File:ReproductiveTermite.webp

2022-05-11T04:50:37Z

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File:SoldierTermites.jpeg

2022-05-11T04:48:34Z

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File:WorkerTermite.jpeg

2022-05-11T04:46:30Z

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File:TermiteDamage.jpeg

2022-05-11T04:42:55Z

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Termites

2022-05-11T04:41:19Z

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==Overview==
[[File:TermiteNest.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Termite mound in Australia]]
Termites are [[insects]] belonging to the order Isoptera. There are more than 2,000 species of termites, which are divided into three main categories. [4] These categories are subterranean, drywood, and dampwood. [3] Termites live together in colonies, taking on different roles in the system to create harmony and order. [5]

{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"| Scientific Classification
|-
|Kingdom
|Animalia
|-
|Phylum
|Arthropoda
|-
|Class
|Insecta
|-
|Order
|Isoptera
|}

==Habitat==
[[File:TermiteMapRevisedPNNL.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Termite Infestation Probability map of the continental United States]]
Termites are found all over the world, with species existing in every continent except Antarctica. [1] Termites do best in warm climates, so they are most often found in the tropics. [2] Subterranean termites are found underground, as they must maintain contact with [[soil]] to get moisture. Drywood termites and dampwood termites are both found aboveground. Drywood termites can be found in wood that is either living or decayed since they do not require a moisture source. Dampwood termites do not need contact with soil, but they do require a moisture source. Because of this, they are found in decayed wood that has consistent access to water. [3]

==Diet and Feeding Habits==
Termites feed mainly on cellulose, the main component of wood, Plant material containing cellulose is also consumed. [9] In order to digest their food, termites have bacteria and [[protozoa]] in their stomachs that produce enzymes to help break down cellulose. [2] Only workers feed directly; reproductives and soldiers must be fed by workers since they do not have these enzymes. The process of transferring food from workers to the rest of the colony happens mostly through the mouth, with workers regurgitating cellulose into the mouths of other termites. [10]

==Colony Roles==
Termites fall into one of three roles in the colony: reproductives, workers, or soldiers. Each role has different characteristics that help keep the colony thriving.
*'''Reproductives:''' It is the job of the reproductive termites to mate and keep the colony growing. The main reproductives in a colony are the queen and king. However, there may be other reproductives if the colony is large enough. [5] The queen and king have wings that allow them to leave their respective colonies and mate to form a new colony. Termites reproduce by laying eggs, and a queen can lay thousands of eggs each year. [6] Queens have a long lifespan and can survive for decades, but most commonly live between 10 and 20 years. [8]
*'''Workers:''' Workers make up the vast majority of termites in the colony. [5] It is their job to gather food for the colony, build the nest, repair the nest after damage, and care for the queen. [6] Worker and soldier termites do not have wings or reproductive organs. [4] Their life span is much shorter than that of the reproductives, lasting only 2 years on average. [7]
*'''Soldiers:''' Soldier termites protect the colony from predators, most notably ants. Soldiers possess large mandibles to aid them in defense. [5] The lifespan of soldier termites is comparable to workers, lasting approximately 2 years. [7]

==Termite Damage==
Termites are a prevalent pest in the United States, and can easily make their way into houses through cracks, water buildup, or rotting wood. [12] Damage is often done to homes as a result of termite infestation, and can be costly to repair if not caught right away. Termites chew through both softwood and hardwood, causing structural damage and even foundation problems. [11] Some signs of termite damage to look for include:
*Hollowed out wood
*Maze of tunnels in wood
*Wood bending or buckling
*Mud tubes
*Termite remnants (i.e., wings, waste, etc.)
*Cracked or peeling paint

==Sources==
[1] Simon, Dany, and Gilad Ben-Zvi. “The Formosan Termite.” The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, 25 Nov. 2021, smnh.tau.ac.il/en/the-formosan-termite/.

[2] “Termites.” National Wildlife Federation, 24 Oct. 2017, www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Termites.

[3] Orkin. “Types of Termites - Different Kinds of Termite Species.” Orkin Termite Treatment, Pest Control & Exterminator Service, Orkin, 23 Mar. 2022, www.orkin.com/pests/termites/types-of-termites.

[4] Krishna, Kumar. “Termite.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 8 Apr. 2020, www.britannica.com/animal/termite.

[5] Layton, Blake. “Termite Biology (Eastern Subterranean Termites and Formosan Termites).” Mississippi State University Extension Service, Mississippi State University, 4 Mar. 2017, extension.msstate.edu/content/termite-biology-eastern-subterranean-termites-and-formosan-termites#:~:text=Termite%20colonies%20contain%20three%20types,percent%20of%20the%20colony%20members.

[6] Waldvogel, Michael, and Patricia Alder. “Termites - Biology and Control: NC State Extension Publications.” Termites - Biology and Control | NC State Extension Publications, NC State Extension Publications, 7 Apr. 2022, content.ces.ncsu.edu/termites-biology-and-control.

[7] Orkin. “Termite Life Cycle & Lifespan - How Long Do Termites Live?” Orkin Termite Treatment, Pest Control & Exterminator Service, Orkin, 23 Mar. 2022, www.orkin.com/pests/termites/life-cycle.

[8] Terminix. “Termite Life Cycle and Lifespan.” Terminix, Https://Www.terminix.com/, 6 May 2022, www.terminix.com/termites/life-cycle/.

[9] Krishna, Kumar. “Nutrition.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 31 Jan. 2001, www.britannica.com/animal/termite/Nutrition.

[10] Orkin. “What Do Termites Eat: Termite Diet and Feeding Habits.” Orkin, Orkin, 29 Mar. 2022, www.orkin.com/pests/termites/what-do-termites-eat.

[11] Griffin Pest Solutions. “What Does Termite Damage Look like?” Griffin Pest Solutions, Griffin Pest Solutions, 2 May 2022, www.griffinpest.com/what-termite-damage-looks-like/.

[12] Dehan, Andrew. “Termite Damage: How to Identify and Repair It.” Rocket Homes, Rocket Homes, 2 Mar. 2022, www.rockethomes.com/blog/homeowner-tips/termite-damage.

File:TermiteNest.jpg

2022-05-11T04:39:38Z

Japaskie:

2022-05-11T03:26:34Z

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Termites

2022-05-11T03:18:36Z

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Termites

2022-05-11T03:16:18Z

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Termites

2022-05-11T03:02:53Z

Japaskie: Created page with "==Overview== Termites are insects belonging to the order Isoptera. There are more than 2,000 species of termites, which are divided into three main categories. [4] These categ..."

Desertification

2022-04-01T18:58:31Z

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== '''Overview''' ==

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Desertification is a natural or human induced process in which fertile land becomes irreversibly desert. The resulting loss of plant life leads to a decrease in overall bio productivity.[1] Barren [[soil]] becomes more susceptible to erosion and more vulnerable to evaporation and higher temperatures. The cause of this process is most often attributed to anthropogenic climate change, but a multitude of factors influence desertification. [2] Rapid desertification is expected to have drastic environmental, economic and political consequences. [[File:desertification map.PNG|thumb|alt=map|Figure 1. Human Induced Desertification[6]]]

== '''Causes''' ==

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Scientists have identified several driving forces behind desertification. It is contended that a combination of multiple factors are at play. [2]
Leading causes include:
*Agricultural activities [[File:Desertification causes.PNG|thumb|alt=causes.|Figure 2: Leading causes of desertification [2]]]''.
*Infrastructure extension
*Wood extraction and related activities
*Increased aridity
*Demographic factors
*Economic factors
*Technological factors
*Climatic factors
*Policy and institutional factors
*Cultural factors

Desertification is most attributable to human activity and climate change. Climate change has led to an increase in extreme weather events such as droughts and forest fires, which both contribute heavily to desertification. [10] Climate change has also led to an increase in global temperatures. These warmer climates increase evaporation rates which speed up the process of desertification. [11] In addition, the expansion of agriculture and deforestation have decreased overall natural vegetation. Increased food demand due to increased population growth has led to the expansion of agriculture, which decreases vegetation through the overgrazing of livestock, the overuse of fertilizers, and the over-cultivation of land. [11] Deforestation reduces the biodiversity of an area and its overall vegetation, and also makes soil more susceptible to erosion due to the loss of tree roots binding the soil together. [10] In turn, loss of vegetation has led to a host of problems resulting in the degradation of land. Land is left bare and susceptible to erosion. Unprotected soil surfaces are also prone to salinization by evaporation and water logging. [3] Nutrients are washed away, leading to the death of fauna from lack of nutrients. Fauna is also washed away.

== '''Effects''' ==

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Desertification is expected to negatively affect irrigated croplands. Of the over 2 million square kilometers of irrigated croplands, more than 60% is located in drylands, with 30% of this land considered severely degraded. [1] Biological productivity of degraded land will drop significantly due to accumulation of salts in this soil. Without water to wash away accumulated salts they will remain in the soil, transforming the soil’s quality as farmland. Rangelands are also susceptible to degradation via desertification. Grazing [[animals]] often leave land barren of vegetation, exposing soil to wind and erosion. Preferential grazing may also alter plant communities. [3]

== '''Prevention and Reversal''' ==

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There are many techniques for the prevention and reversal of desertification. Many of these methods rely heavily on the availability and usage of water. Some look to reforestation as a means of re-greening deserts. Studies have indicated that extended wet periods can reverse historical environmental regimes. [4]

A long-term study in the Qubqi Desert (Inner Mongolia) has tested the artificial inoculation of soil with cyanobacteria to stimulate plant growth. Cyanobacteria are known to stabilize soils by enriching available nutrients and increasing moisture content. Results from the study indicate that through the use of cyanobacteria almost all native plant species can be regrown in an area that has undergone desertification. [7]

[[File:Cyanobacteria.jpg|thumb|Cyanobacteria as a method of reversal [8]]]

[[File:savory.jpg|left|thumb|Holistic Management: Mexico:Before and After [5]]]

One of the most controversial proposals comes from Allan Savory, founder of the Savory Institute. Savory proposes a holistic approach to reversing desertification, relying on, not avoiding, livestock to re-green. Savory theorizes that through proper management, agriculture can be employed in a way to mimic nature and farmers can use sustainable farming to prevent further degradation.[5]

Desertification has become an increasingly alarming problem in Nigeria. To combat the effects of desertification, a major project was launched in 2007 titled "The Great Green Wall". Through the efforts of this project it is hoped that over 8,000 km of greenery will be restored to Africa. What initially began as an idea to plant a wall of trees has slowly evolved over time to incorporate more of a mosaic approach. Aside from just planting trees the project aims to return to responsible land use. By 2030, organizers hope to restore 100 million hectares of degraded land, sequester 250 million tons of carbon and create 10 million jobs. [9]

[[File:greatgreenwall.png|left|thumb|The Great Green Wall [9]]]

== '''References''' ==

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[1] Rafferty, J. P., and S. L. Pimm. 2019, March 22. Desertification. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/science/desertification.

[2] Geist, H. J., and E. F. Lambin. 2004. Dynamic Causal Patterns of Desertification. BioScience 54:817.

[3] Huang, J., H. Yu, X. Guan, G. Wang, and R. Guo. 2015. Accelerated dryland expansion under climate change. Nature Climate Change 6:166–171.

[4] Peters, D. P. C., J. Yao, O. E. Sala, and J. P. Anderson. 2011. Directional climate change and potential reversal of desertification in arid and semiarid ecosystems. Global Change Biology 18:151–163.

[5] Holistic Management. https://www.savory.global/holistic-management/.

[6] Natural Resources Conservation Service. (n.d.). . https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/use/worldsoils/?cid=nrcs142p2_054004.

[7] Lan, S. et al. 2014. Artificially Accelerating the Reversal of Desertification: Cyanobacterial Inoculation Facilitates the Succession of Vegetation Communities. Environmental Science & Technology 2014 48 (1), 307-315.

[8] Rossi, F. et al. 2016. Cyanobacterial inoculation (cyanobacterisation): Perspectives for the development of a standardized multifunctional technology for soil fertilization and desertification reversal. Earth-Science Reviews. Volume 171, August 2017, 28-43.

[9] Successes. https://www.greatgreenwall.org/results.

[10] McSweeney, Robert. “Explainer: Desertification and the Role of Climate Change.” Carbon Brief, 2 Sept. 2020, https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-desertification-and-the-role-of-climate-change.

[11] Reese, April. “What's behind Desertification?” PRB, 1 Feb. 2001, https://www.prb.org/resources/whats-behind-desertification/.