors, they will forage for sweeter food sources and also gather near areas with greasy food residues, such as stovetops or trash cans.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Life Cycle==

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Queen.jpg|225px|thumb|left|The image shows a queen ghost and along with workers, migrating to a new nest.<ref name= "NJ">“Ghost ant queens in Phuket, Thailand.” Ants New Jersey, https://antsnj.com/ghost-ant-queens-in-phuket-thailand</ref>]]

''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' form colonies that have multiple queens, meaning they are polygynous. This is a standout feature for ghost ants, but the behavior is also seen in other ant species such as the [[Acorn ant|acorn ant (''Temnothorax curvispinosus'')]]. The colony is unicolonial, which means that the ants live in separate nests with different queens, but they all work together and take care of each other. Each colony can consist of anywhere from 100 workers up to 1000 workers within the larger nests. Although ghost ant queens only survive for a few weeks, they are able mate and reproduce with fertile males within the colony and produce up to 5 eggs per day. Five eggs per day may seem miniscule in comparison to the large colony size, however due to the colonies having multiple fertile queens, their numbers are able to grow rapidly. Development of the new larvae takes anywhere between 16-52 days, and they go through 4 instars between the time they hatch until they reach adulthood.<ref name= "UWI"/> Ghost ant colonies also reproduce via budding. The colonies will carry out this behavior if they either need to expand their territory, or if there is a disturbance that threatens the survival of the colony. When this happens, the ants from the nest will relocate, and bring a queen, several workers, as well as eggs, larvae, and pupae. This behavior increases their survivability, and helps ghost ants expand to new territory, which is part of the reason why they are a highly adaptive and resistant invasive species.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Ecological Significance==

[[File: Kissing_Bug.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The image shows an adult kissing bug (''R. prolixus''), one of the main vectors of Chagas' Disease.<ref name= "NBC">“This deadly 'kissing bug' has been mostly ignored. It shouldn't be, this author says.” NBC News, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/deadly-kissing-bug-mostly-ignored-shouldnt-author-says-rcna1678</ref>]]

As previously mentioned, ''T. melanocephalum'' is a widespread invasive species, and due to its survivability is commonly seen as a pest among households. Because they consume honeydew as a food source, they have been observed protecting honeydew producing insects like aphids, which are another pest insect that can pose a threat in places like greenhouses. However, the ants also prey on the two-spotted spider mite (''Tetranychus urticae''), which is another harmful plant pest. Because of their acts predation and aggression towards the [[mites]], there is a slight benefit of having the ants around these areas.<ref name= "Spotlight">“Ant Spotlight: Ghost Ants” Hulett Environmental Services, https://www.bugs.com/blog/ant-spotlight-ghost-ants/</ref> ''T. melanocephalum'' has been observed making their nests near jumping spiders, and appear to have a symbiotic relationship with them. The spiders will protect the ants from predation and parasitism, while the ant nests provide a solid structure to form the basis of the jumping spider's webs. Even though the ants are not directly dangerous if contact with them is made, ghost ants have been noted to be carriers of pathogens such as ''Staphylococcus'', making the ants more dangerous if they are in buildings such as hospitals.<ref name= "UWI"/> Although the ants have the likelihood to spread diseases to humans, they have also been known to prevent them. The ants have been seen feeding on the eggs of ''Rhodnius prolixus'', otherwise known as the kissing bug. The insect is one of the known vectors of Chagas' disease, which is known to cause afflicted people cardiac or neurological disorders if left untreated. In these areas, the rates of the disease appear to be lower.<ref name= "Gate">“Ghost Ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius) (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidae)” ResearchGate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224497252_Ghost_Ant_Tapinoma_melanocephalum_Fabricius_Insecta_Hymenoptera_Formicidae</ref><ref name= "WHO">“Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis)” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chagas-disease-(american-trypanosomiasis)</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

Mayapple

2025-04-30T18:33:27Z

Kadencam:

File:Mayapple Fruit.png

2025-04-30T18:31:30Z

Kadencam:

Mayapple

2025-04-30T18:19:33Z

Kadencam:

Mayapple

2025-04-30T18:09:45Z

Kadencam:

File:Mayapple Flower New.png

2025-04-30T18:06:40Z

Kadencam:

File:Mayapple Flower.png

2025-04-30T18:01:24Z

Kadencam:

Mayapple

2025-04-30T17:40:39Z

Kadencam:

File:Mayapple Distribution.png

2025-04-30T17:29:54Z

Kadencam:

Mayapple

2025-04-30T17:16:11Z

Kadencam:

Mayapple

2025-04-30T09:09:02Z

Kadencam: Created page with "==Taxonomy== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"| |- | ! scope="col" | Kingdom ! scope="col" | Phylum ! scope="col" | Class ! scope="col" | Order ! scope="col" | Family ! scope="col" | Genus ! scope="col" | Species |- ! scope="row" | Classification | Plantae | Magnoliophyta | Magnoliopsida | Ranunculales | Berberidaceae | Podophyllum | Peltatum |} ==Species Description== The mayapple ("Podophyllum peltatum") is a species of spring ephemerals t..."

Ghost Ant

2025-03-31T12:18:08Z

Kadencam:

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Order
! scope="col" | Family
! scope="col" | Genus
! scope="col" | Species
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Insecta
| [[Hymenoptera]]
| [[Formicidae]]
| Tapinoma
| Melanocephalum
|}

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Side_Profile.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The image shows a clear side profile of a mature ghost ant worker.<ref name= "AntWeb">“Specimen: CASENT0008659 Tapinoma melanocephalum.” AntWeb, https://www.antweb.org/bigPicture.do?name=casent0008659&shot=p&number=1</ref>]]

==Species Description==

The ghost ant (''Tapinoma melanocephalum'') is a small species of ant belonging to the phylum [["Arthropoda"|"Arthropoda"]] that is found in tropical regions throughout the world. Much like other members of the family [[Formicidae|"Formicidae"]], ''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' are eusocial and have a caste system within their colonies. The workers of ghost ant colonies are small, typically growing to roughly 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) in length. The ants are bicolored, with their head and thorax being black in color, while the abdomen and legs of the worker appear to be a pale color that looks almost translucent.<ref name= "A&M">“Ghost Ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum.” Urban and Structural Entomology Program at Texas A&M University, https://urbanentomology.tamu.edu/urban-pests/ants/ghost/</ref> The species also gets their name from their unique color pattern. Due to their small size and almost transparent body they can be difficult to see, and can be described as "fading" or even "ghostly" when they are being observed. The fading affect is enhanced when the ants are seen on lighter colored surfaces, which makes them more difficult to see.<ref name= "Imperial">“What Are Ghost Ants and How Do I Kill Them.” Imperial Pest Prevention, https://www.imperialpestprevent.com/post/ghost-ants-and-how-to-kill-them#:~:text=What%20Do%20Ghost%20Ants%20Look,abdomen%20and%20legs%20is%20key.</ref>

==Distribution==

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Distribution.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The map shows the distribution of known populations of ''Tapinoma melanocephalum''.<ref name= "UWI"/>]]

The ghost ant is an invasive species in many parts of the world. The origin of the ants was thought to be in the tropics of Africa or Asia.<ref name= "UWI">“Tapinoma melanocephalum (Ghost Ant).”UWI-The Online Guide to the [[Animals]] of Trinidad and Tobago, https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Tapinoma_melanocephalum%20-%20Ghost%20Ant.pdf</ref> Due to the rapid spread of the [[insects]], the exact location for their origin is unknown. They are found commonly in the Southern United States, in tropical environments like Florida, but have been seen in temperate climates, and have been identified as far north as Winnipeg, Canada.<ref name= "A&M"/> They are more common in tropical habitats, but due to the species being highly invasive and having a high survivability, they are able to inhabit temperate areas by nesting indoors. They are more likely to do this while they are in search of food, seeking protection from the harsh weather, or evading predators. Regardless, this behavior results in the species being labeled as a pest in residential areas. Typically though, they will nest in [[soil]] under places like rock, logs, or in leaf litter and rotting wood.<ref name= "Imperial"/> Their incredible survivability is, largely due to their means of communication with other worker ants within the colony. By using pheromones to signal to other workers within their colony of 6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one and actinidine, the ants can send out alarm signals to warn them of any violent encounters. Other pheromones are equally important, including signals sent to notify the colony of food sources.<ref name= "UWI"/>

==Diet==

Ghost ants are generalists and omnivores. In an outdoor setting, the worker ants of the colonies will go out and forage for food such as small insect larvae, living and dead insects, as well as food that is higher in carbohydrate concentrations such as honeydew. The honeydew that is harvested is secreted by aphids or other insects that primarily feed on plant material. The worker ants will bring these foods back to their colonies to share with the other workers and the queens.<ref name= "UWI"/><ref name= "Terro">“Common Ant Species: Ghost Ants” Terro, https://www.terro.com/ghost-ants#:~:text=Diet,ghost%20ants%20usually%20prefer%20sweets.</ref> Because the species is a common pest species that tends to nest indoors in search of food, they will typically change their diet in an indoor setting. While they are indoors, they will forage for sweeter food sources and also gather near areas with greasy food residues such as stovetops or trash cans.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Life Cycle==

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Queen.jpg|225px|thumb|left|The image shows a queen ghost and along with workers, migrating to a new nest.<ref name= "NJ">“Ghost ant queens in Phuket, Thailand.” Ants New Jersey, https://antsnj.com/ghost-ant-queens-in-phuket-thailand</ref>]]

''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' form colonies that have multiple queens, meaning they are polygynous. This is a standout feature for ghost ants, but the behavior is also seen in other ant species such as the [[Acorn ant|acorn ant (''Temnothorax curvispinosus'')]]. The colony is unicolonial, which means that the ants live in separate nests with different queens, but they all work together and take care of each other. Each colony can consist of anywhere from 100 workers up to 1000 workers within the larger nests. Although ghost ant queens only survive for a few weeks, they are able mate and reproduce with fertile males within the colony and produce up to 5 eggs per day. Five eggs per day may seem miniscule in comparison to the large colony size, however due to the colonies having multiple fertile queens, their numbers are able to grow rapidly. Development of the new larvae takes anywhere between 16-52 days, and they go through 4 instars between the time they hatch until they reach adulthood.<ref name= "UWI"/> Ghost ant colonies also reproduce via budding. The colonies will carry out this behavior if they either need to expand their territory, or if there is a disturbance that threatens the survival of the colony. When this happens, the ants from the nest will relocate, and bring a queen, several workers, as well as eggs, larvae, and pupae. This behavior increases their survivability, and helps ghost ants expand to new territory, which is part of the reason why they are a highly adaptive and resistant invasive species.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Ecological Significance==

[[File: Kissing_Bug.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The image shows an adult kissing bug (''R. prolixus''), one of the main vectors of Chagas' Disease.<ref name= "NBC">“This deadly 'kissing bug' has been mostly ignored. It shouldn't be, this author says.” NBC News, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/deadly-kissing-bug-mostly-ignored-shouldnt-author-says-rcna1678</ref>]]

As previously mentioned, ''T. melanocephalum'' is a widespread invasive species, and due to its survivability is commonly seen as a pest among households. Because they consume honeydew as a food source, they have been observed protecting honeydew producing insects like aphids, which are another pest insect that can pose a threat in places like greenhouses. However, the ants also prey on the two-spotted spider mite (''Tetranychus urticae''), which is another harmful plant pest. Because of their acts predation and aggression towards the [[mites]], there is a slight benefit of having the ants around these areas.<ref name= "Spotlight">“Ant Spotlight: Ghost Ants” Hulett Environmental Services, https://www.bugs.com/blog/ant-spotlight-ghost-ants/</ref> ''T. melanocephalum'' has been observed making their nests near jumping spiders, and appear to have a symbiotic relationship with them. The spiders will protect the ants from predation and parasitism, while the ant nests provide a solid structure to form the basis of the jumping spider's webs. Even though the ants are not directly dangerous if contact with them is made, ghost ants have been noted to be carriers of pathogens such as ''Staphylococcus'', making the ants more dangerous if they are in buildings like hospitals.<ref name= "UWI"/> Although the ants have the likelihood to spread diseases to humans, they have also been known to prevent them. The ants have been seen feeding on the eggs of ''Rhodnius prolixus'', otherwise known as the kissing bug. The insect is one of the known vectors of Chagas' disease, which is known to cause afflicted people cardiac or neurological disorders if left untreated. In these areas, the rates of the disease appear to be lower.<ref name= "Gate">“Ghost Ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius) (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidae)” ResearchGate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224497252_Ghost_Ant_Tapinoma_melanocephalum_Fabricius_Insecta_Hymenoptera_Formicidae</ref><ref name= "WHO">“Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis)” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chagas-disease-(american-trypanosomiasis)</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

File:Ghost Ant Queen.jpg

2025-03-31T12:14:27Z

Kadencam:

Ghost Ant

2025-03-31T12:05:24Z

Kadencam:

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Order
! scope="col" | Family
! scope="col" | Genus
! scope="col" | Species
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Insecta
| [[Hymenoptera]]
| [[Formicidae]]
| Tapinoma
| Melanocephalum
|}

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Side_Profile.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The image shows a clear side profile of a mature ghost ant worker.<ref name= "AntWeb">“Specimen: CASENT0008659 Tapinoma melanocephalum.” AntWeb, https://www.antweb.org/bigPicture.do?name=casent0008659&shot=p&number=1</ref>]]

==Species Description==

The ghost ant (''Tapinoma melanocephalum'') is a small species of ant belonging to the phylum [["Arthropoda"|"Arthropoda"]] that is found in tropical regions throughout the world. Much like other members of the family [[Formicidae|"Formicidae"]], ''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' are eusocial and have a caste system within their colonies. The workers of ghost ant colonies are small, typically growing to roughly 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) in length. The ants are bicolored, with their head and thorax being black in color, while the abdomen and legs of the worker appear to be a pale color that looks almost translucent.<ref name= "A&M">“Ghost Ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum.” Urban and Structural Entomology Program at Texas A&M University, https://urbanentomology.tamu.edu/urban-pests/ants/ghost/</ref> The species also gets their name from their unique color pattern. Due to their small size and almost transparent body they can be difficult to see, and can be described as "fading" or even "ghostly" when they are being observed. The fading affect is enhanced when the ants are seen on lighter colored surfaces, which makes them more difficult to see.<ref name= "Imperial">“What Are Ghost Ants and How Do I Kill Them.” Imperial Pest Prevention, https://www.imperialpestprevent.com/post/ghost-ants-and-how-to-kill-them#:~:text=What%20Do%20Ghost%20Ants%20Look,abdomen%20and%20legs%20is%20key.</ref>

==Distribution==

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Distribution.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The map shows the distribution of known populations of ''Tapinoma melanocephalum''.<ref name= "UWI"/>]]

The ghost ant is an invasive species in many parts of the world. The origin of the ants was thought to be in the tropics of Africa or Asia.<ref name= "UWI">“Tapinoma melanocephalum (Ghost Ant).”UWI-The Online Guide to the [[Animals]] of Trinidad and Tobago, https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Tapinoma_melanocephalum%20-%20Ghost%20Ant.pdf</ref> Due to the rapid spread of the [[insects]], the exact location for their origin is unknown. They are found commonly in the Southern United States, in tropical environments like Florida, but have been seen in temperate climates, and have been identified as far north as Winnipeg, Canada.<ref name= "A&M"/> They are more common in tropical habitats, but due to the species being highly invasive and having a high survivability, they are able to inhabit temperate areas by nesting indoors. They are more likely to do this while they are in search of food, seeking protection from the harsh weather, or evading predators. Regardless, this behavior results in the species being labeled as a pest in residential areas. Typically though, they will nest in [[soil]] under places like rock, logs, or in leaf litter and rotting wood.<ref name= "Imperial"/> Their incredible survivability is, largely due to their means of communication with other worker ants within the colony. By using pheromones to signal to other workers within their colony of 6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one and actinidine, the ants can send out alarm signals to warn them of any violent encounters. Other pheromones are equally important, including signals sent to notify the colony of food sources.<ref name= "UWI"/>

==Diet==

Ghost ants are generalists and omnivores. In an outdoor setting, the worker ants of the colonies will go out and forage for food such as small insect larvae, living and dead insects, as well as food that is higher in carbohydrate concentrations such as honeydew. The honeydew that is harvested is secreted by aphids or other insects that primarily feed on plant material. The worker ants will bring these foods back to their colonies to share with the other workers and the queens.<ref name= "UWI"/><ref name= "Terro">“Common Ant Species: Ghost Ants” Terro, https://www.terro.com/ghost-ants#:~:text=Diet,ghost%20ants%20usually%20prefer%20sweets.</ref> Because the species is a common pest species that tends to nest indoors in search of food, they will typically change their diet in an indoor setting. While they are indoors, they will forage for sweeter food sources and also gather near areas with greasy food residues such as stovetops or trash cans.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Life Cycle==

''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' form colonies that have multiple queens, meaning they are polygynous. This is a standout feature for ghost ants, but the behavior is also seen in other ant species such as the [[Acorn ant|acorn ant (''Temnothorax curvispinosus'')]]. The colony is unicolonial, which means that the ants live in separate nests with different queens, but they all work together and take care of each other. Each colony can consist of anywhere from 100 workers up to 1000 workers within the larger nests. Although ghost ant queens only survive for a few weeks, they are able mate and reproduce with fertile males within the colony and produce up to 5 eggs per day. Five eggs per day may seem miniscule in comparison to the large colony size, however due to the colonies having multiple fertile queens, their numbers are able to grow rapidly. Development of the new larvae takes anywhere between 16-52 days, and they go through 4 instars between the time they hatch until they reach adulthood.<ref name= "UWI"/> Ghost ant colonies also reproduce via budding. The colonies will carry out this behavior if they either need to expand their territory, or if there is a disturbance that threatens the survival of the colony. When this happens, the ants from the nest will relocate, and bring a queen, several workers, as well as eggs, larvae, and pupae. This behavior increases their survivability, and helps ghost ants expand to new territory, which is part of the reason why they are a highly adaptive and resistant invasive species.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Ecological Significance==

[[File: Kissing_Bug.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The image shows an adult kissing bug (''R. prolixus''), one of the main vectors of Chagas' Disease.<ref name= "NBC">“This deadly 'kissing bug' has been mostly ignored. It shouldn't be, this author says.” NBC News, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/deadly-kissing-bug-mostly-ignored-shouldnt-author-says-rcna1678</ref>]]

As previously mentioned, ''T. melanocephalum'' is a widespread invasive species, and due to its survivability is commonly seen as a pest among households. Because they consume honeydew as a food source, they have been observed protecting honeydew producing insects like aphids, which are another pest insect that can pose a threat in places like greenhouses. However, the ants also prey on the two-spotted spider mite (''Tetranychus urticae''), which is another harmful plant pest. Because of their acts predation and aggression towards the [[mites]], there is a slight benefit of having the ants around these areas.<ref name= "Spotlight">“Ant Spotlight: Ghost Ants” Hulett Environmental Services, https://www.bugs.com/blog/ant-spotlight-ghost-ants/</ref> ''T. melanocephalum'' has been observed making their nests near jumping spiders, and appear to have a symbiotic relationship with them. The spiders will protect the ants from predation and parasitism, while the ant nests provide a solid structure to form the basis of the jumping spider's webs. Even though the ants are not directly dangerous if contact with them is made, ghost ants have been noted to be carriers of pathogens such as ''Staphylococcus'', making the ants more dangerous if they are in buildings like hospitals.<ref name= "UWI"/> Although the ants have the likelihood to spread diseases to humans, they have also been known to prevent them. The ants have been seen feeding on the eggs of ''Rhodnius prolixus'', otherwise known as the kissing bug. The insect is one of the known vectors of Chagas' disease, which is known to cause afflicted people cardiac or neurological disorders if left untreated. In these areas, the rates of the disease appear to be lower.<ref name= "Gate">“Ghost Ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius) (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidae)” ResearchGate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224497252_Ghost_Ant_Tapinoma_melanocephalum_Fabricius_Insecta_Hymenoptera_Formicidae</ref><ref name= "WHO">“Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis)” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chagas-disease-(american-trypanosomiasis)</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

File:Kissing Bug.jpg

2025-03-31T12:00:43Z

Kadencam:

Ghost Ant

2025-03-31T11:49:23Z

Kadencam:

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Order
! scope="col" | Family
! scope="col" | Genus
! scope="col" | Species
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Insecta
| [[Hymenoptera]]
| [[Formicidae]]
| Tapinoma
| Melanocephalum
|}

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Side_Profile.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The image shows a clear side profile of a mature ghost ant worker.<ref name= "AntWeb">“Specimen: CASENT0008659 Tapinoma melanocephalum.” AntWeb, https://www.antweb.org/bigPicture.do?name=casent0008659&shot=p&number=1</ref>]]

==Species Description==

The ghost ant (''Tapinoma melanocephalum'') is a small species of ant belonging to the phylum [["Arthropoda"|"Arthropoda"]] that is found in tropical regions throughout the world. Much like other members of the family [[Formicidae|"Formicidae"]], ''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' are eusocial and have a caste system within their colonies. The workers of ghost ant colonies are small, typically growing to roughly 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) in length. The ants are bicolored, with their head and thorax being black in color, while the abdomen and legs of the worker appear to be a pale color that looks almost translucent.<ref name= "A&M">“Ghost Ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum.” Urban and Structural Entomology Program at Texas A&M University, https://urbanentomology.tamu.edu/urban-pests/ants/ghost/</ref> The species also gets their name from their unique color pattern. Due to their small size and almost transparent body they can be difficult to see, and can be described as "fading" or even "ghostly" when they are being observed. The fading affect is enhanced when the ants are seen on lighter colored surfaces, which makes them more difficult to see.<ref name= "Imperial">“What Are Ghost Ants and How Do I Kill Them.” Imperial Pest Prevention, https://www.imperialpestprevent.com/post/ghost-ants-and-how-to-kill-them#:~:text=What%20Do%20Ghost%20Ants%20Look,abdomen%20and%20legs%20is%20key.</ref>

==Distribution==

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Distribution.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The map shows the distribution of known populations of ''Tapinoma melanocephalum''.<ref name= "UWI"/>]]

The ghost ant is an invasive species in many parts of the world. The origin of the ants was thought to be in the tropics of Africa or Asia.<ref name= "UWI">“Tapinoma melanocephalum (Ghost Ant).”UWI-The Online Guide to the [[Animals]] of Trinidad and Tobago, https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Tapinoma_melanocephalum%20-%20Ghost%20Ant.pdf</ref> Due to the rapid spread of the [[insects]], the exact location for their origin is unknown. They are found commonly in the Southern United States, in tropical environments like Florida, but have been seen in temperate climates, and have been identified as far north as Winnipeg, Canada.<ref name= "A&M"/> They are more common in tropical habitats, but due to the species being highly invasive and having a high survivability, they are able to inhabit temperate areas by nesting indoors. They are more likely to do this while they are in search of food, seeking protection from the harsh weather, or evading predators. Regardless, this behavior results in the species being labeled as a pest in residential areas. Typically though, they will nest in [[soil]] under places like rock, logs, or in leaf litter and rotting wood.<ref name= "Imperial"/> Their incredible survivability is, largely due to their means of communication with other worker ants within the colony. By using pheromones to signal to other workers within their colony of 6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one and actinidine, the ants can send out alarm signals to warn them of any violent encounters. Other pheromones are equally important, including signals sent to notify the colony of food sources.<ref name= "UWI"/>

==Diet==

Ghost ants are generalists and omnivores. In an outdoor setting, the worker ants of the colonies will go out and forage for food such as small insect larvae, living and dead insects, as well as food that is higher in carbohydrate concentrations such as honeydew. The honeydew that is harvested is secreted by aphids or other insects that primarily feed on plant material. The worker ants will bring these foods back to their colonies to share with the other workers and the queens.<ref name= "UWI"/><ref name= "Terro">“Common Ant Species: Ghost Ants” Terro, https://www.terro.com/ghost-ants#:~:text=Diet,ghost%20ants%20usually%20prefer%20sweets.</ref> Because the species is a common pest species that tends to nest indoors in search of food, they will typically change their diet in an indoor setting. While they are indoors, they will forage for sweeter food sources and also gather near areas with greasy food residues such as stovetops or trash cans.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Life Cycle==

''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' form colonies that have multiple queens, meaning they are polygynous. This is a standout feature for ghost ants, but the behavior is also seen in other ant species such as the [[Acorn ant|acorn ant (''Temnothorax curvispinosus'')]]. The colony is unicolonial, which means that the ants live in separate nests with different queens, but they all work together and take care of each other. Each colony can consist of anywhere from 100 workers up to 1000 workers within the larger nests. Although ghost ant queens only survive for a few weeks, they are able mate and reproduce with fertile males within the colony and produce up to 5 eggs per day. Five eggs per day may seem miniscule in comparison to the large colony size, however due to the colonies having multiple fertile queens, their numbers are able to grow rapidly. Development of the new larvae takes anywhere between 16-52 days, and they go through 4 instars between the time they hatch until they reach adulthood.<ref name= "UWI"/> Ghost ant colonies also reproduce via budding. The colonies will carry out this behavior if they either need to expand their territory, or if there is a disturbance that threatens the survival of the colony. When this happens, the ants from the nest will relocate, and bring a queen, several workers, as well as eggs, larvae, and pupae. This behavior increases their survivability, and helps ghost ants expand to new territory, which is part of the reason why they are a highly adaptive and resistant invasive species.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Ecological Significance==

As previously mentioned, ''T. melanocephalum'' is a widespread invasive species, and due to its survivability is commonly seen as a pest among households. Because they consume honeydew as a food source, they have been observed protecting honeydew producing insects like aphids, which are another pest insect that can pose a threat in places like greenhouses. However, the ants also prey on the two-spotted spider mite (''Tetranychus urticae''), which is another harmful plant pest. Because of their acts predation and aggression towards the [[mites]], there is a slight benefit of having the ants around these areas.<ref name= "Spotlight">“Ant Spotlight: Ghost Ants” Hulett Environmental Services, https://www.bugs.com/blog/ant-spotlight-ghost-ants/</ref> ''T. melanocephalum'' has been observed making their nests near jumping spiders, and appear to have a symbiotic relationship with them. The spiders will protect the ants from predation and parasitism, while the ant nests provide a solid structure to form the basis of the jumping spider's webs. Even though the ants are not directly dangerous if contact with them is made, ghost ants have been noted to be carriers of pathogens such as ''Staphylococcus'', making the ants more dangerous if they are in buildings like hospitals.<ref name= "UWI"/> Although the ants have the likelihood to spread diseases to humans, they have also been known to prevent them. The ants have been seen feeding on the eggs of ''Rhodnius prolixus'', otherwise known as the kissing bug. The insect is one of the known vectors of Chagas' disease, which is known to cause afflicted people cardiac or neurological disorders if left untreated. In these areas, the rates of the disease appear to be lower.<ref name= "Gate">“Ghost Ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius) (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidae)” ResearchGate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224497252_Ghost_Ant_Tapinoma_melanocephalum_Fabricius_Insecta_Hymenoptera_Formicidae</ref><ref name= "WHO">“Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis)” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chagas-disease-(american-trypanosomiasis)</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

Ghost Ant

2025-03-31T11:33:41Z

Kadencam:

==Taxonomy==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Order
! scope="col" | Family
! scope="col" | Genus
! scope="col" | Species
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Animalia
| Arthropoda
| Insecta
| [[Hymenoptera]]
| [[Formicidae]]
| Tapinoma
| Melanocephalum
|}

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Side_Profile.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The image shows a clear side profile of a mature ghost ant worker.<ref name= "AntWeb">“Specimen: CASENT0008659 Tapinoma melanocephalum.” AntWeb, https://www.antweb.org/bigPicture.do?name=casent0008659&shot=p&number=1</ref>]]

==Species Description==

The ghost ant (''Tapinoma melanocephalum'') is a small species of ant belonging to the phylum [["Arthropoda"|"Arthropoda"]] that is found in tropical regions throughout the world. Much like other members of the family [[Formicidae|"Formicidae"]], ''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' are eusocial and have a caste system within their colonies. The workers of ghost ant colonies are small, typically growing to roughly 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) in length. The ants are bicolored, with their head and thorax being black in color, while the abdomen and legs of the worker appear to be a pale color that looks almost translucent.<ref name= "A&M">“Ghost Ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum.” Urban and Structural Entomology Program at Texas A&M University, https://urbanentomology.tamu.edu/urban-pests/ants/ghost/</ref> The species also gets their name from their unique color pattern. Due to their small size and almost transparent body they can be difficult to see, and can be described as "fading" or even "ghostly" when they are being observed. The fading affect is enhanced when the ants are seen on lighter colored surfaces, which makes them more difficult to see.<ref name= "Imperial">“What Are Ghost Ants and How Do I Kill Them.” Imperial Pest Prevention, https://www.imperialpestprevent.com/post/ghost-ants-and-how-to-kill-them#:~:text=What%20Do%20Ghost%20Ants%20Look,abdomen%20and%20legs%20is%20key.</ref>

==Distribution==

[[File: Ghost_Ant_Distribution.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The map shows the distribution of known populations of ''Tapinoma melanocephalum''.<ref name= "UWI"/>]]

The ghost ant is an invasive species in many parts of the world. The origin of the ants was thought to be in the tropics of Africa or Asia.<ref name= "UWI">“Tapinoma melanocephalum (Ghost Ant).”UWI-The Online Guide to the [[Animals]] of Trinidad and Tobago, https://sta.uwi.edu/fst/lifesciences/sites/default/files/lifesciences/documents/ogatt/Tapinoma_melanocephalum%20-%20Ghost%20Ant.pdf</ref> Due to the rapid spread of the [[insects]], the exact location for their origin is unknown. They are found commonly in the Southern United States, in tropical environments like Florida, but have been seen in temperate climates, and have been identified as far north as Winnipeg, Canada.<ref name= "A&M"/> They are more common in tropical habitats, but due to the species being highly invasive and having a high survivability, they are able to inhabit temperate areas by nesting indoors. They are more likely to do this while they are in search of food, seeking protection from the harsh weather, or evading predators. Regardless, this behavior results in the species being labeled as a pest in residential areas. Typically though, they will nest in [[soil]] under places like rock, logs, or in leaf litter and rotting wood.<ref name= "Imperial"/> Their incredible survivability is, largely due to their means of communication with other worker ants within the colony. By using pheromones to signal to other workers within their colony of 6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one and actinidine, the ants can send out alarm signals to warn them of any violent encounters. Other pheromones are equally important, including signals sent to notify the colony of food sources.<ref name= "UWI"/>

==Diet==

Ghost ants are omnivores. In an outdoor setting, the worker ants of the colonies will go out and forage for food such as small insect larvae, living and dead insects, as well as food that is higher in carbohydrate concentrations such as honeydew. The honeydew that is harvested is secreted by aphids or other insects that primarily feed on plant material. The worker ants will bring these foods back to their colonies to share with the other workers and the queens.<ref name= "UWI"/><ref name= "Terro">“Common Ant Species: Ghost Ants” Terro, https://www.terro.com/ghost-ants#:~:text=Diet,ghost%20ants%20usually%20prefer%20sweets.</ref> Because the species is a common pest species that tends to nest indoors in search of food, they will typically change their diet in an indoor setting. While they are indoors, they will forage for sweeter food sources and also gather near areas with greasy food residues such as stovetops or trash cans.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Life Cycle==

''Tapinoma melanocephalum'' form colonies that have multiple queens, meaning they are polygynous. This is a standout feature for ghost ants, but the behavior is also seen in other ant species such as the [[Acorn ant|acorn ant (''Temnothorax curvispinosus'')]]. The colony is unicolonial, which means that the ants live in separate nests with different queens, but they all work together and take care of each other. Each colony can consist of anywhere from 100 workers up to 1000 workers within the larger nests. Although ghost ant queens only survive for a few weeks, they are able mate and reproduce with fertile males within the colony and produce up to 5 eggs per day. Five eggs per day may seem miniscule in comparison to the large colony size, however due to the colonies having multiple fertile queens, their numbers are able to grow rapidly. Development of the new larvae takes anywhere between 16-52 days, and they go through 4 instars between the time they hatch until they reach adulthood.<ref name= "UWI"/> Ghost ant colonies also reproduce via budding. The colonies will carry out this behavior if they either need to expand their territory, or if there is a disturbance that threatens the survival of the colony. When this happens, the ants from the nest will relocate, and bring a queen, several workers, as well as eggs, larvae, and pupae. This behavior increases their survivability, and helps ghost ants expand to new territory, which is part of the reason why they are a highly adaptive and resistant invasive species.<ref name= "Imperial"/>

==Ecological Significance==

As previously mentioned, ''T. melanocephalum'' is a widespread invasive species, and due to its survivability is commonly seen as a pest among households. Because they consume honeydew as a food source, they have been observed protecting honeydew producing insects like aphids, which are another pest insect that can pose a threat in places like greenhouses. However, the ants also prey on the two-spotted spider mite (''Tetranychus urticae''), which is another harmful plant pest. Because of their acts predation and aggression towards the [[mites]], there is a slight benefit of having the ants around these areas.<ref name= "Spotlight">“Ant Spotlight: Ghost Ants” Hulett Environmental Services, https://www.bugs.com/blog/ant-spotlight-ghost-ants/</ref> ''T. melanocephalum'' has been observed making their nests near jumping spiders, and appear to have a symbiotic relationship with them. The spiders will protect the ants from predation and parasitism, while the ant nests provide a solid structure to form the basis of the jumping spider's webs. Even though the ants are not directly dangerous if contact with them is made, ghost ants have been noted to be carriers of pathogens such as ''Staphylococcus'', making the ants more dangerous if they are in buildings like hospitals.<ref name= "UWI"/> The ability for the ants to survive and make large colonies in homes also puts a strain on homeowners mentally, and have been known to negatively affect their mental well being.<ref name= "Spotlight"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

Ghost Ant

2025-03-31T10:20:40Z

Kadencam:

File:Ghost Ant Distribution.jpg

2025-03-31T10:15:52Z

Kadencam:

Ghost Ant

2025-03-31T10:08:36Z

Kadencam:

File:Ghost Ant Side Profile.jpg

2025-03-31T10:00:21Z

Kadencam: Kadencam uploaded a new version of File:Ghost Ant Side Profile.jpg

Ghost Ant

2025-03-31T09:59:42Z

Kadencam:

File:Ghost Ant Side Profile.jpg

2025-03-31T09:54:42Z

Kadencam:

Ghost Ant

2025-03-31T09:53:12Z

Kadencam: Created page with "==Taxonomy== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"| |- | ! scope="col" | Kingdom ! scope="col" | Phylum ! scope="col" | Class ! scope="col" | Order ! scope="col" | Family ! scope="col" | Genus ! scope="col" | Species |- ! scope="row" | Classification | Animalia | Arthropoda | Insecta | Hymenoptera | Formicidae | Tapinoma | Melanocephalum |} ==Species Description== The ghost ant (''Tapinoma melanocephalum'') is a small species of ant belonging to..."

Yellow trout lily

2025-03-10T08:28:32Z

Kadencam: Fixed spelling errors, and added more information into the sections titled "Ecological Significance" and "Growth and Reproduction"

[[File:troutlily-scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Yellow trout lilies.]]

== Overview ==

The yellow trout lily (''Erythronium americanum'') is a common [[Spring Ephemerals|spring ephemeral]] wildflower that is part of the [[Liliaceae]] family and is native to the northeastern United States and eastern Canada. It is a [[perennial]] that grows in colonies and blooms between March and May. Each plant produces one nodding bright yellow flower with backwards bending petals and has dark green leaves that are mottled with a purplish-brown coloration. The leaves are where the flower gets its name from: the mottled coloration is said to be similar to the markings on trout. Other names for the yellow trout lily include the American trout lily, eastern trout lily, yellow dogtooth violet, and adder's tongue. <ref name="Texas">University of Texas. (19 March 2019). ''Erythronium americanum''. https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=eram5 </ref><ref name="adk">Wild Adirondacks. Wildflowers of the Adirondacks: Trout Lily (''Erythronium americanum''). https://wildadirondacks.org/adirondack-wildflowers-trout-lily-erythronium-americanum.html</ref>

==Taxonomy==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:85%;"|
|-
|
! scope="col" | Kingdom
! scope="col" | Phylum
! scope="col" | Class
! scope="col" | Order
! scope="col" | Family
|-
! scope="row" | Classification
| Plantae
| Tracheophyta
| Liliopsida
| Liliales
| Liliaceae
|}
[[File:e americanum range.png|800px|thumb|right|Yellow trout lily range across the US and Canada.]]
== Growth and Reproduction ==

The natural habitat of yellow trout lilies is deciduous woodland, and they grow best in moist, acidic [[soil]] with part sun or dappled sunlight. The plants tend to grow in clumps, forming dense clusters of leaves and flowers, and typically reach 3 to 6 inches in height.<ref name="Texas"/> The roots grow in the fall, and the flower sprouts, blooms, produces fruit, and dies before canopy trees fully leaf out in the spring.<ref name="adk"/><ref name="Lapointe">Lapointe, L., & Molard, J. (1997). Costs and benefits of mycorrhizal infection in a spring ephemeral, ''Erythronium americanum''. The New Phytologist, 135(3), 491-500.</ref> The yellow trout lily while it is immature will produce one singular basal leaf. When the plant reaches maturity, the yellow trout lily will grow a pair of basal leaves that appear on opposite sides of a newly developed flower stalk.<ref name="Morton"/> Two versions of the yellow trout lily exist: sterile plants that do not produce flowers but reproduce via runners, and the flowering plants that reproduce sexually via seeds.<ref name="Holland">Holland, P. G. (1980). Transplant experiments with trout lily at Mont St Hilaire, Quebec. Journal of Biogeography, 261-267.</ref><ref name="Tessier">Tessier, J. T. (2012). Methods of belowground movement in ''Erythronium americanum''. Northeastern Naturalist, 19(sp6), 77-88.</ref> The flowering plants often take roughly 4-5 years after seed dispersal to become mature, and then go dormant again shortly after blooming in the early spring.<ref name="NCState">North Carolina State Cooperative Extension Plant Toolbox. "Erythronium americanum". https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/erythronium-americanum/</ref> Each flower contains 4-7 seeds that are typically released in June and July and dispersed by ants, about 40% of which will successfully germinate.<ref name="Tessier"/><ref name="Muller">Muller, R. N. (1978). The phenology, growth and ecosystem dynamics of ''Erythronium americanum'' in the northern hardwood forest. Ecological Monographs, 48(1), 1-20.</ref> Interestingly, although yellow is the most common color for pollen in flowering plants, the pollen and anther color of yellow trout lilies can be either red or yellow. This variation has allowed researchers to track pollen distribution from these plants. One 2018 study found that specific pollinators may have preferences for one pollen color over the other.<ref name="Austen">Austen, E. J., Lin, S. Y., & Forrest, J. R. (2018). On the ecological significance of pollen color: a case study in American trout lily (''Erythronium americanum''). [[Ecology]], 99(4), 926-937.</ref> Yellow trout lilies grow slower and have delayed bulb cell maturation at lower temperatures, approximately 15-5 degrees Celsius, and experience slower starch accumulation and a greater sink capacity compared to bulbs grown at temperatures greater than 18 degrees Celsius. Longer leaf spans and larger bulbs seen in yellow trout lilies grown at colder temperatures is a result of improved equilibrium between carbon fixation and capacity and carbohydrate sink strength.<ref name="source-sink">Anthony Gandin, Sylvain Gutjahr, Pierre Dizengremel, Line Lapointe, Source–sink imbalance increases with growth temperature in the spring geophyte Erythronium americanum, Journal of Experimental Botany, Volume 62, Issue 10, June 2011, Pages 3467–3479, https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/err020</ref>

[[File:anthercolors.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Two yellow trout lilies, one with red anthers (left) and one with yellow anthers (right).]]

== Ecological Significance ==
The yellow trout lily is an important pollen and food source for many types of [[insects]] such as bees, [[butterflies]], flies, and ants. Black bears reportedly eat the corms and white-tailed deer eat the seed capsules, although only to a limited extent. The plant's bulbs are a staple food source for Eastern chipmunks.<ref name="adk"/><ref name="frost">Tessier, J. T. (2022). Severe frost but not shade could limit the future growing season of ''Erythronium americanum''. Botany, 100(3), 275-282.</ref> The plant forms a relationship with ants called myrmecochory. The seed of the yellow trout lily grows appendages called elaiosomes that are high in lipid content. The lipid content of the seeds attracts ants. The ants feed on the elaiosomes and disperse the seeds for plant reproduction.<ref name="Morton">The Morton Arboretum. (26 December 2024). Yellow Trout Lily. https://mortonarb.org/plant-and-protect/trees-and-plants/yellow-trout-lily/#more-information</ref><ref name="Myrmecochory">Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. (11 July 2024). Myrmecochory: How Ants Shape Plant Communities. https://www.xerces.org/blog/myrmecochory-how-ants-shape-plant-communities#:~:text=This%20seed%2Dcarrying%20partnership%20between,their%20exterior%20called%20an%20elaiosome.</ref> It also plays a role in soil [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and retention, and about 75% of the roots are infected by arbuscular [[mycorrhizae]], which is unusual for a spring ephemeral.<ref name="Lapointe"/><ref name="frost"/> Mycorrhizae decrease root growth during the winter and cost the yellow trout lily carbohydrate reserves, however, during the spring, mycorrhizal fungi can double the annual growth rate of the lily compared to growth without mycorrhizae. <ref name="cost and benefits">Lapointe, L. and Molard, J. (1997), Costs and benefits of mycorrhizal infection in a spring ephemeral, Erythronium americanum. New Phytologist, 135: 491-500. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-8137.1997.00672.x</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}