Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

No-see-ums

2025-05-02T17:16:00Z

Imfiguer:

==Description and Distribution==

[[File:No_see_um_dime_500px.jpg|right|Culicoides furens shown next to a US dime and pencil point to demonstrate the relative size of this adult biting midge species.
Credit: UF/IFAS [2]]]
No-see-ums, also known as Ceratopogonidae, are defined as a family of small nematocerous flies, usually less than 3 or 4 mm in length. They are closely related to the Chironomidae, the non-biting midges, but differ from them in the presence of biting mouthparts in the female, the wing venation, and by the short forelegs. They are best known as ′biting midges′, but are also called ′sandflies′, ′punkies′ or simply ′biting gnats′. Roughly 5000 species in 60 or more genera have been described. They can be found worldwide, with the exception of the Arctic and Antarctic. [1] The distribution of species in the genus Culicoides is worldwide; 47 species are known to occur in Florida. Species belonging to the genus Leptoconops occur in the tropics, sub-tropics, the Caribbean, and some coastal areas of southeast Florida.[2]

The natural habitats of biting midges vary by species. Areas with substantial salt marsh habitat are major producers of many biting midge species, while some species prefer areas that possess highly organic [[soil]] that is wet but not underwater, such as those found with high manure loads in swine-, sheep-, and cattle farming. These [[insects]] do not establish inside homes, apartments, or inside humans or other [[animals]]. [2]

==Life cycle==

[[File:Lifecycle_biting_midges_500px.png|left|Biting midge life cycle. (Illustration by: Scott Charlesworth, Purdue University, based in part on Pechuman, L.L. and H.J. Teskey, 1981, IN: Manual of Nearctic Diptera, Volume 1)[3]]]

The eggs are approximately 0.25 mm long. They are white when first laid, but later turn brown or black. The eggs are laid on moist soil and cannot withstand drying out. Some species can lay up to 450 eggs per batch and as many as seven batches in a lifespan. Eggs typically hatch within two to ten days of being laid, the hatch time being dependent on the species and environmental temperatures.

Larvae develop through four instars; the first instar larvae possess a functional spine-bearing proleg. Pupal color can be pale yellow, light brown, or dark brown. They are 2 to 5 mm in length with an unsegmented cephalothorax that has a pair of respiratory horns that may bear spines or wrinkles. During this stage, the insects possess a spiny integument which can be used to identify the fly to species level. [2]

The adult no-see-ums are gray and less than 1/8-inch long. The two wings possess dense hairs and pigmentation patterns. The wing patterns are used by biologists to identify and differentiate species. The large compound eyes are more or less contiguous above the bases of the 15-segmented antennae. The pedicle of the males' antennae contains the Johnston's organ. The mouthparts are well-developed with cutting teeth on elongated mandibles in the proboscis, adapted for blood-sucking in females, but not in males. The thorax extends slightly over the head, and the abdomen is nine-segmented and tapered at the end. [2]

==Diet==

No-see-ums are mostly predatory, although some are also collectors, gatherers, and scrapers. The predatory species feed on a range of macroinvertebrates, such as roundworms. The species that are collectors and gatherers tend to feed on [[algae]], fungi, and [[decomposing]] organic material from plants, soil, bacteria, and feces. Adult no-see-ums feed on flower nectar, and females also need blood from insects, reptiles, or mammals to reproduce.[4]

==Importance==

[[File:No see um resized.jpg|right|No-see-um[5]]]

The bite of a no-see-um can cause a burning sensation as well as a small red welt. Allergic reactions, including itching, may also occur. Because of their small size, many people would be unaware they were being bitten by a no-see-um if not for the associated irritation and slight pain with the bite, similar to that of mosquitoes. No-see-ums usually bite during the hours of dusk and dawn and rarely bite during daytime hours. Females primarily feed on mammals, but they may also feed on other animals such as birds, amphibians, and reptiles.[5]

While they are a nuisance, no-see-ums are not known to spread pathogens causing human disease in the United States. They can, however, infect other animals such as horses, cattle, and deer with viruses that cause diseases like blue tongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease. In affected countries, these diseases can cause millions of dollars in annual livestock production losses.[5]

Although they are not considered to be a threat in the United States, in Central and South America, western and central Africa, and some Caribbean islands, biting midges are the vectors of filarial worms in the genus Mansonella. These parasites cause infection in humans that produces dermatitis and skin lesions because the adult worms are located in the skin.

==References==

[1]
Boorman, J. (1993). Biting midges (Ceratopogonidae). In: Lane, R.P., Crosskey, R.W. (eds) Medical Insects and Arachnids. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1554-4_7

[2]
Connelly, C. R. (2013). Biting midges, no-see-ums Culicoides spp. (Insecta: Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). EDIS, 2013(5). doi:10.32473/edis-in626-2013

[3]
Purdue University Extension. (n.d.). Biting Midges (No-see-ums). Purdue University. Retrieved May 2, 2025, from https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publichealth/insects/bitingmidge.html

[4]
EcoSpark. (n.d.). No-see-um. Retrieved May 2, 2025, from https://www.ecospark.ca/no-see-um

[5]
Terminix. (n.d.). What are no-see-ums? Retrieved May 2, 2025, from https://www.terminix.com/blog/bug-facts/what-are-no-see-ums/

No-see-ums

2025-05-02T17:15:46Z

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File:No see um dime 500px.jpg

2025-05-02T17:11:58Z

Imfiguer:

No-see-ums

2025-05-02T17:09:53Z

Imfiguer:

==Description and Distribution==

[[File:No_see_um_resized.jpg|right|No-see-um [5]]]
No-see-ums, also known as Ceratopogonidae, are defined as a family of small nematocerous flies, usually less than 3 or 4 mm in length. They are closely related to the Chironomidae, the non-biting midges, but differ from them in the presence of biting mouthparts in the female, the wing venation, and by the short forelegs. They are best known as ′biting midges′, but are also called ′sandflies′, ′punkies′ or simply ′biting gnats′. Roughly 5000 species in 60 or more genera have been described. They can be found worldwide, with the exception of the Arctic and Antarctic. [1] The distribution of species in the genus Culicoides is worldwide; 47 species are known to occur in Florida. Species belonging to the genus Leptoconops occur in the tropics, sub-tropics, the Caribbean, and some coastal areas of southeast Florida.

The natural habitats of biting midges vary by species. Areas with substantial salt marsh habitat are major producers of many biting midge species, while some species prefer areas that possess highly organic [[soil]] that is wet but not underwater, such as those found with high manure loads in swine-, sheep-, and cattle farming. These [[insects]] do not establish inside homes, apartments, or inside humans or other [[animals]]. [2]

==Life cycle==

[[File:Lifecycle_biting_midges_500px.png|left|Biting midge life cycle. (Illustration by: Scott Charlesworth, Purdue University, based in part on Pechuman, L.L. and H.J. Teskey, 1981, IN: Manual of Nearctic Diptera, Volume 1)[3]]]

The eggs are approximately 0.25 mm long. They are white when first laid, but later turn brown or black. The eggs are laid on moist soil and cannot withstand drying out. Some species can lay up to 450 eggs per batch and as many as seven batches in a lifespan. Eggs typically hatch within two to ten days of being laid, the hatch time being dependent on the species and environmental temperatures.

Larvae develop through four instars; the first instar larvae possess a functional spine-bearing proleg. Pupal color can be pale yellow, light brown, or dark brown. They are 2 to 5 mm in length with an unsegmented cephalothorax that has a pair of respiratory horns that may bear spines or wrinkles. During this stage, the insects possess a spiny integument which can be used to identify the fly to species level. [2]

The adult no-see-ums are gray and less than 1/8-inch long. The two wings possess dense hairs and pigmentation patterns. The wing patterns are used by biologists to identify and differentiate species. The large compound eyes are more or less contiguous above the bases of the 15-segmented antennae. The pedicle of the males' antennae contains the Johnston's organ. The mouthparts are well-developed with cutting teeth on elongated mandibles in the proboscis, adapted for blood-sucking in females, but not in males. The thorax extends slightly over the head, and the abdomen is nine-segmented and tapered at the end. [2]

==Diet==

No-see-ums are mostly predatory, although some are also collectors, gatherers, and scrapers. The predatory species feed on a range of macroinvertebrates, such as roundworms. The species that are collectors and gatherers tend to feed on [[algae]], fungi, and [[decomposing]] organic material from plants, soil, bacteria, and feces. Adult no-see-ums feed on flower nectar, and females also need blood from insects, reptiles, or mammals to reproduce.[4]

==Importance==

The bite of a no-see-um can cause a burning sensation as well as a small red welt. Allergic reactions, including itching, may also occur. Because of their small size, many people would be unaware they were being bitten by a no-see-um if not for the associated irritation and slight pain with the bite, similar to that of mosquitoes. No-see-ums usually bite during the hours of dusk and dawn and rarely bite during daytime hours. Females primarily feed on mammals, but they may also feed on other animals such as birds, amphibians, and reptiles.[5]

While they are a nuisance, no-see-ums are not known to spread pathogens causing human disease in the United States. They can, however, infect other animals such as horses, cattle, and deer with viruses that cause diseases like blue tongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease. In affected countries, these diseases can cause millions of dollars in annual livestock production losses.[5]

Although they are not considered to be a threat in the United States, in Central and South America, western and central Africa, and some Caribbean islands, biting midges are the vectors of filarial worms in the genus Mansonella. These parasites cause infection in humans that produces dermatitis and skin lesions because the adult worms are located in the skin.

==References==

[1]
Boorman, J. (1993). Biting midges (Ceratopogonidae). In: Lane, R.P., Crosskey, R.W. (eds) Medical Insects and Arachnids. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1554-4_7

[2]
Connelly, C. R. (2013). Biting midges, no-see-ums Culicoides spp. (Insecta: Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). EDIS, 2013(5). doi:10.32473/edis-in626-2013

[3]
Purdue University Extension. (n.d.). Biting Midges (No-see-ums). Purdue University. Retrieved May 2, 2025, from https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publichealth/insects/bitingmidge.html

[4]
EcoSpark. (n.d.). No-see-um. Retrieved May 2, 2025, from https://www.ecospark.ca/no-see-um

[5]
Terminix. (n.d.). What are no-see-ums? Retrieved May 2, 2025, from https://www.terminix.com/blog/bug-facts/what-are-no-see-ums/

[6]
Wilson, Nixon A. “Acarid.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 27 Dec. 2017, www.britannica.com/animal/acarid.

[7]
NCSU Veterinary Parasitology, parasitology.cvm.ncsu.edu/vmp930/keys/mites/miteterms.html.

[8]
Gulvik, M. "[[Mites]] ([[Acari]]) as indicators of soil biodiversity and land use monitoring: a review." Polish Journal of [[Ecology]] 55.3 (2007): 415.

File:No see um1 400px.jpg

2025-05-02T16:58:17Z

Imfiguer:

No-see-ums

2025-05-02T16:57:06Z

Imfiguer:

==Description and Distribution==

[[File:No_see_um_resized.jpg|right|No-see-um]]
No-see-ums, also known as Ceratopogonidae, are defined as a family of small nematocerous flies, usually less than 3 or 4 mm in length. They are closely related to the Chironomidae, the non-biting midges, but differ from them in the presence of biting mouthparts in the female, the wing venation, and by the short forelegs. They are best known as ′biting midges′, but are also called ′sandflies′, ′punkies′ or simply ′biting gnats′. Roughly 5000 species in 60 or more genera have been described. They can be found worldwide, with the exception of the Arctic and Antarctic. [1] The distribution of species in the genus Culicoides is worldwide; 47 species are known to occur in Florida. Species belonging to the genus Leptoconops occur in the tropics, sub-tropics, the Caribbean, and some coastal areas of southeast Florida.

The natural habitats of biting midges vary by species. Areas with substantial salt marsh habitat are major producers of many biting midge species, while some species prefer areas that possess highly organic [[soil]] that is wet but not underwater, such as those found with high manure loads in swine-, sheep-, and cattle farming. These [[insects]] do not establish inside homes, apartments, or inside humans or other animals. [2]

==Life cycle==

[[File:Lifecycle_biting_midges_500px.png|left|Biting midge life cycle. (Illustration by: Scott Charlesworth, Purdue University, based in part on Pechuman, L.L. and H.J. Teskey, 1981, IN: Manual of Nearctic Diptera, Volume 1)[3]]]

The eggs are approximately 0.25 mm long. They are white when first laid, but later turn brown or black. The eggs are laid on moist soil and cannot withstand drying out. Some species can lay up to 450 eggs per batch and as many as seven batches in a lifespan. Eggs typically hatch within two to ten days of being laid, the hatch time being dependent on the species and environmental temperatures.

Larvae develop through four instars; the first instar larvae possess a functional spine-bearing proleg. Pupal color can be pale yellow, light brown, or dark brown. They are 2 to 5 mm in length with an unsegmented cephalothorax that has a pair of respiratory horns that may bear spines or wrinkles. During this stage, the insects possess a spiny integument which can be used to identify the fly to species level. [2]

The adult no-see-ums are gray and less than 1/8-inch long. The two wings possess dense hairs and pigmentation patterns. The wing patterns are used by biologists to identify and differentiate species. The large compound eyes are more or less contiguous above the bases of the 15-segmented antennae. The pedicle of the males' antennae contains the Johnston's organ. The mouthparts are well-developed with cutting teeth on elongated mandibles in the proboscis, adapted for blood-sucking in females, but not in males. The thorax extends slightly over the head, and the abdomen is nine-segmented and tapered at the end. [2]

==Diet==

No-see-ums are mostly predatory, although some are also collectors, gatherers, and scrapers. The predatory species feed on a range of macroinvertebrates, such as roundworms. The species that are collectors and gatherers tend to feed on [[algae]], fungi, and [[decomposing]] organic material from plants, soil, bacteria, and feces. Adult no-see-ums feed on flower nectar, and females also need blood from insects, reptiles, or mammals to reproduce.[4]

==See also==

*[[Microorganisms]]
*[[Organisms]]
*[[Smaller Creatures]]
*[[Animals]]
*[[Nematodes]]
*[[Springtail]]
*[[Soil organisms]]
*[[Tardigrades]]

==References==

[1]
Boorman, J. (1993). Biting midges (Ceratopogonidae). In: Lane, R.P., Crosskey, R.W. (eds) Medical Insects and Arachnids. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1554-4_7

[2]
Connelly, C. R. (2013). Biting midges, no-see-ums Culicoides spp. (Insecta: Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). EDIS, 2013(5). doi:10.32473/edis-in626-2013

[3]
Purdue University Extension. (n.d.). Biting Midges (No-see-ums). Purdue University. Retrieved May 2, 2025, from https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publichealth/insects/bitingmidge.html

[4]
EcoSpark. (n.d.). No-see-um. Retrieved May 2, 2025, from https://www.ecospark.ca/no-see-um

[5]
“[[Acari]].” Acari - Entomologists' Glossary - Amateur Entomologists' Society (AES), www.amentsoc.org/insects/glossary/terms/acari.

[6]
Wilson, Nixon A. “Acarid.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 27 Dec. 2017, www.britannica.com/animal/acarid.

[7]
NCSU Veterinary Parasitology, parasitology.cvm.ncsu.edu/vmp930/keys/mites/miteterms.html.

[8]
Gulvik, M. "[[Mites]] (Acari) as indicators of soil biodiversity and land use monitoring: a review." Polish Journal of [[Ecology]] 55.3 (2007): 415.

No-see-ums

2025-05-02T16:56:50Z

Imfiguer: Created page with "==Description and Distribution== No-see-um No-see-ums, also known as Ceratopogonidae, are defined as a family of small nematocerous flies, usually less than 3 or 4 mm in length. They are closely related to the Chironomidae, the non-biting midges, but differ from them in the presence of biting mouthparts in the female, the wing venation, and by the short forelegs. They are best known as ′biting midges′, but are also called ′sand..."

==Description and Distribution==

[[File:No_see_um_resized.jpg|right|No-see-um]]
No-see-ums, also known as Ceratopogonidae, are defined as a family of small nematocerous flies, usually less than 3 or 4 mm in length. They are closely related to the Chironomidae, the non-biting midges, but differ from them in the presence of biting mouthparts in the female, the wing venation, and by the short forelegs. They are best known as ′biting midges′, but are also called ′sandflies′, ′punkies′ or simply ′biting gnats′. Roughly 5000 species in 60 or more genera have been described. They can be found worldwide, with the exception of the Arctic and Antarctic. [1] The distribution of species in the genus Culicoides is worldwide; 47 species are known to occur in Florida. Species belonging to the genus Leptoconops occur in the tropics, sub-tropics, the Caribbean, and some coastal areas of southeast Florida.

The natural habitats of biting midges vary by species. Areas with substantial salt marsh habitat are major producers of many biting midge species, while some species prefer areas that possess highly organic [[soil]] that is wet but not underwater, such as those found with high manure loads in swine-, sheep-, and cattle farming. These insects do not establish inside homes, apartments, or inside humans or other animals. [2]

==Life cycle==

[[File:Lifecycle_biting_midges_500px.png|left|Biting midge life cycle. (Illustration by: Scott Charlesworth, Purdue University, based in part on Pechuman, L.L. and H.J. Teskey, 1981, IN: Manual of Nearctic Diptera, Volume 1)[3]]]

The eggs are approximately 0.25 mm long. They are white when first laid, but later turn brown or black. The eggs are laid on moist soil and cannot withstand drying out. Some species can lay up to 450 eggs per batch and as many as seven batches in a lifespan. Eggs typically hatch within two to ten days of being laid, the hatch time being dependent on the species and environmental temperatures.

Larvae develop through four instars; the first instar larvae possess a functional spine-bearing proleg. Pupal color can be pale yellow, light brown, or dark brown. They are 2 to 5 mm in length with an unsegmented cephalothorax that has a pair of respiratory horns that may bear spines or wrinkles. During this stage, the insects possess a spiny integument which can be used to identify the fly to species level. [2]

The adult no-see-ums are gray and less than 1/8-inch long. The two wings possess dense hairs and pigmentation patterns. The wing patterns are used by biologists to identify and differentiate species. The large compound eyes are more or less contiguous above the bases of the 15-segmented antennae. The pedicle of the males' antennae contains the Johnston's organ. The mouthparts are well-developed with cutting teeth on elongated mandibles in the proboscis, adapted for blood-sucking in females, but not in males. The thorax extends slightly over the head, and the abdomen is nine-segmented and tapered at the end. [2]

==Diet==

No-see-ums are mostly predatory, although some are also collectors, gatherers, and scrapers. The predatory species feed on a range of macroinvertebrates, such as roundworms. The species that are collectors and gatherers tend to feed on [[algae]], fungi, and [[decomposing]] organic material from plants, soil, bacteria, and feces. Adult no-see-ums feed on flower nectar, and females also need blood from insects, reptiles, or mammals to reproduce.[4]

==Anatomy==

[[File:mitie.jpg|thumb|right|Basic Mite Anatomy [7]]]
Mite size varies from 0.1 mm to 10 mm in length. They are most closely related to spiders than [[insects]]. They have the same characteristics of jointed legs and a chitinous exoskeleton. [[Acari]] have an open circulating system, ventral nerve cord, alimentary canal and striated muscles and may also possess Malpighian tubules. Acari lack antennae and mandibles [4]. The acarine body is divided into gnathosoma and idiosoma. The gnathosoma is the part of the body of the Acari comprising the mouth and feeding parts, and the idiosoma bears the legs, the genital and anal openings, and an assortment of tactile and sensory structures.

==See also==

*[[Microorganisms]]
*[[Organisms]]
*[[Smaller Creatures]]
*[[Animals]]
*[[Nematodes]]
*[[Springtail]]
*[[Soil organisms]]
*[[Tardigrades]]

==References==

[1]
Boorman, J. (1993). Biting midges (Ceratopogonidae). In: Lane, R.P., Crosskey, R.W. (eds) Medical Insects and Arachnids. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1554-4_7

[2]
Connelly, C. R. (2013). Biting midges, no-see-ums Culicoides spp. (Insecta: Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). EDIS, 2013(5). doi:10.32473/edis-in626-2013

[3]
Purdue University Extension. (n.d.). Biting Midges (No-see-ums). Purdue University. Retrieved May 2, 2025, from https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/publichealth/insects/bitingmidge.html

[4]
EcoSpark. (n.d.). No-see-um. Retrieved May 2, 2025, from https://www.ecospark.ca/no-see-um

[5]
“Acari.” Acari - Entomologists' Glossary - Amateur Entomologists' Society (AES), www.amentsoc.org/insects/glossary/terms/acari.

[6]
Wilson, Nixon A. “Acarid.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 27 Dec. 2017, www.britannica.com/animal/acarid.

[7]
NCSU Veterinary Parasitology, parasitology.cvm.ncsu.edu/vmp930/keys/mites/miteterms.html.

[8]
Gulvik, M. "[[Mites]] (Acari) as indicators of soil biodiversity and land use monitoring: a review." Polish Journal of [[Ecology]] 55.3 (2007): 415.

File:Lifecycle biting midges 500px.png

2025-05-02T16:22:44Z

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File:Lifecycle biting midges 400px.png

2025-05-02T16:19:11Z

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File:No see um resized.jpg

2025-05-02T16:07:26Z

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File:No see um.jpg

2025-05-02T16:03:54Z

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Snow flea

2025-03-29T18:01:38Z

Imfiguer:

== Description ==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 12px;
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Snow_flea_2.jpg|Snow flea full body view]]
|-
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Domain:
|style="min-width:6em; |Eukaryota
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropod]]a
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hexapoda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Collembola
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Poduromorpha
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hypogastruridae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hypogastrura
|}

Snow fleas are members of the [[Collembola]] class and are relatively small (typically around 1.5 to 2 millimeters in length), with as many as six abdominal segments [1]. They are a part of the subclass commonly known as springtails. They have a tubular appendage called a collophore, which protrudes from the first abdominal segment. The collophore used to be thought to be a stabilizing mechanism for the [[collembola]] when it jumped by sticking to the surface on which it landed. More recent research has concluded that the collophore is used in osmoregulation, water intake, and excretion [2].

[[Collembola]] that live in the upper [[soil]] layers are often referred to as Springtails because of a tail-like appendage found among most species, called the furcula. It is a forked appendage attached to the fourth segment by a structure called the retinaculum and is used for jumping when the animal is threatened; it is not used for normal locomotion [3]. These tubes are also thought to play a role in water intake and help the snow fleas adhere to surfaces. Recent flash freeze photography revealed that these tubes could provide direction for the snow flea spring [4].

Snow fleas get their names from their behavior of jumping on top of snow, thus looking similar to fleas. These organisms can maintain life on top of snow cover through their ability to produce a glycine-rich antifreeze-like protein that keeps their bodies from freezing. [5]

== Habitat & Distribution ==

Snow fleas are typically found in leaf litter and other decaying organic material in and on the top layer of soil [6]. They can also be found in the winter months on top of snow, becoming more visible in footprints left behind in the snow.

[[File:Snowflea.jpg|thumb|left|Snow Flea [13]]]

Springtails, including snow fleas, are one of the most abundant macroscopic [[animals]] in the world, with estimates of 100,000 individuals per square meter of ground where soil and [[moss]] occur [8]. The only other amimals with global populations of a similar size are thought to be [[nematodes]], crustaceans, and [[mites]]. Most springtails are difficult to see with the naked eye with few exceptions, including the snow flea [9].

The distribution of snow fleas is affected by environmental factors such as soil acidity, moisture, and light. Altitudinal changes in species distribution can be at least partially explained by increased acidity at higher elevation, and moisture requirements explain why some species cannot live above ground, or retreat into the soil during dry seasons [12] [13].

== Diet ==

Snow fleas are detritivores, but their diets are very diverse, as they feed on things like leaf litter, living plant material, algae, fungi, and other microorganisms, including protozoans and nematodes. They act as both predators and prey for larger organisms. [4]

== Environmental Indicators ==

Collembola are useful bio-indicators of soil quality. Studies have found that the jumping ability of springtails can be used to evaluate the quality of Cu- and Ni-polluted soils [19]. Snow fleas are sensitive to certain chemicals in the soils, therefore, their appearance in an area can lead to conclusions being made regarding the chemical composition of the surrounding soils. The snow fleas are also known to move spores of mycorrhizal fungi as well as destroying plant pathogens, therefore leading to the conclusion that their presence is an indicator of healthy soils [12].

== References ==
1. Davies, W. Maldwyn (1927). "On the tracheal system of Collembola, with special reference to that of Sminthurus viridis, Lubb" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. 71 (281): 15–30.

2. Eisenbeis, G., 1982. Physiological absorption of liquid water by Collembola: absorption by the ventral tube at different salinities. Journal of Insect Physiology 28:11–20.

3. Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

4. Rosovsky, Judy. "An Introduction to Snow Fleas". https://agriculture.vermont.gov/introduction-snow-fleas#:~:text=Snow%20fleas%20have%20a%20structure,and%20away%20from%20potential%20enemies.

5. Lin, Feng-Hsu, "Structural Modeling of Snow Flea Antifreeze Protein". doi: https://doi.org/10.1529/biophysj.106.093435.

6. Hopkin, Stephen P. (1997). "The biology of the Collembola (springtails): the most abundant [[insects]] in the world" (PDF). Natural History Museum.

7. Ponge, Jean-François; Arpin, Pierre; Sondag, Francis & Delecour, Ferdinand (1997). "Soil fauna and site assessment in beech stands of the Belgian Ardennes" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 27 (12): 2053–2064. doi:10.1139/cjfr-27-12-2053.

8. Island Creek Elementary School. "Snow Flea. Hypogastrura nivicola". Study of Northern Virginia [[Ecology]]. Fairfax County Public Schools.

9.Loranger, Gladys; Bandyopadhyaya, Ipsa; Razaka, Barbara & Ponge, Jean-François (2001). "Does soil acidity explain altitudinal sequences in collembolan communities?" (PDF). Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 33 (3): 381–393. doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(00)00153-X.

10. Detsis, Vassilis (2000). "Vertical distribution of Collembola in deciduous forests under Mediterranean climatic conditions" (PDF). Belgian Journal of Zoology. 130 (Supplement 1): 57–61.

11. Kim, Shin Woong & An, Youn-Joo (2014). "Jumping behavior of the [[springtail]] Folsomia candida as a novel soil quality indicator in metal-contaminated soils". Ecological Indicators. 38: 67–71. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.10.033.

12. Mcilveen (2013). "Snow Fleas". Halton/North Peel Naturalist Club. https://hnpnc.com/site/snow-fleas#:~:text=Snow%20Fleas%20are%20able%20to,certain%20chemicals%20in%20the%20soil.

13. Dove, P. L. (2017, February). Snow Flea [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://www.flickriver.com/photos/pldove/32945915875/

14. University of Minnesota Extension. Snow Flea [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://apps.extension.umn.edu/garden/diagnose/insect/general-curiosity-insects/beetles/small/snow-flea.html

Snow flea

2025-03-29T17:59:27Z

Imfiguer: Created page with "== Description == {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 12px; |- |colspan="2" |Snow flea full body view |- |+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification''' |- !style="min-width:6em; |Domain: |style="min-width:6em; |Eukaryota |- !style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom: |style="min-width:6em; |Animalia |- !style="min-width:6em; |Phylum: |style="..."

== Description ==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 12px;
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Snow_flea_2.jpg|Snow flea full body view]]
|-
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Domain:
|style="min-width:6em; |Eukaryota
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropod]]a
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hexapoda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Collembola
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Poduromorpha
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hypogastruridae
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!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hypogastrura
|}

Snow fleas are members of the [[Collembola]] class and are relatively small (typically around 1.5 to 2 millimeters in length), with as many as six abdominal segments [1]. They are a part of the subclass commonly known as springtails. They have a tubular appendage called a collophore, which protrudes from the first abdominal segment. The collophore used to be thought to be a stabilizing mechanism for the [[collembola]] when it jumped by sticking to the surface on which it landed. More recent research has concluded that the collophore is used in osmoregulation, water intake, and excretion [2].

[[Collembola]] that live in the upper [[soil]] layers are often referred to as Springtails because of a tail-like appendage found among most species, called the furcula. It is a forked appendage attached to the fourth segment by a structure called the retinaculum and is used for jumping when the animal is threatened; it is not used for normal locomotion [3]. These tubes are also thought to play a role in water intake and help the snow fleas adhere to surfaces. Recent flash freeze photography revealed that these tubes could provide direction for the snow flea spring [4].

Snow fleas get their names from their behavior of jumping on top of snow, thus looking similar to fleas. These organisms can maintain life on top of snow cover through their ability to produce a glycine-rich antifreeze-like protein that keeps their bodies from freezing. [5]

== Habitat & Distribution ==

Snow fleas are typically found in leaf litter and other decaying organic material in and on the top layer of soil [6]. They can also be found in the winter months on top of snow, becoming more visible in footprints left behind in the snow.

[[File:Snowflea.jpg|thumb|left|Snow Flea [21]]]

Springtails, including snow fleas, are one of the most abundant macroscopic [[animals]] in the world, with estimates of 100,000 individuals per square meter of ground where soil and [[moss]] occur [8]. The only other amimals with global populations of a similar size are thought to be [[nematodes]], crustaceans, and [[mites]]. Most springtails are difficult to see with the naked eye with few exceptions, including the snow flea [9].

The distribution of snow fleas is affected by environmental factors such as soil acidity, moisture, and light. Altitudinal changes in species distribution can be at least partially explained by increased acidity at higher elevation, and moisture requirements explain why some species cannot live above ground, or retreat into the soil during dry seasons [12] [13].

== Diet ==

Snow fleas are detritivores, but their diets are very diverse, as they feed on things like leaf litter, living plant material, algae, fungi, and other microorganisms, including protozoans and nematodes. They act as both predators and prey for larger organisms. [4]

== Environmental Indicators ==

Collembola are useful bio-indicators of soil quality. Studies have found that the jumping ability of springtails can be used to evaluate the quality of Cu- and Ni-polluted soils [19]. Snow fleas are sensitive to certain chemicals in the soils, therefore, their appearance in an area can lead to conclusions being made regarding the chemical composition of the surrounding soils. The snow fleas are also known to move spores of mycorrhizal fungi as well as destroying plant pathogens, therefore leading to the conclusion that their presence is an indicator of healthy soils [12].

== References ==
1. Davies, W. Maldwyn (1927). "On the tracheal system of Collembola, with special reference to that of Sminthurus viridis, Lubb" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. 71 (281): 15–30.

2. Eisenbeis, G., 1982. Physiological absorption of liquid water by Collembola: absorption by the ventral tube at different salinities. Journal of Insect Physiology 28:11–20.

3. Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

4. Rosovsky, Judy. "An Introduction to Snow Fleas". https://agriculture.vermont.gov/introduction-snow-fleas#:~:text=Snow%20fleas%20have%20a%20structure,and%20away%20from%20potential%20enemies.

5. Lin, Feng-Hsu, "Structural Modeling of Snow Flea Antifreeze Protein". doi: https://doi.org/10.1529/biophysj.106.093435.

6. Hopkin, Stephen P. (1997). "The biology of the Collembola (springtails): the most abundant [[insects]] in the world" (PDF). Natural History Museum.

7. Ponge, Jean-François; Arpin, Pierre; Sondag, Francis & Delecour, Ferdinand (1997). "Soil fauna and site assessment in beech stands of the Belgian Ardennes" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 27 (12): 2053–2064. doi:10.1139/cjfr-27-12-2053.

8. Island Creek Elementary School. "Snow Flea. Hypogastrura nivicola". Study of Northern Virginia [[Ecology]]. Fairfax County Public Schools.

9.Loranger, Gladys; Bandyopadhyaya, Ipsa; Razaka, Barbara & Ponge, Jean-François (2001). "Does soil acidity explain altitudinal sequences in collembolan communities?" (PDF). Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 33 (3): 381–393. doi:10.1016/S0038-0717(00)00153-X.

10. Detsis, Vassilis (2000). "Vertical distribution of Collembola in deciduous forests under Mediterranean climatic conditions" (PDF). Belgian Journal of Zoology. 130 (Supplement 1): 57–61.

11. Kim, Shin Woong & An, Youn-Joo (2014). "Jumping behavior of the [[springtail]] Folsomia candida as a novel soil quality indicator in metal-contaminated soils". Ecological Indicators. 38: 67–71. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.10.033.

12. Mcilveen (2013). "Snow Fleas". Halton/North Peel Naturalist Club. https://hnpnc.com/site/snow-fleas#:~:text=Snow%20Fleas%20are%20able%20to,certain%20chemicals%20in%20the%20soil.

21. Dove, P. L. (2017, February). Snow Flea [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://www.flickriver.com/photos/pldove/32945915875/

File:Snow flea 2.jpg

2025-03-29T17:53:04Z

Imfiguer:

File:Snow flea.jpg

2025-03-29T17:38:02Z

Imfiguer:

Tardigrades

2025-03-06T18:18:46Z

Imfiguer:

[[file:Tardigrade.JPG|right|thumb|The archetypal tardigrade [9].]]
=Tardigrades=

Tardigrades are microscopic [[invertebrates]] who typically live in [[wikipedia:moss|moss]], [[lichen]], leaf litter, soils, and aquatic environments. Their name is loosely translated to “slow walker” as they walk slowly on small stubbly legs often attaching themselves to debris [9]. The body lengths of tardigrades are generally less than 1 mm and they lack a dorsal heart, circulatory system, and respiratory system [11]. Despite their differences in morphology from sister taxa, tardigrades have the ability to thrive in a [[diversity]] of habitats. Their widespread presence is partially attributed to their ability to enter a cryptobiotic state. In this state, metabolic activities stop and tardigrades enter a lifeless form until conditions are more favorable. This cryptobiotic state can be induced by [[wikipedia:anhydrobiosis|anhydrobiosis]], [[wikipedia:osmobiosis|osmobiosis]], [[wikipedia:anoxybiosis|anoxybiosis]], [[wikipedia:cryobiosis|cryobiosis]] and more [5]. The ability of tardigrades to withstand extreme environments including the vacuum of a space has given them much attention in research.

=Morphology=
[[file: Tardigrade_boy.JPG|thumb|left|400px| A labeled diagram of the body parts of a tardigrade [9].]]

Tardigrades fall under the phyla of [[wikipedia:ecdysozoans|ecdysozoans]], as they are encased in a cuticle which they shed as they grow [9]. They have five body sections including their head, and each body section is fitted with two claws; totaling eight. They also have a complete digestive system with a sucking pharynx which leads to an esophagus, stomach, intestine, and anus. Tardigrades have a dorsal brain with a ventral nervous system which supports a variety of complex sensory functions including light-sensitive eyes [8]. Additionally, tardigrades are equipped with a hemocoel, or a body cavity, that touches every cell eliminating the need for circulatory and respiratory systems and directly allowing for nutrition and gas exchange.

[[File:Tardigrade_states.JPG|right|thumb|450 px|sub|Depicted above are the various forms of cryptobiosis that tardigrades endure [9].]]

=Physiology=

Tardigrades are one of the few species to be found on all continents, withstanding many sorts of extreme environmental conditions. Survivorship in tardigrades is attributed to their ability to enter a cryptobiotic state. While many tardigrades possess the ability to enter this lifeless state, those that dwell in relatively stable marine and aquatic ecosystems have not evolved these characteristics [9]. Research has shown that survival adaptations are primarily a response to changing conditions in terrestrial environments. Terrestrial dwelling tardigrades have three states of being known as active, anoxybiosis and cryptobiosis. An active state is a normal way of life in which tardigrades carry out their typical routines. In an anoxybiotic state, oxygen levels are low and osmoregulatory controls begin to fail which causes tardigrades to puff up and float around. Finally, a cryptobiotic stage is an ametabolic state in which a tardigrade becomes dormant until conditions are more favorable. This state can be induced by desiccation (anhydrobiosis) , freezing (cryobiosis), exposure to extreme salinity (osmobiosis), lack of oxygen (anoxybiosis), and other extreme conditions [5]. Anhydrobiosis is common for tardigrades and they can return to their active state in a few minutes to hours after they are rehydrated by precipitation. In cryobiois, if a tardigrade is exposed to temperatures below the freezing point of its cytoplasm, metabolism is suspended. The release of cryoprotectants alter the freezing temperature of tissues allowing for a slower transition into cryobiosis [10]. During exposure to extreme salinities, tardigrades may curl up into a dry husk known as a “tun”. Recent research has proven that tardigrades are able to withstand temperatures of -272.8 degrees Celsius, a temperature at which atoms come to a complete standstill. Tardigrades have even been shown to survive the vacuum of space and serve as a model for research into surviving space conditions [1,6,7].

[[file:Tardigrade_sex.JPG ‎|left|thumb|200px| Sexual reproduction in tardigrades [12].]]

=Reproduction=

Tardigrades can reproduce via various methods. Some tardigrades are [[wikipedia:parthenogenic|parthenogenic]], meaning they are able to produce eggs without mating. Others are hermaphroditic, meaning that they possess the ability to self-fertilize. Some are capable of sexual reproduction. Parthenogenic tardigrades produce offspring which develop from gametes. Parthenogenesis can operate on a haploid or a diploid cell and allow for colonization of a new territory by a single individual [3]. [[wikipedia:Hermaphroditism|Hermaphroditism]] was once thought to be the least common form of reproduction in tardigrades, but has now been found in four of five of the families of eutardigrades [2]. Self-fertilization appears in species in freshwater, [[wikipedia:mosses|mosses]], [[wikipedia:leaf litter|leaf litter]], [[wikipedia:soils|soils]] and occasionally in marine species [3,4]. During sexual reproduction, a female will lay eggs during her molting period. These eggs are laid inside the outer layer of a tardigrade’s cuticle. A male will approach the female from behind and ejaculate into the female’s outer layer of skin and fertilization takes place externally.

=References=

[1] Arakawa, K., & Blaxter, M. (2018). Tardigrades in space. Biologist.

[2] Bertolani, R. (1979). Hermaphroditism in tardigrades. International Journal of Invertebrate Reproduction, 1(1), 67–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/01651269.1979.10553300

[3] Bertolani, R. (2001). Evolution of the Reproductive Mechanisms in Tardigrades –A Review. Zoologischer Anzeiger, 240(August 2000), 247–252. https://doi.org/10.1078/0044-5231-00032

[4] Bingemer, J., Hohberg, K., & Schill, R. O. (2016). First detailed observations on tardigrade mating behaviour and some aspects of the life history ofIsohypsibius dastychiPilato, Bertolani & Binda 1982 (Tardigrada, Isohypsibiidae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society,178(4), 856-862. doi:10.1111/zoj.12435

[5] Hengherr, S., Worland, M. R., Reuner, A., Brummer, F., & Schill, R. O. (2009). Freeze tolerance, supercooling points and ice formation: comparative studies on the subzero temperature survival of limno-terrestrial tardigrades. Journal of Experimental Biology, 212(6), 802–807. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.025973

[6] Jönsson, K. I. (2007). Tardigrades as a Potential Model Organism in Space Research. Astrobiology, 7(5), 757–766. https://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2006.0088

[7] Jönsson, K. I., Rabbow, E., Schill, R. O., Harms-Ringdahl, M., & Rettberg, P. (2008). Tardigrades survive exposure to space in low Earth orbit. Current Biology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.06.048

[8] Miller, W. R. (2004). Tardigrades. Bears of the Canopy. In Forest Canopies: Second Edition (pp. 251–258). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012457553-0/50018-6

[9] Miller, W. R. (2011). Tardigrades. American Scientist, 99(5), 384–391. https://doi.org/10.1511/2011.92.384

[10] Møbjerg, N., Halberg, K. A., Jørgensen, A., Persson, D., Bjørn, M., Ramløv, H., & Kristensen, R. M. (2011). Survival in extreme environments - on the current knowledge of adaptations in tardigrades. Acta Physiologica (Oxford, England). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1716.2011.02252.x

[11] Schmidt-Rhaesa, A. (2001). Tardigrades -- Are They Really Miniaturized Dwarfs? Zoologischer Anzeiger - A Journal of Comparative Zoology, 240(3–4), 549–555. https://doi.org/10.1078/0044-5231-00066

[12] https://i.pinimg.com/originals/b0/29/9e/b0299e1afef294beef55d120b734190d.jpg