https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=GracecosSoil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-15T05:07:17ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.0https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7282Moles2021-05-07T20:06:19Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are [[Subterranean Ecology|subterranean]] macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii'') [8].<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Domain<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal [1]. Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines [2]. They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface [3]. They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas [1]. However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns [4]. Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed [1]. They are found throughout North America and Eurasia [4].<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network [1].]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds [1]. Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days [2]. Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation [5]. <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used [6]. This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm [9].]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworm|earthworms]] [2]. The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice [4]. Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations [7]. Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn [2]. These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others [4]. Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows [8].<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer [[loam|loamy]], rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial [5].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=7113Naked amoebae2021-05-07T00:48:38Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Overview'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the simplest and most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|350x350px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
Movement of protists varies greatly amongst species, however it generally involves the polymerization of cytoskeletal proteins (actin and myosin) at the leading edge of the pseudopod, followed by the flow of cytoplasmic material into the vacancy produced through the polymerization process. The flow of cytoplasm provides the momentum necessary to propel the organism [7].<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria [5].<br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7112Moles2021-05-07T00:37:58Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are [[Subterranean Ecology|subterranean]] macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii'') [8].<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | Domain<br />
! scope="col" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="col" | Phylum<br />
! scope="col" | Class<br />
! scope="col" | Order<br />
! scope="col" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Classification<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal [1]. Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines [2]. They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface [3]. They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas [1]. However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns [4]. Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed [1]. They are found throughout North America and Eurasia [4].<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network [1].]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds [1]. Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days [2]. Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation [5]. <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used [6]. This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm [9].]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworm|earthworms]] [2]. The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice [4]. Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations [7]. Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn [2]. These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others [4]. Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows [8].<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer [[loam|loamy]], rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial [5].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7111Moles2021-05-07T00:37:36Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are [[subterranean ecology|subterranean]] macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii'') [8].<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | Domain<br />
! scope="col" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="col" | Phylum<br />
! scope="col" | Class<br />
! scope="col" | Order<br />
! scope="col" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Classification<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal [1]. Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines [2]. They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface [3]. They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas [1]. However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns [4]. Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed [1]. They are found throughout North America and Eurasia [4].<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network [1].]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds [1]. Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days [2]. Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation [5]. <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used [6]. This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm [9].]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworm|earthworms]] [2]. The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice [4]. Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations [7]. Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn [2]. These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others [4]. Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows [8].<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer [[loam|loamy]], rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial [5].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7110Moles2021-05-07T00:37:11Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are [[subterranean ecosystem|subterranean]] macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii'') [8].<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | Domain<br />
! scope="col" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="col" | Phylum<br />
! scope="col" | Class<br />
! scope="col" | Order<br />
! scope="col" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Classification<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal [1]. Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines [2]. They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface [3]. They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas [1]. However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns [4]. Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed [1]. They are found throughout North America and Eurasia [4].<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network [1].]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds [1]. Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days [2]. Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation [5]. <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used [6]. This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm [9].]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworm|earthworms]] [2]. The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice [4]. Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations [7]. Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn [2]. These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others [4]. Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows [8].<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer [[loam|loamy]], rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial [5].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7109Moles2021-05-07T00:33:11Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii'') [8].<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | Domain<br />
! scope="col" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="col" | Phylum<br />
! scope="col" | Class<br />
! scope="col" | Order<br />
! scope="col" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Classification<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal [1]. Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines [2]. They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface [3]. They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas [1]. However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns [4]. Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed [1]. They are found throughout North America and Eurasia [4].<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network [1].]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds [1]. Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days [2]. Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation [5]. <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used [6]. This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm [9].]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworm|earthworms]] [2]. The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice [4]. Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations [7]. Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn [2]. These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others [4]. Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows [8].<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer [[loam|loamy]], rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial [5].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7108Moles2021-05-07T00:28:29Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii'') [8].<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | Domain<br />
! scope="col" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="col" | Phylum<br />
! scope="col" | Class<br />
! scope="col" | Order<br />
! scope="col" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Classification<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal [1]. Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines [2]. They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface [3]. They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas [1]. However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns [4]. Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed [1]. They are found throughout North America and Eurasia [4].<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network [1].]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds [1]. Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days [2]. Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation [5]. <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used [6]. This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm [9].]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworm|earthworms]] [2]. The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice [4]. Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations [7]. Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn [2]. These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others [4]. Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows [8].<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial [5].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7107Moles2021-05-07T00:26:09Z<p>Gracecos: /* Impact on Other Organisms */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | Domain<br />
! scope="col" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="col" | Phylum<br />
! scope="col" | Class<br />
! scope="col" | Order<br />
! scope="col" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Classification<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm [9].]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworm|earthworms]] [2]. The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice [4]. Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations [7]. Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn [2]. These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others [4]. Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows [8].<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial [5].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7106Moles2021-05-07T00:25:34Z<p>Gracecos: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | Domain<br />
! scope="col" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="col" | Phylum<br />
! scope="col" | Class<br />
! scope="col" | Order<br />
! scope="col" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Classification<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm [9].]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworm|earthworms]] [2]. The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice [4]. Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7105Moles2021-05-07T00:24:09Z<p>Gracecos: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | Domain<br />
! scope="col" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="col" | Phylum<br />
! scope="col" | Class<br />
! scope="col" | Order<br />
! scope="col" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Classification<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworm|earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7104Moles2021-05-07T00:18:15Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | Domain<br />
! scope="col" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="col" | Phylum<br />
! scope="col" | Class<br />
! scope="col" | Order<br />
! scope="col" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Classification<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7103Moles2021-05-07T00:17:46Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
'''Domain''': Eukaryota<br />
<br />
'''Kingdom''': Animalia<br />
<br />
'''Phylum''': Chordata<br />
<br />
'''Class''': Mammalia<br />
<br />
'''Order''': Insectivora<br />
<br />
'''Family''': Talpidae<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | Domain<br />
! scope="col" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="col" | Phylum<br />
! scope="col" | Class<br />
! scope="col" | Order<br />
! scope="col" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Classification<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7102Moles2021-05-07T00:17:23Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
'''Domain''': Eukaryota<br />
<br />
'''Kingdom''': Animalia<br />
<br />
'''Phylum''': Chordata<br />
<br />
'''Class''': Mammalia<br />
<br />
'''Order''': Insectivora<br />
<br />
'''Family''': Talpidae<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | Domain<br />
! scope="col" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="col" | Phylum<br />
! scope="col" | Class<br />
! scope="col" | Order<br />
! scope="col" | Family<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Mole Taxonomy<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7101Moles2021-05-07T00:16:45Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
'''Domain''': Eukaryota<br />
<br />
'''Kingdom''': Animalia<br />
<br />
'''Phylum''': Chordata<br />
<br />
'''Class''': Mammalia<br />
<br />
'''Order''': Insectivora<br />
<br />
'''Family''': Talpidae<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | [[Domain]]<br />
! scope="col" | [[Kingdom]]<br />
! scope="col" | [[Phylum]]<br />
! scope="col" | [[Class]]<br />
! scope="col" | [[Order]]<br />
! scope="col" | [[Family]]<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Mole Taxonomy<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7100Moles2021-05-07T00:14:42Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
'''Domain''': Eukaryota<br />
<br />
'''Kingdom''': Animalia<br />
<br />
'''Phylum''': Chordata<br />
<br />
'''Class''': Mammalia<br />
<br />
'''Order''': Insectivora<br />
<br />
'''Family''': Talpidae<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
!scope="col" | <br />
| Domain <br />
| Kingdom <br />
| Phylum <br />
| Class <br />
| Order <br />
| Family<br />
!scope="row" | <br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ [[Diversity]] of Lepidoptera in each faunal region<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="col" | [[Palearctic realm|Palearctic]]<br />
! scope="col" | [[Nearctic realm|Nearctic]]<br />
! scope="col" | [[Neotropical realm|Neotropic]]<br />
! scope="col" | [[Afrotropical realm|Afrotropic]]<br />
! scope="col" | Indo-Australian<br/>(comprising [[Indomalayan realm|Indomalayan]], [[Australasian realm|Australasian]], and [[Oceanian realm]]s)<br />
|-<br />
! scope="row" | Estimated number of species<br />
| 22,465<br />
| 11,532<br />
| 44,791<br />
| 20,491<br />
| 47,287<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7099Moles2021-05-07T00:13:36Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
'''Domain''': Eukaryota<br />
<br />
'''Kingdom''': Animalia<br />
<br />
'''Phylum''': Chordata<br />
<br />
'''Class''': Mammalia<br />
<br />
'''Order''': Insectivora<br />
<br />
'''Family''': Talpidae<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
!scope="col" | <br />
| Domain <br />
| Kingdom <br />
| Phylum <br />
| Class <br />
| Order <br />
| Family<br />
!scope="row" | <br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7098Moles2021-05-07T00:13:11Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
'''Domain''': Eukaryota<br />
<br />
'''Kingdom''': Animalia<br />
<br />
'''Phylum''': Chordata<br />
<br />
'''Class''': Mammalia<br />
<br />
'''Order''': Insectivora<br />
<br />
'''Family''': Talpidae<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ Mole Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
!scope="col" | [[<br />
| Domain <br />
| Kingdom <br />
| Phylum <br />
| Class <br />
| Order <br />
| Family<br />
!scope="col" | [[<br />
| Eukaroyta<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Cordata<br />
| Mammalia<br />
| Insectivora<br />
| Talpidae<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7097Moles2021-05-07T00:04:23Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
'''Domain''': Eukaryota<br />
<br />
'''Kingdom''': Animalia<br />
<br />
'''Phylum''': Chordata<br />
<br />
'''Class''': Mammalia<br />
<br />
'''Order''': Insectivora<br />
<br />
'''Family''': Talpidae<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
{{<br />
| Domain = Eukaryota<br />
| Kingdom = Animalia<br />
| Phylum = Cordata<br />
| Class = Mammalia<br />
| Order = Insectivora<br />
| Family = Talpidae<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7096Moles2021-05-07T00:03:05Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
'''Domain''': Eukaryota<br />
<br />
'''Kingdom''': Animalia<br />
<br />
'''Phylum''': Chordata<br />
<br />
'''Class''': Mammalia<br />
<br />
'''Order''': Insectivora<br />
<br />
'''Family''': Talpidae<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
{{ Species {{{machine code|}}}<br />
| Domain = Eukaryota<br />
| Kingdom = Animalia<br />
| Phylum = Cordata<br />
| Class = Mammalia<br />
| Order = Insectivora<br />
| Family = Talpidae<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7095Moles2021-05-07T00:02:44Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
'''Domain''': Eukaryota<br />
<br />
'''Kingdom''': Animalia<br />
<br />
'''Phylum''': Chordata<br />
<br />
'''Class''': Mammalia<br />
<br />
'''Order''': Insectivora<br />
<br />
'''Family''': Talpidae<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
<br />
{{Don't edit this line {{{machine code|}}}<br />
| Domain = Eukaryota<br />
| Kingdom = Animalia<br />
| Phylum = Cordata<br />
| Class = Mammalia<br />
| Order = Insectivora<br />
| Family = Talpidae<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Moles&diff=7094Moles2021-05-07T00:01:22Z<p>Gracecos: /* Taxonomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Mole Picture.jpg|thumb|This is an Eastern Mole, a member of the Talpidae family, of which it and other moles belong to. (This image is in the public domain.)]]<br />
Moles are subterranean macro-fauna that belong to the family Talpidae. They are often considered pests due to their burrowing habits, which can disturb [[soil]] and (indirectly) damage plants, but this can be beneficial as well. Due to these habits, moles can be considered ecosystem engineers. There are seven identified species of mole in North America: the Eastern Mole (''Scalopus aquaticus''), the Hairy-Tailed Mole (''Parascalops breweri''), the Star-Nosed Mole (''Condylura cristata''), the Broad-Footed Mole (''Scapanus latimanus''), Townsend’s Mole (''Scapanus townsendii''), the Coast Mole (''Scapanus orarius'') and the Shrew Mole (''Neurotrichus gibbsii''). [8]<br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
'''Domain''': Eukaryota<br />
<br />
'''Kingdom''': Animalia<br />
<br />
'''Phylum''': Chordata<br />
<br />
'''Class''': Mammalia<br />
<br />
'''Order''': Insectivora<br />
<br />
'''Family''': Talpidae<br />
<br />
This simplified list omits sub-categories. Moles may be confused as rodents (Order Rodentia) but this is incorrect.<br />
{{Speciesbox<br />
| Domain = Eukaryota<br />
| Kingdom = Animalia<br />
| Phylum = Cordata<br />
| Class = Mammalia<br />
| Order = Insectivora<br />
| Family = Talpidae<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Moles are typically 17.6 cm in length and 115 g in mass for males and 16.8 cm and 85 g for females. Other than these measurement differences, sexual dimorphism is minimal. [1] Males are called "boars" and females are called "sows", similar to bovines. [2] They are well-suited to subterranean lifestyles, often having long but narrow snouts of approximately 1.3 cm for hunting in their tunnels and large forelimbs to carve tunnels through the earth. Moles have on their noses Eimer's organs, which are sensory in nature and used to detect prey below the surface. [3] They prefer loose, moist, [[earthworm]]-abundant soils, typically in forested areas. [1] However, they are also often found in grasslands, meadows, and lawns. [4] Their eyes and ears are small and covered completely by fur, with no external flaps for the latter. They have forefeet that are broader than they are long, with webbed toes. Their hind feet are smaller, narrow, and clawed. [1] They are found throughout North America and Eurasia. [4]<br />
<br />
== Lifestyle ==<br />
[[File:Mole_Tunnels.jpg|thumb|A diagram of a potential mole tunnel network. [1]]]<br />
Moles are generally solitary, with the exception of the star-nosed mole, which lives in colonies. They live in dens, but construct networks of tunnels through their hunting grounds. [1] Reproduction occurs in late winter, with gestation taking 42 days. [2] Typically, a female has three to four young annually, which stay in the nest for about four weeks, after which they leave and become full sized by around three months. These nests are in the deep tunnels dug out by moles; the shallower ones that are usually visible are hunting tunnels. The typical mole lives for approximately three to six years, taking into account predation. [5] <br />
<br />
Moles are able to breathe in their cramped tunnels with blood adapted to have greater carbon dioxide capacities, allowing the mole to utilize and process air it has already used. [6] This remarkable adaptation allows moles to remain underground without suffocating. Even though their tunnels aerate the soil, this adaptation is necessary for the mole, which requires great energy (and therefore aerobic respiration) to live its subterranean life.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
[[File:mole.jpg|thumb|Mole eating an earthworm. [9]]]<br />
Moles are insectivores that hunt below the surface. Generally, moles feast upon [[insects]], [[slugs]], grubs, and [[earthworms]]. [2] The consumption of grubs is an often-overlooked benefit of moles, but their consumption of earthworms is detrimental due to the plethora of benefits earthworms provide for soils. Moles can poison earthworms with their saliva, resulting in paralyzation, and then store them for later feasting. Moles have also been known to eat small mice. [4] Contrary to popular belief, moles do not feed on [[plant roots]]. This is done by rodents, for which moles are often mistaken.<br />
<br />
== Impact on Other Organisms ==<br />
Moles are traditionally considered pests by humans, causing destruction to lawns, gardens, and farms, but moles can be beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunneling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for controlling grub populations. [7] Nevertheless, moles are still usually considered undesirable due to their mole hills and mole runs, which are often considered undesirable in one's lawn. [2] These are both composed of disturbed dirt caused by burrowing. Due to their generally unwanted status, humans have developed a variety of ways to discourage, trap, or kill moles, with some methods being more effective than others. [4] Moles are also prey to some mammals, birds, and reptiles while above ground. When underground, some may be accidentally killed by gardeners digging into their burrows. [8]<br />
<br />
Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy, rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration, and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers, and unless they are damaging the appearance of land in a way deemed unacceptable, leaving them be is usually beneficial. [5]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] F. Robert Henderson. "Moles". Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. 2005. Retrieved 2018-04-16. http://icwdm.org/handbook/mammals/Moles.asp<br />
<br />
[2] "Facts About Moles". Havahart. http://www.havahart.com/mole-facts<br />
<br />
[3] "Moles, Shrew Moles, And Desmans (Talpidae)". Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/moles-shrew-moles-and-desmans-talpidae<br />
<br />
[4] "How to get rid of moles". Exterminate.com. Retrieved 2018-04-19. http://www.extermine.com/moles.html<br />
<br />
[5] "Eastern Mole". University of Illinois. Retrieved 2018-05-09. https://m.extension.illinois.edu/wildlife/directory_show.cfm?species=mole<br />
<br />
[6] Campbell, Kevin, McIntyre, I. and MacArthur, R. 1999.Fasting metabolism and thermoregulatory competence of the star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata (Talpidae: Condylurinae)<br />
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology.123. 3. 293-298.<br />
<br />
[7] "Moles 'Can Benefit Gardeners'. Hartley Botanic. July 17, 2012. Retrieved 2018-04-16. https://hartley-botanic.com/magazine/801409421-moles-can-benefit-gardeners/<br />
<br />
[8] Musser, Guy. 2018. Mole. https://www.britannica.com/animal/mole-mammal<br />
<br />
[9] Mole. https://imgur.com/gallery/lufu2</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7093Testate amoebae2021-05-06T23:29:49Z<p>Gracecos: /* Significance */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
= Overview =<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 2. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 3.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|left|Figure 2: The ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|left|Figure 3: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
==Significance==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the [[amoeba]] has died. This characteristic combined with testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments [2]. Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would only be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas in bog environments, there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
Due to their variability from small changes in pH, water table depth, and other environmental gradients, testate amoeba have become a valuable bioindicator. They are particularly useful as bioindicators for the evaluation of peatlands, lake trophic status, and water quality as a whole [6].<br />
<br />
=Habitat & Dietary Processes=<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, [[soils]], litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
=Reproduction=<br />
Testate amoeba, like other [[protozoans]], can reproduce via asexual or budding/division reproduction. <br />
When reproducing via division, the testate exudes the daughter from the aperture of the cell. Many testate amoeba, when developing a new cell, will not fully divide until a new test has been formed around the daughter cell. [5]<br />
<br />
=References=<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.<br />
<br />
[5] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Testacean". Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 Nov. 2016, https://www.britannica.com/science/testacean. Accessed 6 May 2021.<br />
<br />
[6] Patterson, R.T., Lamoureux, E.D.R., Neville, L.A. et al. Arcellacea (Testate Lobose Amoebae) as pH Indicators in a Pyrite Mine-Acidified Lake, Northeastern Ontario, Canada. Microb Ecol 65, 541–554 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-012-0108-9</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7092Testate amoebae2021-05-06T23:29:00Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
= Overview =<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 2. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 3.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|left|Figure 2: The ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|left|Figure 3: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
==Significance==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the [[amoeba]] has died. This characteristic combined with testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments [2]. Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would only be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas in bog environments, there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
Due to their variability from small changes in pH, water table depth, and other environmental gradients, testate amoeba have become a valuable bioindicator. They are particularly useful as bioindicators for the evaluation of peatlands, lake trophic status, and water quality as a whole [5][6].<br />
<br />
=Habitat & Dietary Processes=<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, [[soils]], litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
=Reproduction=<br />
Testate amoeba, like other [[protozoans]], can reproduce via asexual or budding/division reproduction. <br />
When reproducing via division, the testate exudes the daughter from the aperture of the cell. Many testate amoeba, when developing a new cell, will not fully divide until a new test has been formed around the daughter cell. [5]<br />
<br />
=References=<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.<br />
<br />
[5] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Testacean". Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 Nov. 2016, https://www.britannica.com/science/testacean. Accessed 6 May 2021.<br />
<br />
[6] Patterson, R.T., Lamoureux, E.D.R., Neville, L.A. et al. Arcellacea (Testate Lobose Amoebae) as pH Indicators in a Pyrite Mine-Acidified Lake, Northeastern Ontario, Canada. Microb Ecol 65, 541–554 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-012-0108-9</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=7091Naked amoebae2021-05-06T22:59:37Z<p>Gracecos: /* Movement & Anatomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Overview'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|350x350px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
Movement of protists varies greatly amongst species, however it generally involves the polymerization of cytoskeletal proteins (actin and myosin) at the leading edge of the pseudopod, followed by the flow of cytoplasmic material into the vacancy produced through the polymerization process. The flow of cytoplasm provides the momentum necessary to propel the organism [7].<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria [5].<br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=7090Naked amoebae2021-05-06T22:59:15Z<p>Gracecos: /* Movement & Anatomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Overview'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|300x300px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
Movement of protists varies greatly amongst species, however it generally involves the polymerization of cytoskeletal proteins (actin and myosin) at the leading edge of the pseudopod, followed by the flow of cytoplasmic material into the vacancy produced through the polymerization process. The flow of cytoplasm provides the momentum necessary to propel the organism [7].<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria [5].<br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=7089Naked amoebae2021-05-06T22:58:57Z<p>Gracecos: /* Movement & Anatomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Overview'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|250x250px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
Movement of protists varies greatly amongst species, however it generally involves the polymerization of cytoskeletal proteins (actin and myosin) at the leading edge of the pseudopod, followed by the flow of cytoplasmic material into the vacancy produced through the polymerization process. The flow of cytoplasm provides the momentum necessary to propel the organism [7].<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria [5].<br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=7088Naked amoebae2021-05-06T22:58:38Z<p>Gracecos: /* Movement & Anatomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Overview'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|200x250px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
Movement of protists varies greatly amongst species, however it generally involves the polymerization of cytoskeletal proteins (actin and myosin) at the leading edge of the pseudopod, followed by the flow of cytoplasmic material into the vacancy produced through the polymerization process. The flow of cytoplasm provides the momentum necessary to propel the organism [7].<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria [5].<br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=7087Naked amoebae2021-05-06T22:52:59Z<p>Gracecos: /* Definition */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Overview'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|200x250px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria [5].<br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7086Testate amoebae2021-05-06T22:48:31Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
= Overview =<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 2. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 3.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|left|Figure 2: The ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|left|Figure 3: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
==Significance==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments [2]. Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would only be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas in bog environments, there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
Due to their variability from small changes in pH, water table depth, and other environmental gradients, testate amoeba have become a valuable bioindicator. They are particularly useful as bioindicators for the evaluation of peatlands, lake trophic status, and water quality as a whole [5][6].<br />
<br />
=Habitat & Dietary Processes=<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
=References=<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7085Testate amoebae2021-05-06T22:48:03Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
= Overview =<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 2. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 3.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|left|Figure 2: The ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 3: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
==Significance==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments [2]. Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would only be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas in bog environments, there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
Due to their variability from small changes in pH, water table depth, and other environmental gradients, testate amoeba have become a valuable bioindicator. They are particularly useful as bioindicators for the evaluation of peatlands, lake trophic status, and water quality as a whole [5][6].<br />
<br />
=Habitat & Dietary Processes=<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
=References=<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7084Testate amoebae2021-05-06T22:47:25Z<p>Gracecos: /* Significance */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
= Overview =<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 2. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 3.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 2: The ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 3: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
==Significance==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments [2]. Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would only be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas in bog environments, there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
Due to their variability from small changes in pH, water table depth, and other environmental gradients, testate amoeba have become a valuable bioindicator. They are particularly useful as bioindicators for the evaluation of peatlands, lake trophic status, and water quality as a whole [5][6].<br />
<br />
=Habitat & Dietary Processes=<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
=References=<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=7082Naked amoebae2021-05-06T22:17:09Z<p>Gracecos: /* Dietary Processes */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Definition'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|200x250px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria [5].<br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7081Testate amoebae2021-05-06T22:16:27Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
= Overview =<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 2. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 3.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 2: The ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 3: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
==Significance==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments [2]. Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would solely be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas, in bog environments there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows Testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
=Habitat & Dietary Processes=<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
=References=<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7080Testate amoebae2021-05-06T22:14:18Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
= Overview =<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 1. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 2.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: the ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 2: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
==Significance==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments [2]. Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would solely be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas, in bog environments there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows Testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
=Habitat & Dietary Processes=<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
=References=<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7079Testate amoebae2021-05-06T22:13:39Z<p>Gracecos: /* Significance */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
== Overview ==<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 1. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 2.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: the ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 2: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
= Significance =<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments [2]. Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would solely be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas, in bog environments there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
== Habitat & Dietary Processes ==<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7078Testate amoebae2021-05-06T22:13:15Z<p>Gracecos: /* Significance */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
== Overview ==<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 1. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 2.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: the ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 2: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
== Significance ==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments [2]. Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would solely be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas, in bog environments there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
== Habitat & Dietary Processes ==<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7077Testate amoebae2021-05-06T22:11:27Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
== Overview ==<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 1. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 2.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: the ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 2: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
== Significance ==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments (Creevy et al, 2018). Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would solely be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas, in bog environments there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
== Habitat & Dietary Processes ==<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7076Testate amoebae2021-05-06T22:11:18Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x100px|Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
== Overview ==<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 1. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 2.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: the ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 2: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
== Significance ==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments (Creevy et al, 2018). Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would solely be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas, in bog environments there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
== Habitat & Dietary Processes ==<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=7075Testate amoebae2021-05-06T22:11:06Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|100x100px|Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
== Overview ==<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 1. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 2.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: the ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 2: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
== Significance ==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments (Creevy et al, 2018). Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would solely be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas, in bog environments there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
== Habitat & Dietary Processes ==<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Amoeba&diff=7074Amoeba2021-05-06T22:09:27Z<p>Gracecos: </p>
<hr />
<div>=Definition=<br />
Amoebas, amoebae, or amoeboids is a generalised terminology that refers to a particular type of motile organism. Amoebas are eukaryotic cells or [[organisms]] composed of a single cell that modify their shape as a means of motile action. These types of organisms are found in [[protozoa]], fungi and animal lineages.[1] Amoebas are found in abundant numbers across the planet, either in a hard outer shell, known as “testate” or “naked” without one. [2] <br />
<br />
=Movement= <br />
[[File:Pseudopodia.jpg|right|thumb|caption|The various forms of pseudopods [4]]]<br />
The many different types of amoeba move through the use of a structure known as a pseudopod, which means “false foot.” These are bends of the plasma membrane which allow the cytoplasm of a cell to spill into a particular direction, and then serve as an anchor to pull the rest of the cell in the desired direction. The action of the plasma membrane is controlled by actin filaments, similar to how our muscles flex. [3] These pseudopods can take on a myriad of forms, ranging from branching filamented protrusions, bloblike lobes or thin tapering points. [4]<br />
<br />
=Anatomy= <br />
[[File:Amoeba.jpg|right|thumb|caption|The various the various organelles of an amoeba (EnchantedLearning.com, Copyright 2001-2016)]]<br />
Amoebas, across their multitude of taxonomic distributions, vary greatly in their anatomical morphologies. Different species of amoebas that live in different environments have pressures to survive that require unique solutions. Some amoeba, known as testate amoeba have a hard outer shell with which they protect themselves from harm. These shells vary greatly based on species, and can be made of a multitude of substances containing silica, calcium, chitin, [[sand]] grains and diatoms. [2] The osmotic potential of water in an amoeba is subject to high variability in freshwater systems, and as such amoeba in this environment require the use of a contractile vacuole. This organelle can absorb or release water as needed to maintain stable conditions. [3]<br />
<br />
=Dietary Processes=<br />
The major action by which amoebas consume matter is through a process known as phagocytosis. When an amoeba encounters a particle of food, it responds by surrounding the particle with its various pseudopods, creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, and digests it with enzymes before releasing the processed material into its environment. Amoebas consume a variety of things, ranging from algae, bacteria, other [[protozoa]] to dead or decaying matter.[4] Protozoan amoebas are responsible for the consumption of massive amounts of bacteria. The growth of these protozoan amoebas in response to bacterial growth is thought to assist in the [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and brings nutrients such as nitrogen from decaying matter closer to the root systems of plants. [5]<br />
<br />
=References=<br />
[1] "The Amoebae". The University of Edinburgh. Archived from the original https://web.archive.org/web/20090610035748/http://www.bms.ed.ac.uk/research/others/smaciver/amoebae.htm<br />
<br />
[2]Ogden, C. G. (1980). An Atlas of Freshwater Testate Amoeba. Oxford, London, and Glasgow: Oxford University Press, for British Museum (Natural History). pp. 1–5. ISBN 978-0198585022.<br />
<br />
[3]Alberts Eds.; et al. (2007). Molecular Biology of the Cell 5th Edition. New York: Garland Science. ISBN 9780815341055.<br />
<br />
[4]David J. Patterson. "Amoebae: Protists Which Move and Feed Using Pseudopodia". Tree of Life web project. http://tolweb.org/accessory/Amoebae?acc_id=51<br />
<br />
[5]Clarholm, M. (1981). Protozoan grazing of bacteria in soil—impact and importance. Microbial [[Ecology]],7(4), 343-350. doi:10.1007/bf02341429 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02341429 <br />
<br />
[6]Thorp, James H. (2001). Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates. San Diego: Academic. p. 71. ISBN 0-12-690647-5.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=7073Naked amoebae2021-05-06T22:08:40Z<p>Gracecos: /* Dietary Processes */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Definition'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|200x250px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria [5].<br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=7072Naked amoebae2021-05-06T22:08:10Z<p>Gracecos: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Definition'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|200x250px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria. <!--The last sentence seems like it might fit better in the habitat section--> <br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=7071Naked amoebae2021-05-06T22:07:44Z<p>Gracecos: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Definition'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|200x250px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria. <!--The last sentence seems like it might fit better in the habitat section--> <br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
[7]Clarholm, M. (1981). Protozoan grazing of bacteria in soil—impact and importance. Microbial [[Ecology]],7(4), 343-350. doi:10.1007/bf02341429 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02341429 <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=7070Naked amoebae2021-05-06T22:07:23Z<p>Gracecos: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Definition'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|200x250px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria. <!--The last sentence seems like it might fit better in the habitat section--> <br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
[7]Clarholm, M. (1981). Protozoan grazing of bacteria in soil—impact and importance. Microbial [[Ecology]],7(4), 343-350. doi:10.1007/bf02341429 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02341429 <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=6937Testate amoebae2021-05-05T19:33:03Z<p>Gracecos: /* Overview */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
== Overview ==<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae|naked amoeba]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 1. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 2.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: the ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 2: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
== Significance ==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments (Creevy et al, 2018). Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would solely be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas, in bog environments there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
== Habitat & Dietary Processes ==<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=6936Testate amoebae2021-05-05T19:32:45Z<p>Gracecos: /* Overview */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
== Overview ==<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoeba|naked amoebae]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 1. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 2.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: the ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 2: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
== Significance ==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments (Creevy et al, 2018). Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would solely be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas, in bog environments there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
== Habitat & Dietary Processes ==<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Testate_amoebae&diff=6935Testate amoebae2021-05-05T19:32:22Z<p>Gracecos: /* Overview */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Cyphoderia ampulla - Testate amoeba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Shell of ''Cyphoderia ampulla'', composed of circular, siliceous plates produced by the amoeba.]]<br />
== Overview ==<br />
'''Testate amoeba''' (Testacea, or Hyalosphenia) are amoeboid protists, differing from [[naked amoebae]] in that they inhabit a test, or shell. The '''test''' of the testate can be created entirely by the [[amoeba]], in which it would create an organic, siliceous, or calcareous shell depending on the species of testate amoeba. These tests created entirely by the amoeba are known as '''autogenic tests''', as seen in Figure 1. An '''xenogenic test''' is made up of particles of sediment collected by the amoeba which are then agglutinated together by secretions within the cell, as seen in Figure 2.<br />
[[File: Arcella_discoides.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Figure 1: the ''autogenic'' test of Arcella discoides, made up of organic plates..]]<br />
[[File:Difflugia_acuminata.jpg|thumb|300x360px|Figure 2: An ''xenogenic test'' of a Difflugia acuminata. Depicts an agglutinated test made up of mineral particles glued together with secretions from within the cell.]]<br />
<br />
== Significance ==<br />
The shells which these [[protozoa]] develop are able to be preserved long after the amoeba has died. This characteristic combined with Testacea sensitivity to environmental factors, such as pH, temperature, etc., has shown their usefulness as bioindicators and paleoclimate proxies. <br />
<br />
Their use as bioindicators have been researched and discussed in a variety of scientific papers. One in particular looked at the testate amoeba as indicators for the transition between bog and forested environments (Creevy et al, 2018). Differences could be seen when looking at forested areas, where there would solely be smaller and bacterivorous testate amoeba with smaller aperture sizes. Whereas, in bog environments there were large numbers of bigger, mixotrophic testate amoeba, which were absent in the forested environment. This change in environment leads to a decrease in mixotrophic productivity and shows testacea as useful bioindicators [2].<br />
<br />
== Habitat & Dietary Processes ==<br />
<br />
This group of free-living [[microorganisms]] inhabit aquatic to moist habitats including: estuaries, lakes, rivers, wetlands, soils, litter, and [[moss]] habitats. They are able to live in both fresh and marine water, however, compared to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoebae are less abundant in most soils. <br />
They thrive in [[soil]] environments that are moist and within forested systems. <br />
<br />
When in soils, these protist consume a variety of other microbial [[organisms]] including: [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], microalgae, [[ciliates]], [[rotifers]] and [[nematodes]]. <br />
This allows them to play a key role in carbon and [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]]. <br />
<br />
Similar to [[naked amoeba]], testate amoeba also have pseudopodia which they use to consume other organisms and manipulate their environment. However, differing from [[Naked Amoeba|naked amoeba]], testacea have a aperture from which the pseudopodia emerge. This allows for greater protection of the protist from predators and harmful environmental conditions.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Creevy, Angela L., Anderson, Roxane, Rowsen, James G., Payne, Richard J. January 2018. 'Testate amoebae as functionally significant bioindicators in forest-to-bog restoration'. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier. 84. 274-282. <br />
<br />
[3] Louiser, J.D., Parkinson, S.S.. 1981. 'Evaluation of a membrane filter technique to count soil and litter Testacea'. Soil Biol. Biochem. 13. 209-2013<br />
<br />
[4] Mitchell, Edward A. D.; Charman, Daniel J.; Warner, Barry G. 2008. "Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future" (PDF). Biodiversity and Conservation. 17 (9): 2115–2137. doi:10.1007/s10531-007-9221-3. ISSN 0960-3115.</div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=6928Naked amoebae2021-05-05T19:30:12Z<p>Gracecos: /* Movement & Anatomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Definition'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|200x250px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria. <!--The last sentence seems like it might fit better in the habitat section--> <br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=6926Naked amoebae2021-05-05T19:29:25Z<p>Gracecos: /* Movement & Anatomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Definition'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|230px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria. <!--The last sentence seems like it might fit better in the habitat section--> <br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecoshttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Naked_amoebae&diff=6924Naked amoebae2021-05-05T19:29:13Z<p>Gracecos: /* Movement & Anatomy */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File: NakedAmoeba.jpg|380px|thumb|right| Figure 1- Naked labose amoeba. Photo showing the polymorphic trait of naked amoeba"]]<br />
=='''Definition'''== <br />
A Naked [[Amoeba]] is a taxonomic classification of [[soil protozoa]] found in a variety of agricultural, grassland, and forested soils. These are the most voracious of all the [[soil]] [[protozoa]] and the most dominant in numbers, including a variety of species. [[Naked Amoeba]], as well as other [[protozoans]], exploit tiny microhabitats that are unavailable to other larger [[soil organisms]], such as "[[Nematodes]]". Like other soil protozoa, they promote soil [[decomposition]] by enhancing bacterial metabolism, consuming excess bacteria, and excreting simple compounds utilized by plants. <!--just a suggestion but a picture towards the top would look great--><br />
<br />
=='''Habitat'''==<br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] make up a large portion of [[soil organisms| microfauna]] in a variety of soil habitats. The reason for their higher populations in soil is most likely due to the fact that their sliding motion on surfaces enable them to feed on the soil particles, where most of the bacteria grow, and their highly flexible cells are well adapted for grazing activities within the thin water films surrounding the soil particles [4].<br />
<br />
Also due to their shape and size, they are easily able to reach very small cavities or pores in the soil aggregates and feed on bacteria that would otherwise be inaccessible to predators [5]. <!--Great info in this section, Although I feel like it did not talk about their habitat very much--><br />
It is common for this variety of soil protozoa to be found in the [[rhizosphere]] due to the abundance of bacterial flora surrounding the plant root zones.<br />
=='''Movement & Anatomy'''== <br />
[[File: Protists.png|240px|thumb|left|Figure 2- adapted from Figure 4.5 - "Morphology of four types of soil protozoa: (a) flagellate (Bodo); (b) naked amoeba (Naegleria); (c) testacean (Hyalosphenia); (d) ciliate (Oxytricha) [6]."]]<br />
Differing from [[testacean| Testate Amoeba]], which have a hard shell, [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] do not. <br />
Amoebae are polymorphic; a single cell can adopt very different shapes, especially when it is stationary or moves in a non-coordinated manner, often changing the direction of locomotion. They move and feed through the use of [[pseudopods]], which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the coordinated action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell.<br />
<br />
=='''Dietary Processes'''== <br />
[[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]] are [[phagotrophic]], meaning they engulf the entirety of the organism in order to digest it. Phagocytosis involves the process of the amoeba extending its pseudopods and then creating a vacuole of the food within its cytoplasm, which it then digests using enzymes before releasing the processed material into the surrounding environment. <br />
[[File:Naked_amoeba.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Figure 3- a naked amoeba engulfing its prey (phagocytosis)]]<br />
They can consume a variety of food sources, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and other fine particulate matter in soils. A majority of bacteria consumed in soil is conducted by [[Naked amoeba|Naked Amoeba]], as they are the most abundant and most efficient at [[decomposing]] bacteria. <!--The last sentence seems like it might fit better in the habitat section--> <br />
<br />
=='''Reproduction'''==<br />
These [[organisms]] reproduce asexually via fission, the splitting of one cell, or via syngamy, which is the fusion of two cells. <!--Adding more information would really improve this section--><br />
<!--Great article! really liked the structure and flow of the sections.--><br />
=='''References'''==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
[1] Coleman, D.J., Callaham, M. A., Jr., Crossley, D.A.. November 2017. 'The Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]]'. Third Edition. Elsevier Academic Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Singleton, Paul. 2006. 'Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology'. 3rd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. https://archive.org/details/dictionarymicrob00sing_558<br />
<br />
[3] Bamforth, S.S. 1980. 'Terrestrial protozoa'. J. Protozool. 27, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1980.tb04227.<br />
<br />
[4] Clarholm, Marianne . 1981. 'Protozoan Grazing of Bacteria in Soil--lmpact and Importance'. Microbial Ecology.7, p. 343-350.<br />
[5] Foster, R.C., Domar, J.F.. 1991. 'Bacteria-grazing amoeba in situ in the rhizosphere'. Biol. Fertil. Soils 11, p.83-87.<br />
<br />
[6] Louiser, J.D., Bamforth, S.S.. 1990. 'Soil Protozoa'. Soil Biology Guide. Wiley, New York, p. 97-136.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<!--In reproduction section possibly explain how they find another whether its via chemical signals or another way --></div>Gracecos