https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=EliasguaSoil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-19T08:51:08ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.0https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Pedogenesis&diff=2759Pedogenesis2018-05-09T21:05:21Z<p>Eliasgua: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Soil.jpg|thumb|Soil Profile detailing the differences between horizon depths [8] ]]<br />
Pedogenesis is the process of soil formation. [[Soil]] has many biological, chemical, and physical factors that are variable, and constantly subject to change. Its nature, profile build-up, and specific properties are the direct result of several pedogenic processes. In the late 19th century (1880s), Russian scientist Vasily Dokuchaev perceived soil as an “independent natural body” regarded as a function of local maternal rock variety, age of the land (time since it became surface land), climate, and vegetation [3]. His ideas were expanded in the next century by scientist Hans Jenny, who in the 1940s, established that the development of soil is influenced by five interrelated factors: climate, organisms, relief (topography), parent material, and time [2]. In 1941, Jenny detailed his ideas and observations in his book, “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology”, where he coined the term pedogenesis, and outlined an equation that would account for soil formation [7]. This equation also known as the State Factor Model is summarized as: <br />
s = f(cl, o, r, p, t, ...).<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
== Origin (Founders) ==<br />
The origin of pedogenesis as a form of study dates back to Vasily Dokuchaev. He believed that pedogenesis was principally [[File:Hans.jpg|thumb|Jenny's literature detailing pedogenesis (1941) [9] ]] controlled by vegetation and climate [2]. This was based on observations that alike soils developed in spatially separate areas when their vegetation and climate were similar. Konstantin Glinka, a student of Dokuchaev, went on to express soil as “not only a natural body with definite properties, but also its geographical position and surroundings, I.e. climate, vegetation, and animal life” [3]. Hans Jenny’s interpretation, which was based on Dokuchaev and those that came before him, provided a detailed definition of both soil and the "larger system," as well as a method to quantitatively and numerically link soil and larger system properties to state factors [3]. This “larger system” would be “composed of the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere, and a considerable part of the biosphere.” The [[founders of Soil Concepts]] initiated the study of soil and pedogeneis, and laid a foundation to be improved and continued on by others.<br />
<br />
== Pedogenesis Factors ==<br />
Hans Jenny formulated the pedogenesis concept into the “fundamental equation of soil-forming factors”, also known as the [[Jenny Equation]]:<br />
<br />
[[File:Soil_Equation.png]].<br />
<br />
This equation states that soil formation (s) is a function (f) of climate (cl), organisms (o), relief (r), parent material (p), and time (t). Jenny also left an ellipses (…) in the equation, for other possible considerations that he did not ponder at the time [7]. <br />
[[File:Pedogenesis_factors.jpg|thumb|Pedogegenesis Factors [2] ]]<br />
<br />
'''Climate (cl):'''<br />
<br />
The climate factor of soil genesis is the climate (I.e. temperature, precipitation, and humidity) of the ecosystem [3]. Temperature and moisture are two climatic components that are very influential in pedogenesis [2]. The production of mineral particles caused by weathering is directly influenced by temperature. Bedrock weathering rates typically increase with higher temperatures. Moisture levels in soils are mainly regulated by water additions through precipitation minus the losses due to evapotranspiration [2]. Moisture availability also has impacts on the decomposition of organic matter and the soil pH.<br />
<br />
'''Organisms (o):'''<br />
<br />
The organism factor deals with the potential biota of the system [3]. It is the microbial, plant, and animal gene flux that cycles through the system from its surroundings [3]. Organic components dealing with pedogenesis include organic matter accumulation, profile mixing, and biogeochemical nutrient cycling [2]. Litter and decomposing processes adds to the top layer of soil and increases nutrients influencing fertility and structure. Vegetation also helps in binding soil and protecting the surface from erosion from water and wind.<br />
<br />
'''Relief (r):'''<br />
<br />
The relief or topography deals with the subvariables that correspond to the physical make up of an ecosystem at the beginning of its development, or the start of an observation period [3]. The site’s position on a hillslope, the range of its slope, the proximity of the site to the water table are examples of the subvariables. Relief typically moderates the formation of soil on a regional or local scale, and pedogenesis is directly related to microclimate and drainage influenced by the topography [2]. The development of soil horizons are caused by illuviation and eluviation drainage processes [2]. Microclimate would be influenced by which side of a hill is warmer than a side facing another direction. This results in soils of different areas having differences in terms of texture, depth, biota, and profile development [2].<br />
<br />
'''Parent Material (p):'''<br />
<br />
The parent material factor is defined as the initial state of the rock, sediment, or minerals of an ecosystem from which the soils develop [3]. Weathering of bedrock and transported sediments from erosive means can make up this factor. For a habitat that has been clear-cut or burned down, the parent material would be the present soil at which the new flora and fauna begin to grow over[3]. Parent material influences are generally related to soil chemistry and texture, and nutrient cycling.<br />
<br />
'''Time (t):'''<br />
<br />
Time is the period since the ecosystem began forming, or since the assemblage of state factors changed. It is the temporal consequences of all the summed up state factors. Time at 0 (t=0), the starting point could be after a depositional event, or a major disturbance or configuration of all the pedogenesis factors [3]. Through time, soils receive positive and negative feedback in an attempt to reach equilibrium [2]. Steady state is reached over time when a soil reaches maturity.<br />
<br />
'''Other Possible Factors (...):'''<br />
<br />
There could be additional state factors dealing with soil formation. One could say that humans could be an element to the equation [3]. Based on our extreme influence and control over ecosystems, soil formation could be swayed by human direct or indirect involvement. This factor can fall under the organism (o) state factor, however. A subdivision of the human factor could be cultural inheritance (c) [3]. This would be the assemblage of a population in an ecosystem at t=0, based on culture (technologies, ideas, and philosophies of individuals) [3]. This would have a substantial effect on ecosystem development, as well as soil formation and alteration.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Veldkamp, Antonie. “PEDOGENESIS AND SOIL FORMING FACTORS .” LAND USE, LAND COVER AND SOIL SCIENCES – Vol. VI, [http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C12/E1-05-07-02.pdf www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C12/E1-05-07-02.pdf].<br />
<br />
[2] “CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere (u). Soil Pedogenesis.” Physical Geography, [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html].<br />
<br />
[3] Amundson, Ronald, and Hans Jenny. “On a State Factor Model of Ecosystems.” BioScience, 1 Sept. 1997, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents].<br />
<br />
[4] “Plate Tectonics.” Soils, Weathering, and Nutrients, 16 Sept. 2013, [http://globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/soils/soils.html globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/soils/soils.html].<br />
<br />
[5] Historical Overview of Soils and the Fitnes of the Soil Environment.” Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, by David C Coleman, 2nd ed., 2004.<br />
<br />
[6] “How Soils Form | Environment, Land and Water.” Environment, Land and Water | Queensland Government, Queensland, 8 Oct. 2013, [http://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/soil/soil-explained/forms www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/soil/soil-explained/forms].<br />
<br />
[7] Henshue, Nicholas. “Introduction to Soil Ecology.” Soil Ecology, Week 1, pp. 1–33., [http://ublearns.buffalo.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-4467366-dt-content-rid-17751926_1/courses/2181_23766/intro%201.pdf ublearns.buffalo.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-4467366-dt-content-rid-17751926_1/courses/2181_23766/intro%201.pdf].<br />
<br />
[8] “SOIL FORMATION.” Science Zone Jamaica, 23 Feb. 2014, [http://https://sciencezoneja.wordpress.com/2014/02/23/soil-formation/ https://sciencezoneja.wordpress.com/2014/02/23/soil-formation/].<br />
<br />
[9] “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology (Dover Earth Science) Paperback – December 8, 2011.” Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology (Dover Earth Science): Hans Jenny: 0800759681280: Amazon.com: Books, [http://www.amazon.com/Factors-Soil-Formation-Quantitative-Pedology/dp/0486681289 www.amazon.com/Factors-Soil-Formation-Quantitative-Pedology/dp/0486681289].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Founders_of_Soil_Concepts&diff=2510Founders of Soil Concepts2018-05-09T05:37:55Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Konstantin Glinka and Curtis F. Marbut */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
The founders of soil concepts are the primary scientists that saw soil as fundamental to human life and realized soil's intrinsic value and its importance to planet Earth. They initiated the study of soil, and created a foundation for soil science to be researched and expanded in future generations. These select founders include the likes of Vasily Dokuchaev, Konstantin Glinka, Curtis F. Marbut, and Hans Jenny.<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
== Vasily Dokuchaev ==<br />
[[File:Vasily-Vasilievich-Dokuchaev-1846-1903.png|thumb|Vasily Dokuchaev portrait [6] ]]<br />
The first scientific view of soils as natural bodies that develop under the influence of climate and biological activity acting on geological substrates arose in Russia with the work of Vasily Dokuchaev [3]. Born in Russia in 1846, being the son of a priest, Dokuchaev gained interest in natural science, and eventually obtained his doctorate in geology, becoming curator of the geological laboratory at St. Petersburg University in 1872 [2]. He is commonly recognized as the founder of pedology, due to making the case for studying soil science as a subject in its own right saying, "time is not far when in its own right and because of its great importance for humanity, it will occupy an independent and fully respected place” [2]. There were some who Dokuchaev derived ideas from, but he was the one to transform many of the existing views and hypothesis into a logical theory that was useful for predicting soil distributions and formation [4]. He perceived soil to be an “independent natural body”, and suggested independently that soil development was principally controlled by climate and vegetation [1]. His theory and model, along with its subtle permutations, have been examined and praised in countless textbooks, conferences, symposia, and professional papers, and institutes, awards, medals, celebrations, museums, and even a crater on Mars, have been named in his honor [4]. The longevity of Vasily Dokuchaev’s work has then been prolonged by his students, colleagues, and Russian peers.<br />
<br />
== Konstantin Glinka and Curtis F. Marbut ==<br />
[[File:Glinka,Marbut.png|thumb|Konstantin Glinka (right) with Curtis Marbut (left) at the first International Society of Soil Science Congress in 1927. [7]]]<br />
<br />
Russian scientist Konstantin Glinka was one of Dokuchaev’s students that continued his work and expanded on his soil concepts. Born in 1867, Glinka was Director of Agricultural College of Leningrad and Experimental Station, and the first director of the Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute. His take was that soil is, “… not only a natural body with definite properties, but also its geographical position and surroundings, i.e., climate, vegetation, and animal life” [3]. He wrote, and expanded on his thinking in his book, "Die Typen der Bodenbil" (The Types of Soil), which helped bring foreign soil ideology and science to the United States. <br />
<br />
Glinka’s work was translated to English in 1917 by an American soil scientist, Curtis F. Marbut, the then director of the Division of Soil Survey at US Department of Agriculture (USDA) [2]. Marbut, born in 1863, started out as an instructor of geology and mineralogy at the University of Missouri, until he positioned himself as a soil scientist at the USDA post 1909 [5]. There he looked into the work of foreign soil scientists, and took inspiration from Glinka in pursuing new methods of conducting field work [5]. Marbut realized that the Russian perspective predates the formal statement of the ecosystem concept by several decades and decided to translate the Russian scientist's work into English [3]. His introduction to Russian pedological theory inspired him to transform many aspects of the US soil classification system, and the way in which soils were studied in the United States [2].<br />
<br />
== Hans Jenny ==<br />
[[File:Hans-jenny.jpg|thumb|Hans Jenny working on cymatic experiment [8] ]]<br />
Scientist Hans Jenny was one of those that took advantage of the introduction of Russian soil concepts in the US. He made a breakthrough in his reformulation and further quantification of Dokuchaev’s soil interpretation. In his published literature, “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology” (1941), he provided a detailed definition of both soil and the "larger system," as well as a method to quantitatively and numerically link soil and larger system properties to state factors [2]. In that book, Jenny coined the term “[[pedogenesis]]”, which is the process of soil formation, and formulated this concept into the now famous “fundamental equation of soil-forming factors”, or [[Jenny Equation]]: s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …) [3]. This equation states that the state of a body of soil at a point in time (s), refers to the function (f) of five interrelated factors: climate (cl), organisms (o), relief or topography (r), parent material (p), and time (t) [1]. He also inserted an ellipsis (…) in the equation for other possible factor that he did not consider at the time. Jenny, probably more than any North American soil scientist of his era, emphasized the importance of the biota in and upon soils [3]. Since his work, research in soil science has experienced a “renaissance” as the significance of biological activity in soil formation, organic matter dynamics, and nutrient cycling have become widely recognized [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] “CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere (u). Soil Pedogenesis.” Physical Geography, [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html].<br />
<br />
[2] Amundson, Ronald, and Hans Jenny. “On a State Factor Model of Ecosystems.” BioScience, 1 Sept. 1997, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents].<br />
<br />
[3] Historical Overview of Soils and the Fitnes of the Soil Environment.” Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, by David C Coleman, 2nd ed., 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Johnson, Donald L, and Randall J Schaetzl. “Differing Views of Soil and Pedogenesis by Two Masters: Darwin and Dokuchaev.” pp. 1–14., [http://www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf.].<br />
<br />
[5] “Curtis F. Marbut (1863 - 1935).” Curtis F. Marbut - Historic Missourians - The State Historical Society of Missouri, [http://www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/ www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/].<br />
<br />
[6] SINGH, S.K., and P. CHANDRAN. SOIL SCIENCE-AN INTRODUCTION Edition: FirstChapter: 3. Indian Society of Soil Science, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1 www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1].<br />
<br />
[7] Brevik, Eric & Hartemink, Alfred. (2010). History, Philosophy, and Sociology of Soil Science. [http://www.eolss.net www.eolss.net]. <br />
<br />
[8] Faisca, F. “Hans Jenny and Cymatics - The Study of Wave Phenomena.” Hans Jenny and Cymatics, [https://www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Founders_of_Soil_Concepts&diff=2507Founders of Soil Concepts2018-05-09T05:36:36Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Vasily Dokuchaev */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
The founders of soil concepts are the primary scientists that saw soil as fundamental to human life and realized soil's intrinsic value and its importance to planet Earth. They initiated the study of soil, and created a foundation for soil science to be researched and expanded in future generations. These select founders include the likes of Vasily Dokuchaev, Konstantin Glinka, Curtis F. Marbut, and Hans Jenny.<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
== Vasily Dokuchaev ==<br />
[[File:Vasily-Vasilievich-Dokuchaev-1846-1903.png|thumb|Vasily Dokuchaev portrait [6] ]]<br />
The first scientific view of soils as natural bodies that develop under the influence of climate and biological activity acting on geological substrates arose in Russia with the work of Vasily Dokuchaev [3]. Born in Russia in 1846, being the son of a priest, Dokuchaev gained interest in natural science, and eventually obtained his doctorate in geology, becoming curator of the geological laboratory at St. Petersburg University in 1872 [2]. He is commonly recognized as the founder of pedology, due to making the case for studying soil science as a subject in its own right saying, "time is not far when in its own right and because of its great importance for humanity, it will occupy an independent and fully respected place” [2]. There were some who Dokuchaev derived ideas from, but he was the one to transform many of the existing views and hypothesis into a logical theory that was useful for predicting soil distributions and formation [4]. He perceived soil to be an “independent natural body”, and suggested independently that soil development was principally controlled by climate and vegetation [1]. His theory and model, along with its subtle permutations, have been examined and praised in countless textbooks, conferences, symposia, and professional papers, and institutes, awards, medals, celebrations, museums, and even a crater on Mars, have been named in his honor [4]. The longevity of Vasily Dokuchaev’s work has then been prolonged by his students, colleagues, and Russian peers.<br />
<br />
== Konstantin Glinka and Curtis F. Marbut ==<br />
[[File:Glinka,Marbut.png|thumb|Konstantin Glinka (right) with Curtis Marbut (left) [7]]]<br />
<br />
Russian scientist Konstantin Glinka was one of Dokuchaev’s students that continued his work and expanded on his soil concepts. Born in 1867, Glinka was Director of Agricultural College of Leningrad and Experimental Station, and the first director of the Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute. His take was that soil is, “… not only a natural body with definite properties, but also its geographical position and surroundings, i.e., climate, vegetation, and animal life” [3]. He wrote, and expanded on his thinking in his book, "Die Typen der Bodenbil" (The Types of Soil), which helped bring foreign soil ideology and science to the United States. <br />
<br />
Glinka’s work was translated to English in 1917 by an American soil scientist, Curtis F. Marbut, the then director of the Division of Soil Survey at US Department of Agriculture (USDA) [2]. Marbut, born in 1863, started out as an instructor of geology and mineralogy at the University of Missouri, until he positioned himself as a soil scientist at the USDA post 1909 [5]. There he looked into the work of foreign soil scientists, and took inspiration from Glinka in pursuing new methods of conducting field work [5]. Marbut realized that the Russian perspective predates the formal statement of the ecosystem concept by several decades and decided to translate the Russian scientist's work into English [3]. His introduction to Russian pedological theory inspired him to transform many aspects of the US soil classification system, and the way in which soils were studied in the United States [2].<br />
<br />
== Hans Jenny ==<br />
[[File:Hans-jenny.jpg|thumb|Hans Jenny working on cymatic experiment [8] ]]<br />
Scientist Hans Jenny was one of those that took advantage of the introduction of Russian soil concepts in the US. He made a breakthrough in his reformulation and further quantification of Dokuchaev’s soil interpretation. In his published literature, “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology” (1941), he provided a detailed definition of both soil and the "larger system," as well as a method to quantitatively and numerically link soil and larger system properties to state factors [2]. In that book, Jenny coined the term “[[pedogenesis]]”, which is the process of soil formation, and formulated this concept into the now famous “fundamental equation of soil-forming factors”, or [[Jenny Equation]]: s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …) [3]. This equation states that the state of a body of soil at a point in time (s), refers to the function (f) of five interrelated factors: climate (cl), organisms (o), relief or topography (r), parent material (p), and time (t) [1]. He also inserted an ellipsis (…) in the equation for other possible factor that he did not consider at the time. Jenny, probably more than any North American soil scientist of his era, emphasized the importance of the biota in and upon soils [3]. Since his work, research in soil science has experienced a “renaissance” as the significance of biological activity in soil formation, organic matter dynamics, and nutrient cycling have become widely recognized [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] “CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere (u). Soil Pedogenesis.” Physical Geography, [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html].<br />
<br />
[2] Amundson, Ronald, and Hans Jenny. “On a State Factor Model of Ecosystems.” BioScience, 1 Sept. 1997, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents].<br />
<br />
[3] Historical Overview of Soils and the Fitnes of the Soil Environment.” Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, by David C Coleman, 2nd ed., 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Johnson, Donald L, and Randall J Schaetzl. “Differing Views of Soil and Pedogenesis by Two Masters: Darwin and Dokuchaev.” pp. 1–14., [http://www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf.].<br />
<br />
[5] “Curtis F. Marbut (1863 - 1935).” Curtis F. Marbut - Historic Missourians - The State Historical Society of Missouri, [http://www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/ www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/].<br />
<br />
[6] SINGH, S.K., and P. CHANDRAN. SOIL SCIENCE-AN INTRODUCTION Edition: FirstChapter: 3. Indian Society of Soil Science, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1 www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1].<br />
<br />
[7] Brevik, Eric & Hartemink, Alfred. (2010). History, Philosophy, and Sociology of Soil Science. [http://www.eolss.net www.eolss.net]. <br />
<br />
[8] Faisca, F. “Hans Jenny and Cymatics - The Study of Wave Phenomena.” Hans Jenny and Cymatics, [https://www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Founders_of_Soil_Concepts&diff=2506Founders of Soil Concepts2018-05-09T05:36:11Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Hans Jenny */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
The founders of soil concepts are the primary scientists that saw soil as fundamental to human life and realized soil's intrinsic value and its importance to planet Earth. They initiated the study of soil, and created a foundation for soil science to be researched and expanded in future generations. These select founders include the likes of Vasily Dokuchaev, Konstantin Glinka, Curtis F. Marbut, and Hans Jenny.<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
== Vasily Dokuchaev ==<br />
[[File:Vasily-Vasilievich-Dokuchaev-1846-1903.png|thumb|Vasily Dokuchaev [6] ]]<br />
The first scientific view of soils as natural bodies that develop under the influence of climate and biological activity acting on geological substrates arose in Russia with the work of Vasily Dokuchaev [3]. Born in Russia in 1846, being the son of a priest, Dokuchaev gained interest in natural science, and eventually obtained his doctorate in geology, becoming curator of the geological laboratory at St. Petersburg University in 1872 [2]. He is commonly recognized as the founder of pedology, due to making the case for studying soil science as a subject in its own right saying, "time is not far when in its own right and because of its great importance for humanity, it will occupy an independent and fully respected place” [2]. There were some who Dokuchaev derived ideas from, but he was the one to transform many of the existing views and hypothesis into a logical theory that was useful for predicting soil distributions and formation [4]. He perceived soil to be an “independent natural body”, and suggested independently that soil development was principally controlled by climate and vegetation [1]. His theory and model, along with its subtle permutations, have been examined and praised in countless textbooks, conferences, symposia, and professional papers, and institutes, awards, medals, celebrations, museums, and even a crater on Mars, have been named in his honor [4]. The longevity of Vasily Dokuchaev’s work has then been prolonged by his students, colleagues, and Russian peers.<br />
<br />
== Konstantin Glinka and Curtis F. Marbut ==<br />
[[File:Glinka,Marbut.png|thumb|Konstantin Glinka (right) with Curtis Marbut (left) [7]]]<br />
<br />
Russian scientist Konstantin Glinka was one of Dokuchaev’s students that continued his work and expanded on his soil concepts. Born in 1867, Glinka was Director of Agricultural College of Leningrad and Experimental Station, and the first director of the Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute. His take was that soil is, “… not only a natural body with definite properties, but also its geographical position and surroundings, i.e., climate, vegetation, and animal life” [3]. He wrote, and expanded on his thinking in his book, "Die Typen der Bodenbil" (The Types of Soil), which helped bring foreign soil ideology and science to the United States. <br />
<br />
Glinka’s work was translated to English in 1917 by an American soil scientist, Curtis F. Marbut, the then director of the Division of Soil Survey at US Department of Agriculture (USDA) [2]. Marbut, born in 1863, started out as an instructor of geology and mineralogy at the University of Missouri, until he positioned himself as a soil scientist at the USDA post 1909 [5]. There he looked into the work of foreign soil scientists, and took inspiration from Glinka in pursuing new methods of conducting field work [5]. Marbut realized that the Russian perspective predates the formal statement of the ecosystem concept by several decades and decided to translate the Russian scientist's work into English [3]. His introduction to Russian pedological theory inspired him to transform many aspects of the US soil classification system, and the way in which soils were studied in the United States [2].<br />
<br />
== Hans Jenny ==<br />
[[File:Hans-jenny.jpg|thumb|Hans Jenny working on cymatic experiment [8] ]]<br />
Scientist Hans Jenny was one of those that took advantage of the introduction of Russian soil concepts in the US. He made a breakthrough in his reformulation and further quantification of Dokuchaev’s soil interpretation. In his published literature, “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology” (1941), he provided a detailed definition of both soil and the "larger system," as well as a method to quantitatively and numerically link soil and larger system properties to state factors [2]. In that book, Jenny coined the term “[[pedogenesis]]”, which is the process of soil formation, and formulated this concept into the now famous “fundamental equation of soil-forming factors”, or [[Jenny Equation]]: s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …) [3]. This equation states that the state of a body of soil at a point in time (s), refers to the function (f) of five interrelated factors: climate (cl), organisms (o), relief or topography (r), parent material (p), and time (t) [1]. He also inserted an ellipsis (…) in the equation for other possible factor that he did not consider at the time. Jenny, probably more than any North American soil scientist of his era, emphasized the importance of the biota in and upon soils [3]. Since his work, research in soil science has experienced a “renaissance” as the significance of biological activity in soil formation, organic matter dynamics, and nutrient cycling have become widely recognized [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] “CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere (u). Soil Pedogenesis.” Physical Geography, [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html].<br />
<br />
[2] Amundson, Ronald, and Hans Jenny. “On a State Factor Model of Ecosystems.” BioScience, 1 Sept. 1997, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents].<br />
<br />
[3] Historical Overview of Soils and the Fitnes of the Soil Environment.” Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, by David C Coleman, 2nd ed., 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Johnson, Donald L, and Randall J Schaetzl. “Differing Views of Soil and Pedogenesis by Two Masters: Darwin and Dokuchaev.” pp. 1–14., [http://www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf.].<br />
<br />
[5] “Curtis F. Marbut (1863 - 1935).” Curtis F. Marbut - Historic Missourians - The State Historical Society of Missouri, [http://www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/ www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/].<br />
<br />
[6] SINGH, S.K., and P. CHANDRAN. SOIL SCIENCE-AN INTRODUCTION Edition: FirstChapter: 3. Indian Society of Soil Science, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1 www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1].<br />
<br />
[7] Brevik, Eric & Hartemink, Alfred. (2010). History, Philosophy, and Sociology of Soil Science. [http://www.eolss.net www.eolss.net]. <br />
<br />
[8] Faisca, F. “Hans Jenny and Cymatics - The Study of Wave Phenomena.” Hans Jenny and Cymatics, [https://www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Founders_of_Soil_Concepts&diff=2497Founders of Soil Concepts2018-05-09T05:30:53Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Konstantin Glinka and Curtis F. Marbut */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
The founders of soil concepts are the primary scientists that saw soil as fundamental to human life and realized soil's intrinsic value and its importance to planet Earth. They initiated the study of soil, and created a foundation for soil science to be researched and expanded in future generations. These select founders include the likes of Vasily Dokuchaev, Konstantin Glinka, Curtis F. Marbut, and Hans Jenny.<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
== Vasily Dokuchaev ==<br />
[[File:Vasily-Vasilievich-Dokuchaev-1846-1903.png|thumb|Vasily Dokuchaev [6] ]]<br />
The first scientific view of soils as natural bodies that develop under the influence of climate and biological activity acting on geological substrates arose in Russia with the work of Vasily Dokuchaev [3]. Born in Russia in 1846, being the son of a priest, Dokuchaev gained interest in natural science, and eventually obtained his doctorate in geology, becoming curator of the geological laboratory at St. Petersburg University in 1872 [2]. He is commonly recognized as the founder of pedology, due to making the case for studying soil science as a subject in its own right saying, "time is not far when in its own right and because of its great importance for humanity, it will occupy an independent and fully respected place” [2]. There were some who Dokuchaev derived ideas from, but he was the one to transform many of the existing views and hypothesis into a logical theory that was useful for predicting soil distributions and formation [4]. He perceived soil to be an “independent natural body”, and suggested independently that soil development was principally controlled by climate and vegetation [1]. His theory and model, along with its subtle permutations, have been examined and praised in countless textbooks, conferences, symposia, and professional papers, and institutes, awards, medals, celebrations, museums, and even a crater on Mars, have been named in his honor [4]. The longevity of Vasily Dokuchaev’s work has then been prolonged by his students, colleagues, and Russian peers.<br />
<br />
== Konstantin Glinka and Curtis F. Marbut ==<br />
[[File:Glinka,Marbut.png|thumb|Konstantin Glinka (right) with Curtis Marbut (left) [7]]]<br />
<br />
Russian scientist Konstantin Glinka was one of Dokuchaev’s students that continued his work and expanded on his soil concepts. Born in 1867, Glinka was Director of Agricultural College of Leningrad and Experimental Station, and the first director of the Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute. His take was that soil is, “… not only a natural body with definite properties, but also its geographical position and surroundings, i.e., climate, vegetation, and animal life” [3]. He wrote, and expanded on his thinking in his book, "Die Typen der Bodenbil" (The Types of Soil), which helped bring foreign soil ideology and science to the United States. <br />
<br />
Glinka’s work was translated to English in 1917 by an American soil scientist, Curtis F. Marbut, the then director of the Division of Soil Survey at US Department of Agriculture (USDA) [2]. Marbut, born in 1863, started out as an instructor of geology and mineralogy at the University of Missouri, until he positioned himself as a soil scientist at the USDA post 1909 [5]. There he looked into the work of foreign soil scientists, and took inspiration from Glinka in pursuing new methods of conducting field work [5]. Marbut realized that the Russian perspective predates the formal statement of the ecosystem concept by several decades and decided to translate the Russian scientist's work into English [3]. His introduction to Russian pedological theory inspired him to transform many aspects of the US soil classification system, and the way in which soils were studied in the United States [2].<br />
<br />
== Hans Jenny ==<br />
[[File:Hans-jenny.jpg|thumb|Hans Jenny [8] ]]<br />
Scientist Hans Jenny was one of those that took advantage of the introduction of Russian soil concepts in the US. He made a breakthrough in his reformulation and further quantification of Dokuchaev’s soil interpretation. In his published literature, “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology” (1941), he provided a detailed definition of both soil and the "larger system," as well as a method to quantitatively and numerically link soil and larger system properties to state factors [2]. In that book, Jenny coined the term “[[pedogenesis]]”, which is the process of soil formation, and formulated this concept into the now famous “fundamental equation of soil-forming factors”, or [[Jenny Equation]]: s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …) [3]. This equation states that the state of a body of soil at a point in time (s), refers to the function (f) of five interrelated factors: climate (cl), organisms (o), relief or topography (r), parent material (p), and time (t) [1]. He also inserted an ellipsis (…) in the equation for other possible factor that he did not consider at the time. Jenny, probably more than any North American soil scientist of his era, emphasized the importance of the biota in and upon soils [3]. Since his work, research in soil science has experienced a “renaissance” as the significance of biological activity in soil formation, organic matter dynamics, and nutrient cycling have become widely recognized [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] “CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere (u). Soil Pedogenesis.” Physical Geography, [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html].<br />
<br />
[2] Amundson, Ronald, and Hans Jenny. “On a State Factor Model of Ecosystems.” BioScience, 1 Sept. 1997, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents].<br />
<br />
[3] Historical Overview of Soils and the Fitnes of the Soil Environment.” Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, by David C Coleman, 2nd ed., 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Johnson, Donald L, and Randall J Schaetzl. “Differing Views of Soil and Pedogenesis by Two Masters: Darwin and Dokuchaev.” pp. 1–14., [http://www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf.].<br />
<br />
[5] “Curtis F. Marbut (1863 - 1935).” Curtis F. Marbut - Historic Missourians - The State Historical Society of Missouri, [http://www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/ www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/].<br />
<br />
[6] SINGH, S.K., and P. CHANDRAN. SOIL SCIENCE-AN INTRODUCTION Edition: FirstChapter: 3. Indian Society of Soil Science, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1 www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1].<br />
<br />
[7] Brevik, Eric & Hartemink, Alfred. (2010). History, Philosophy, and Sociology of Soil Science. [http://www.eolss.net www.eolss.net]. <br />
<br />
[8] Faisca, F. “Hans Jenny and Cymatics - The Study of Wave Phenomena.” Hans Jenny and Cymatics, [https://www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2214Ascomycota2018-05-09T00:18:22Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle2.png|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [1]]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens [9].<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes all types yeasts, some chategorized as ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous and economically important fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7, 10]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John W., Joey Spatafora, and Mary Berbee. 2006. Ascomycota. Sac Fungi. Version 09 October 2006 (under construction). [http://tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09 tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09]<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. 2007. Pezizomycotina. Version 19 December 2007. [http://tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19]<br />
<br />
[10] Blackwell, Meredith, Cletus P. Kurtzman, Marc-André Lachance, and Sung-Oui Suh. 2009. Saccharomycotina. Saccharomycetales. Version 22 January 2009. [http://tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22 tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22]</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2213Ascomycota2018-05-09T00:17:42Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle2.png|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [2]]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens [9].<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes all types yeasts, some chategorized as ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous and economically important fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7, 10]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John W., Joey Spatafora, and Mary Berbee. 2006. Ascomycota. Sac Fungi. Version 09 October 2006 (under construction). [http://tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09 tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09]<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. 2007. Pezizomycotina. Version 19 December 2007. [http://tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19]<br />
<br />
[10] Blackwell, Meredith, Cletus P. Kurtzman, Marc-André Lachance, and Sung-Oui Suh. 2009. Saccharomycotina. Saccharomycetales. Version 22 January 2009. [http://tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22 tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22]</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2211Ascomycota2018-05-09T00:14:33Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Subgroups */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle2.png|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens [9].<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes all types yeasts, some chategorized as ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous and economically important fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7, 10]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John W., Joey Spatafora, and Mary Berbee. 2006. Ascomycota. Sac Fungi. Version 09 October 2006 (under construction). [http://tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09 tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09]<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. 2007. Pezizomycotina. Version 19 December 2007. [http://tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19]<br />
<br />
[10] Blackwell, Meredith, Cletus P. Kurtzman, Marc-André Lachance, and Sung-Oui Suh. 2009. Saccharomycotina. Saccharomycetales. Version 22 January 2009. [http://tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22 tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22]</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2210Ascomycota2018-05-09T00:10:32Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Subgroups */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle2.png|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens [9].<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7, 10]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John W., Joey Spatafora, and Mary Berbee. 2006. Ascomycota. Sac Fungi. Version 09 October 2006 (under construction). [http://tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09 tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09]<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. 2007. Pezizomycotina. Version 19 December 2007. [http://tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19]<br />
<br />
[10] Blackwell, Meredith, Cletus P. Kurtzman, Marc-André Lachance, and Sung-Oui Suh. 2009. Saccharomycotina. Saccharomycetales. Version 22 January 2009. [http://tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22 tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22]</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2209Ascomycota2018-05-09T00:09:24Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle2.png|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens [9].<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John W., Joey Spatafora, and Mary Berbee. 2006. Ascomycota. Sac Fungi. Version 09 October 2006 (under construction). [http://tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09 tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09]<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. 2007. Pezizomycotina. Version 19 December 2007. [http://tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19]<br />
<br />
[10] Blackwell, Meredith, Cletus P. Kurtzman, Marc-André Lachance, and Sung-Oui Suh. 2009. Saccharomycotina. Saccharomycetales. Version 22 January 2009. [http://tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22 tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22]</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2208Ascomycota2018-05-09T00:09:08Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
[[File:Lifecycle2.png|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens [9].<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John W., Joey Spatafora, and Mary Berbee. 2006. Ascomycota. Sac Fungi. Version 09 October 2006 (under construction). [http://tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09 tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09]<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. 2007. Pezizomycotina. Version 19 December 2007. [http://tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19]<br />
<br />
[10] Blackwell, Meredith, Cletus P. Kurtzman, Marc-André Lachance, and Sung-Oui Suh. 2009. Saccharomycotina. Saccharomycetales. Version 22 January 2009. [http://tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22 tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22]</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Lifecycle2.png&diff=2207File:Lifecycle2.png2018-05-09T00:08:20Z<p>Eliasgua: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2203Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:56:22Z<p>Eliasgua: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens [9].<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John W., Joey Spatafora, and Mary Berbee. 2006. Ascomycota. Sac Fungi. Version 09 October 2006 (under construction). [http://tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09 tolweb.org/Ascomycota/20521/2006.10.09]<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. 2007. Pezizomycotina. Version 19 December 2007. [http://tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19]<br />
<br />
[10] Blackwell, Meredith, Cletus P. Kurtzman, Marc-André Lachance, and Sung-Oui Suh. 2009. Saccharomycotina. Saccharomycetales. Version 22 January 2009. [http://tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22 tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22]</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2201Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:55:16Z<p>Eliasgua: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens [9].<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. 2007. Pezizomycotina. Version 19 December 2007. [http://tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296/2007.12.19]<br />
<br />
[10] Blackwell, Meredith, Cletus P. Kurtzman, Marc-André Lachance, and Sung-Oui Suh. 2009. Saccharomycotina. Saccharomycetales. Version 22 January 2009. [http://tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22 tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22]</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2200Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:53:53Z<p>Eliasgua: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens [9].<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. “Pezizomycotina.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296].<br />
<br />
[10] Blackwell, Meredith, Cletus P. Kurtzman, Marc-André Lachance, and Sung-Oui Suh. 2009. Saccharomycotina. Saccharomycetales. Version 22 January 2009. [http://tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22 tolweb.org/Saccharomycetales/29043/2009.01.22]</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2199Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:51:55Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Subgroups */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens [9].<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. “Pezizomycotina.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2198Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:47:54Z<p>Eliasgua: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens.<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. “Pezizomycotina.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2197Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:46:39Z<p>Eliasgua: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens.<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] Taylor, John, Spatafora, Joey, Berbee, Mary. “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].<br />
<br />
[9] Spatafora, Joey. “Pezizomycotina.” Tree of Life Web Project, [tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296 tolweb.org/Pezizomycotina/29296].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2196Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:43:55Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Subgroups */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. It is ecologically diverse with species functioning in ecological processes and symbioses including wood and litter decay, animal and plant pathogens, mycorrhizae, endophytes and lichens.<br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2195Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:29:18Z<p>Eliasgua: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or "Sac Fungi". Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2194Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:27:03Z<p>Eliasgua: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with [[Basidiomycota]] form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2193Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:26:36Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Characteristics */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Basidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2192Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:25:38Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Characteristics */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group [Basidiomycota], is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2191Ascomycota2018-05-08T23:25:07Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Characteristics */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments (hypha), and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Badidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2026Ascomycota2018-05-07T04:12:03Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Characteristics */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments which is a hypha, and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3]. The association of Sac Fungi with its sister group Badidiomycota, is supported by the presence in members of both phyla of cross-walls (septa) that divide the hypahe into segments, and pairs of unfused nuclei in these segments after mating and before nuclear fusion [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2025Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:58:46Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Characteristics */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
The body of Ascomycota is shared by other fungi and consists of a typical eukaryotic cell surrounded by a wall [3]. The body can be a single cell, as in yeasts, or a long tubular filament divided into cellular segments which is a hypha, and both the yeasts and hyphae cell walls are made of varying proportions of chitin and beta glucans [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2024Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:53:53Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2023Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:53:16Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|left|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2022Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:52:29Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|left|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2021Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:50:43Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif||Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2020Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:49:45Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci (ascus, plural) fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2019Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:41:43Z<p>Eliasgua: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
Ascomycota can be found on all continents and many genera and species display a cosmopolitan distribution [3]. They occur in terrestrial, marine, and freshwater habitats and range from microscopic to the size of large "mushrooms" [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2018Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:26:52Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2017Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:25:35Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2016Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:25:00Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|left|100|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2015Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:24:37Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|left|50|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2014Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:23:58Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|thumb|left|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2013Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:22:03Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif||Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2012Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:21:23Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=2011Ascomycota2018-05-07T03:14:40Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Ascomycota */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif |thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Founders_of_Soil_Concepts&diff=2010Founders of Soil Concepts2018-05-07T03:14:01Z<p>Eliasgua: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
The founders of soil concepts are the primary scientists that saw soil as fundamental to human life and realized soil's intrinsic value and its importance to planet Earth. They initiated the study of soil, and created a foundation for soil science to be researched and expanded in future generations. These select founders include the likes of Vasily Dokuchaev, Konstantin Glinka, Curtis F. Marbut, and Hans Jenny.<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
== Vasily Dokuchaev ==<br />
[[File:Vasily-Vasilievich-Dokuchaev-1846-1903.png|thumb|Vasily Dokuchaev [6] ]]<br />
The first scientific view of soils as natural bodies that develop under the influence of climate and biological activity acting on geological substrates arose in Russia with the work of Vasily Dokuchaev [3]. Born in Russia in 1846, being the son of a priest, Dokuchaev gained interest in natural science, and eventually obtained his doctorate in geology, becoming curator of the geological laboratory at St. Petersburg University in 1872 [2]. He is commonly recognized as the founder of pedology, due to making the case for studying soil science as a subject in its own right saying, "time is not far when in its own right and because of its great importance for humanity, it will occupy an independent and fully respected place” [2]. There were some who Dokuchaev derived ideas from, but he was the one to transform many of the existing views and hypothesis into a logical theory that was useful for predicting soil distributions and formation [4]. He perceived soil to be an “independent natural body”, and suggested independently that soil development was principally controlled by climate and vegetation [1]. His theory and model, along with its subtle permutations, have been examined and praised in countless textbooks, conferences, symposia, and professional papers, and institutes, awards, medals, celebrations, museums, and even a crater on Mars, have been named in his honor [4]. The longevity of Vasily Dokuchaev’s work has then been prolonged by his students, colleagues, and Russian peers.<br />
<br />
== Konstantin Glinka and Curtis F. Marbut ==<br />
[[File:Glinka,Marbut.png|thumb|Konstantin Glinka (right) with Curtis Marbut (left) [7]]]<br />
<br />
Russian scientist Konstantin Glinka was one of Dokuchaev’s students that continued his work and expanded on his soil concepts. Born in 1867, Glinka was Director of Agricultural College of Leningrad and Experimental Station, and the first director of the Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute. His take was that soil is, “… not only a natural body with definite properties, but also its geographical position and surroundings, i.e., climate, vegetation, and animal life” [3]. He wrote, and expanded on his thinking in his book, "Die Typen der Bodenbil" (The Types of Soil), which helped bring foreign soil ideology and science to the United States. Glinka’s work was translated to English in 1917 by an American soil scientist, Curtis F. Marbut, the then director of the Division of Soil Survey at US Department of Agriculture (USDA) [2]. Marbut, born in 1863, started out as an instructor of geology and mineralogy at the University of Missouri, until he positioned himself as a soil scientist at the USDA post 1909 [5]. There he looked into the work of foreign soil scientists, and took inspiration from Glinka in pursuing new methods of conducting field work [5]. Marbut realized that the Russian perspective predates the formal statement of the ecosystem concept by several decades and decided to translate the Russian scientist's work into English [3]. His introduction to Russian pedological theory inspired him to transform many aspects of the US soil classification system, and the way in which soils were studied in the United States [2].<br />
<br />
== Hans Jenny ==<br />
[[File:Hans-jenny.jpg|thumb|Hans Jenny [8] ]]<br />
Scientist Hans Jenny was one of those that took advantage of the introduction of Russian soil concepts in the US. He made a breakthrough in his reformulation and further quantification of Dokuchaev’s soil interpretation. In his published literature, “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology” (1941), he provided a detailed definition of both soil and the "larger system," as well as a method to quantitatively and numerically link soil and larger system properties to state factors [2]. In that book, Jenny coined the term “[[pedogenesis]]”, which is the process of soil formation, and formulated this concept into the now famous “fundamental equation of soil-forming factors”, or [[Jenny Equation]]: s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …) [3]. This equation states that the state of a body of soil at a point in time (s), refers to the function (f) of five interrelated factors: climate (cl), organisms (o), relief or topography (r), parent material (p), and time (t) [1]. He also inserted an ellipsis (…) in the equation for other possible factor that he did not consider at the time. Jenny, probably more than any North American soil scientist of his era, emphasized the importance of the biota in and upon soils [3]. Since his work, research in soil science has experienced a “renaissance” as the significance of biological activity in soil formation, organic matter dynamics, and nutrient cycling have become widely recognized [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] “CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere (u). Soil Pedogenesis.” Physical Geography, [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html].<br />
<br />
[2] Amundson, Ronald, and Hans Jenny. “On a State Factor Model of Ecosystems.” BioScience, 1 Sept. 1997, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents].<br />
<br />
[3] Historical Overview of Soils and the Fitnes of the Soil Environment.” Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, by David C Coleman, 2nd ed., 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Johnson, Donald L, and Randall J Schaetzl. “Differing Views of Soil and Pedogenesis by Two Masters: Darwin and Dokuchaev.” pp. 1–14., [http://www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf.].<br />
<br />
[5] “Curtis F. Marbut (1863 - 1935).” Curtis F. Marbut - Historic Missourians - The State Historical Society of Missouri, [http://www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/ www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/].<br />
<br />
[6] SINGH, S.K., and P. CHANDRAN. SOIL SCIENCE-AN INTRODUCTION Edition: FirstChapter: 3. Indian Society of Soil Science, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1 www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1].<br />
<br />
[7] Brevik, Eric & Hartemink, Alfred. (2010). History, Philosophy, and Sociology of Soil Science. [http://www.eolss.net www.eolss.net]. <br />
<br />
[8] Faisca, F. “Hans Jenny and Cymatics - The Study of Wave Phenomena.” Hans Jenny and Cymatics, [https://www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Pedogenesis&diff=2009Pedogenesis2018-05-07T03:13:25Z<p>Eliasgua: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Soil.jpg|thumb|Soil Profile detailing the differences between horizon depths [8] ]]<br />
Pedogenesis is the process of soil formation. Soil has many biological, chemical, and physical factors that are variable, and constantly subject to change. Its nature, profile build-up, and specific properties are the direct result of several pedogenic processes. In the late 19th century (1880s), Russian scientist Vasily Dokuchaev perceived soil as an “independent natural body” regarded as a function of local maternal rock variety, age of the land (time since it became surface land), climate, and vegetation [3]. His ideas were expanded in the next century by scientist Hans Jenny, who in the 1940s, established that the development of soil is influenced by five interrelated factors: climate, organisms, relief (topography), parent material, and time [2]. In 1941, Jenny detailed his ideas and observations in his book, “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology”, where he coined the term pedogenesis, and outlined an equation that would account for soil formation [7]. This equation also known as the State Factor Model is summarized as: <br />
s = f(cl, o, r, p, t, ...).<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
== Origin (Founders) ==<br />
The origin of pedogenesis as a form of study dates back to Vasily Dokuchaev. He believed that pedogenesis was principally [[File:Hans.jpg|thumb|Jenny's literature detailing pedogenesis (1941) [9] ]] controlled by vegetation and climate [2]. This was based on observations that alike soils developed in spatially separate areas when their vegetation and climate were similar. Konstantin Glinka, a student of Dokuchaev, went on to express soil as “not only a natural body with definite properties, but also its geographical position and surroundings, I.e. climate, vegetation, and animal life” [3]. Hans Jenny’s interpretation, which was based on Dokuchaev and those that came before him, provided a detailed definition of both soil and the "larger system," as well as a method to quantitatively and numerically link soil and larger system properties to state factors [3]. This “larger system” would be “composed of the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere, and a considerable part of the biosphere.” The [[founders of Soil Concepts]] initiated the study of soil and pedogeneis, and laid a foundation to be improved and continued on by others.<br />
<br />
== Pedogenesis Factors ==<br />
Hans Jenny formulated the pedogenesis concept into the “fundamental equation of soil-forming factors”, also known as the [[Jenny Equation]]:<br />
<br />
[[File:Soil_Equation.png]].<br />
<br />
This equation states that soil formation (s) is a function (f) of climate (cl), organisms (o), relief (r), parent material (p), and time (t). Jenny also left an ellipses (…) in the equation, for other possible considerations that he did not ponder at the time [7]. <br />
[[File:Pedogenesis_factors.jpg|thumb|Pedogegenesis Factors [2] ]]<br />
<br />
'''Climate (cl):'''<br />
<br />
The climate factor of soil genesis is the climate (I.e. temperature, precipitation, and humidity) of the ecosystem [3]. Temperature and moisture are two climatic components that are very influential in pedogenesis [2]. The production of mineral particles caused by weathering is directly influenced by temperature. Bedrock weathering rates typically increase with higher temperatures. Moisture levels in soils are mainly regulated by water additions through precipitation minus the losses due to evapotranspiration [2]. Moisture availability also has impacts on the decomposition of organic matter and the soil pH.<br />
<br />
'''Organisms (o):'''<br />
<br />
The organism factor deals with the potential biota of the system [3]. It is the microbial, plant, and animal gene flux that cycles through the system from its surroundings [3]. Organic components dealing with pedogenesis include organic matter accumulation, profile mixing, and biogeochemical nutrient cycling [2]. Litter and decomposing processes adds to the top layer of soil and increases nutrients influencing fertility and structure. Vegetation also helps in binding soil and protecting the surface from erosion from water and wind.<br />
<br />
'''Relief (r):'''<br />
<br />
The relief or topography deals with the subvariables that correspond to the physical make up of an ecosystem at the beginning of its development, or the start of an observation period [3]. The site’s position on a hillslope, the range of its slope, the proximity of the site to the water table are examples of the subvariables. Relief typically moderates the formation of soil on a regional or local scale, and pedogenesis is directly related to microclimate and drainage influenced by the topography [2]. The development of soil horizons are caused by illuviation and eluviation drainage processes [2]. Microclimate would be influenced by which side of a hill is warmer than a side facing another direction. This results in soils of different areas having differences in terms of texture, depth, biota, and profile development [2].<br />
<br />
'''Parent Material (p):'''<br />
<br />
The parent material factor is defined as the initial state of the rock, sediment, or minerals of an ecosystem from which the soils develop [3]. Weathering of bedrock and transported sediments from erosive means can make up this factor. For a habitat that has been clear-cut or burned down, the parent material would be the present soil at which the new flora and fauna begin to grow over[3]. Parent material influences are generally related to soil chemistry and texture, and nutrient cycling.<br />
<br />
'''Time (t):'''<br />
<br />
Time is the period since the ecosystem began forming, or since the assemblage of state factors changed. It is the temporal consequences of all the summed up state factors. Time at 0 (t=0), the starting point could be after a depositional event, or a major disturbance or configuration of all the pedogenesis factors [3]. Through time, soils receive positive and negative feedback in an attempt to reach equilibrium [2]. Steady state is reached over time when a soil reaches maturity.<br />
<br />
'''Other Possible Factors (...):'''<br />
<br />
There could be additional state factors dealing with soil formation. One could say that humans could be an element to the equation [3]. Based on our extreme influence and control over ecosystems, soil formation could be swayed by human direct or indirect involvement. This factor can fall under the organism (o) state factor, however. A subdivision of the human factor could be cultural inheritance (c) [3]. This would be the assemblage of a population in an ecosystem at t=0, based on culture (technologies, ideas, and philosophies of individuals) [3]. This would have a substantial effect on ecosystem development, as well as soil formation and alteration.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Veldkamp, Antonie. “PEDOGENESIS AND SOIL FORMING FACTORS .” LAND USE, LAND COVER AND SOIL SCIENCES – Vol. VI, [http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C12/E1-05-07-02.pdf www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C12/E1-05-07-02.pdf].<br />
<br />
[2] “CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere (u). Soil Pedogenesis.” Physical Geography, [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html].<br />
<br />
[3] Amundson, Ronald, and Hans Jenny. “On a State Factor Model of Ecosystems.” BioScience, 1 Sept. 1997, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents].<br />
<br />
[4] “Plate Tectonics.” Soils, Weathering, and Nutrients, 16 Sept. 2013, [http://globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/soils/soils.html globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/soils/soils.html].<br />
<br />
[5] Historical Overview of Soils and the Fitnes of the Soil Environment.” Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, by David C Coleman, 2nd ed., 2004.<br />
<br />
[6] “How Soils Form | Environment, Land and Water.” Environment, Land and Water | Queensland Government, Queensland, 8 Oct. 2013, [http://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/soil/soil-explained/forms www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/soil/soil-explained/forms].<br />
<br />
[7] Henshue, Nicholas. “Introduction to Soil Ecology.” Soil Ecology, Week 1, pp. 1–33., [http://ublearns.buffalo.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-4467366-dt-content-rid-17751926_1/courses/2181_23766/intro%201.pdf ublearns.buffalo.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-4467366-dt-content-rid-17751926_1/courses/2181_23766/intro%201.pdf].<br />
<br />
[8] “SOIL FORMATION.” Science Zone Jamaica, 23 Feb. 2014, [http://https://sciencezoneja.wordpress.com/2014/02/23/soil-formation/ https://sciencezoneja.wordpress.com/2014/02/23/soil-formation/].<br />
<br />
[9] “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology (Dover Earth Science) Paperback – December 8, 2011.” Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology (Dover Earth Science): Hans Jenny: 0800759681280: Amazon.com: Books, [http://www.amazon.com/Factors-Soil-Formation-Quantitative-Pedology/dp/0486681289 www.amazon.com/Factors-Soil-Formation-Quantitative-Pedology/dp/0486681289].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Pedogenesis&diff=1995Pedogenesis2018-05-06T21:58:22Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Pedogenesis */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Pedogenesis ==<br />
[[File:Soil.jpg|thumb|Soil Profile detailing the differences between horizon depths [8] ]]<br />
Pedogenesis is the process of soil formation. Soil has many biological, chemical, and physical factors that are variable, and constantly subject to change. Its nature, profile build-up, and specific properties are the direct result of several pedogenic processes. In the late 19th century (1880s), Russian scientist Vasily Dokuchaev perceived soil as an “independent natural body” regarded as a function of local maternal rock variety, age of the land (time since it became surface land), climate, and vegetation [3]. His ideas were expanded in the next century by scientist Hans Jenny, who in the 1940s, established that the development of soil is influenced by five interrelated factors: climate, organisms, relief (topography), parent material, and time [2]. In 1941, Jenny detailed his ideas and observations in his book, “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology”, where he coined the term pedogenesis, and outlined an equation that would account for soil formation [7]. This equation also known as the State Factor Model is summarized as: <br />
s = f(cl, o, r, p, t, ...).<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
== Origin (Founders) ==<br />
The origin of pedogenesis as a form of study dates back to Vasily Dokuchaev. He believed that pedogenesis was principally [[File:Hans.jpg|thumb|Jenny's literature detailing pedogenesis (1941) [9] ]] controlled by vegetation and climate [2]. This was based on observations that alike soils developed in spatially separate areas when their vegetation and climate were similar. Konstantin Glinka, a student of Dokuchaev, went on to express soil as “not only a natural body with definite properties, but also its geographical position and surroundings, I.e. climate, vegetation, and animal life” [3]. Hans Jenny’s interpretation, which was based on Dokuchaev and those that came before him, provided a detailed definition of both soil and the "larger system," as well as a method to quantitatively and numerically link soil and larger system properties to state factors [3]. This “larger system” would be “composed of the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere, and a considerable part of the biosphere.” The [[founders of Soil Concepts]] initiated the study of soil and pedogeneis, and laid a foundation to be improved and continued on by others.<br />
<br />
== Pedogenesis Factors ==<br />
Hans Jenny formulated the pedogenesis concept into the “fundamental equation of soil-forming factors”, also known as the [[Jenny Equation]]:<br />
<br />
[[File:Soil_Equation.png]].<br />
<br />
This equation states that soil formation (s) is a function (f) of climate (cl), organisms (o), relief (r), parent material (p), and time (t). Jenny also left an ellipses (…) in the equation, for other possible considerations that he did not ponder at the time [7]. <br />
[[File:Pedogenesis_factors.jpg|thumb|Pedogegenesis Factors [2] ]]<br />
<br />
'''Climate (cl):'''<br />
<br />
The climate factor of soil genesis is the climate (I.e. temperature, precipitation, and humidity) of the ecosystem [3]. Temperature and moisture are two climatic components that are very influential in pedogenesis [2]. The production of mineral particles caused by weathering is directly influenced by temperature. Bedrock weathering rates typically increase with higher temperatures. Moisture levels in soils are mainly regulated by water additions through precipitation minus the losses due to evapotranspiration [2]. Moisture availability also has impacts on the decomposition of organic matter and the soil pH.<br />
<br />
'''Organisms (o):'''<br />
<br />
The organism factor deals with the potential biota of the system [3]. It is the microbial, plant, and animal gene flux that cycles through the system from its surroundings [3]. Organic components dealing with pedogenesis include organic matter accumulation, profile mixing, and biogeochemical nutrient cycling [2]. Litter and decomposing processes adds to the top layer of soil and increases nutrients influencing fertility and structure. Vegetation also helps in binding soil and protecting the surface from erosion from water and wind.<br />
<br />
'''Relief (r):'''<br />
<br />
The relief or topography deals with the subvariables that correspond to the physical make up of an ecosystem at the beginning of its development, or the start of an observation period [3]. The site’s position on a hillslope, the range of its slope, the proximity of the site to the water table are examples of the subvariables. Relief typically moderates the formation of soil on a regional or local scale, and pedogenesis is directly related to microclimate and drainage influenced by the topography [2]. The development of soil horizons are caused by illuviation and eluviation drainage processes [2]. Microclimate would be influenced by which side of a hill is warmer than a side facing another direction. This results in soils of different areas having differences in terms of texture, depth, biota, and profile development [2].<br />
<br />
'''Parent Material (p):'''<br />
<br />
The parent material factor is defined as the initial state of the rock, sediment, or minerals of an ecosystem from which the soils develop [3]. Weathering of bedrock and transported sediments from erosive means can make up this factor. For a habitat that has been clear-cut or burned down, the parent material would be the present soil at which the new flora and fauna begin to grow over[3]. Parent material influences are generally related to soil chemistry and texture, and nutrient cycling.<br />
<br />
'''Time (t):'''<br />
<br />
Time is the period since the ecosystem began forming, or since the assemblage of state factors changed. It is the temporal consequences of all the summed up state factors. Time at 0 (t=0), the starting point could be after a depositional event, or a major disturbance or configuration of all the pedogenesis factors [3]. Through time, soils receive positive and negative feedback in an attempt to reach equilibrium [2]. Steady state is reached over time when a soil reaches maturity.<br />
<br />
'''Other Possible Factors (...):'''<br />
<br />
There could be additional state factors dealing with soil formation. One could say that humans could be an element to the equation [3]. Based on our extreme influence and control over ecosystems, soil formation could be swayed by human direct or indirect involvement. This factor can fall under the organism (o) state factor, however. A subdivision of the human factor could be cultural inheritance (c) [3]. This would be the assemblage of a population in an ecosystem at t=0, based on culture (technologies, ideas, and philosophies of individuals) [3]. This would have a substantial effect on ecosystem development, as well as soil formation and alteration.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Veldkamp, Antonie. “PEDOGENESIS AND SOIL FORMING FACTORS .” LAND USE, LAND COVER AND SOIL SCIENCES – Vol. VI, [http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C12/E1-05-07-02.pdf www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C12/E1-05-07-02.pdf].<br />
<br />
[2] “CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere (u). Soil Pedogenesis.” Physical Geography, [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html].<br />
<br />
[3] Amundson, Ronald, and Hans Jenny. “On a State Factor Model of Ecosystems.” BioScience, 1 Sept. 1997, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents].<br />
<br />
[4] “Plate Tectonics.” Soils, Weathering, and Nutrients, 16 Sept. 2013, [http://globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/soils/soils.html globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/soils/soils.html].<br />
<br />
[5] Historical Overview of Soils and the Fitnes of the Soil Environment.” Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, by David C Coleman, 2nd ed., 2004.<br />
<br />
[6] “How Soils Form | Environment, Land and Water.” Environment, Land and Water | Queensland Government, Queensland, 8 Oct. 2013, [http://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/soil/soil-explained/forms www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/soil/soil-explained/forms].<br />
<br />
[7] Henshue, Nicholas. “Introduction to Soil Ecology.” Soil Ecology, Week 1, pp. 1–33., [http://ublearns.buffalo.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-4467366-dt-content-rid-17751926_1/courses/2181_23766/intro%201.pdf ublearns.buffalo.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-4467366-dt-content-rid-17751926_1/courses/2181_23766/intro%201.pdf].<br />
<br />
[8] “SOIL FORMATION.” Science Zone Jamaica, 23 Feb. 2014, [http://https://sciencezoneja.wordpress.com/2014/02/23/soil-formation/ https://sciencezoneja.wordpress.com/2014/02/23/soil-formation/].<br />
<br />
[9] “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology (Dover Earth Science) Paperback – December 8, 2011.” Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology (Dover Earth Science): Hans Jenny: 0800759681280: Amazon.com: Books, [http://www.amazon.com/Factors-Soil-Formation-Quantitative-Pedology/dp/0486681289 www.amazon.com/Factors-Soil-Formation-Quantitative-Pedology/dp/0486681289].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Founders_of_Soil_Concepts&diff=1994Founders of Soil Concepts2018-05-06T21:58:01Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Founders of Soil Concepts */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Founders of Soil Concepts ==<br />
The founders of soil concepts are the primary scientists that saw soil as fundamental to human life and realized soil's intrinsic value and its importance to planet Earth. They initiated the study of soil, and created a foundation for soil science to be researched and expanded in future generations. These select founders include the likes of Vasily Dokuchaev, Konstantin Glinka, Curtis F. Marbut, and Hans Jenny.<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
== Vasily Dokuchaev ==<br />
[[File:Vasily-Vasilievich-Dokuchaev-1846-1903.png|thumb|Vasily Dokuchaev [6] ]]<br />
The first scientific view of soils as natural bodies that develop under the influence of climate and biological activity acting on geological substrates arose in Russia with the work of Vasily Dokuchaev [3]. Born in Russia in 1846, being the son of a priest, Dokuchaev gained interest in natural science, and eventually obtained his doctorate in geology, becoming curator of the geological laboratory at St. Petersburg University in 1872 [2]. He is commonly recognized as the founder of pedology, due to making the case for studying soil science as a subject in its own right saying, "time is not far when in its own right and because of its great importance for humanity, it will occupy an independent and fully respected place” [2]. There were some who Dokuchaev derived ideas from, but he was the one to transform many of the existing views and hypothesis into a logical theory that was useful for predicting soil distributions and formation [4]. He perceived soil to be an “independent natural body”, and suggested independently that soil development was principally controlled by climate and vegetation [1]. His theory and model, along with its subtle permutations, have been examined and praised in countless textbooks, conferences, symposia, and professional papers, and institutes, awards, medals, celebrations, museums, and even a crater on Mars, have been named in his honor [4]. The longevity of Vasily Dokuchaev’s work has then been prolonged by his students, colleagues, and Russian peers.<br />
<br />
== Konstantin Glinka and Curtis F. Marbut ==<br />
[[File:Glinka,Marbut.png|thumb|Konstantin Glinka (right) with Curtis Marbut (left) [7]]]<br />
<br />
Russian scientist Konstantin Glinka was one of Dokuchaev’s students that continued his work and expanded on his soil concepts. Born in 1867, Glinka was Director of Agricultural College of Leningrad and Experimental Station, and the first director of the Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute. His take was that soil is, “… not only a natural body with definite properties, but also its geographical position and surroundings, i.e., climate, vegetation, and animal life” [3]. He wrote, and expanded on his thinking in his book, "Die Typen der Bodenbil" (The Types of Soil), which helped bring foreign soil ideology and science to the United States. Glinka’s work was translated to English in 1917 by an American soil scientist, Curtis F. Marbut, the then director of the Division of Soil Survey at US Department of Agriculture (USDA) [2]. Marbut, born in 1863, started out as an instructor of geology and mineralogy at the University of Missouri, until he positioned himself as a soil scientist at the USDA post 1909 [5]. There he looked into the work of foreign soil scientists, and took inspiration from Glinka in pursuing new methods of conducting field work [5]. Marbut realized that the Russian perspective predates the formal statement of the ecosystem concept by several decades and decided to translate the Russian scientist's work into English [3]. His introduction to Russian pedological theory inspired him to transform many aspects of the US soil classification system, and the way in which soils were studied in the United States [2].<br />
<br />
== Hans Jenny ==<br />
[[File:Hans-jenny.jpg|thumb|Hans Jenny [8] ]]<br />
Scientist Hans Jenny was one of those that took advantage of the introduction of Russian soil concepts in the US. He made a breakthrough in his reformulation and further quantification of Dokuchaev’s soil interpretation. In his published literature, “Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quantitative Pedology” (1941), he provided a detailed definition of both soil and the "larger system," as well as a method to quantitatively and numerically link soil and larger system properties to state factors [2]. In that book, Jenny coined the term “[[pedogenesis]]”, which is the process of soil formation, and formulated this concept into the now famous “fundamental equation of soil-forming factors”, or [[Jenny Equation]]: s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, …) [3]. This equation states that the state of a body of soil at a point in time (s), refers to the function (f) of five interrelated factors: climate (cl), organisms (o), relief or topography (r), parent material (p), and time (t) [1]. He also inserted an ellipsis (…) in the equation for other possible factor that he did not consider at the time. Jenny, probably more than any North American soil scientist of his era, emphasized the importance of the biota in and upon soils [3]. Since his work, research in soil science has experienced a “renaissance” as the significance of biological activity in soil formation, organic matter dynamics, and nutrient cycling have become widely recognized [3].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] “CHAPTER 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere (u). Soil Pedogenesis.” Physical Geography, [http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10u.html].<br />
<br />
[2] Amundson, Ronald, and Hans Jenny. “On a State Factor Model of Ecosystems.” BioScience, 1 Sept. 1997, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents www.jstor.org/stable/1313122?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents].<br />
<br />
[3] Historical Overview of Soils and the Fitnes of the Soil Environment.” Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, by David C Coleman, 2nd ed., 2004.<br />
<br />
[4] Johnson, Donald L, and Randall J Schaetzl. “Differing Views of Soil and Pedogenesis by Two Masters: Darwin and Dokuchaev.” pp. 1–14., [http://www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf www.geo.msu.edu/extra/schaetzl/PDFs/Johnson-Schaetzl2014.pdf.].<br />
<br />
[5] “Curtis F. Marbut (1863 - 1935).” Curtis F. Marbut - Historic Missourians - The State Historical Society of Missouri, [http://www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/ www.shsmo.org/historicmissourians/name/m/marbut/].<br />
<br />
[6] SINGH, S.K., and P. CHANDRAN. SOIL SCIENCE-AN INTRODUCTION Edition: FirstChapter: 3. Indian Society of Soil Science, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1 www.researchgate.net/publication/314453325_SOIL_GENESIS_AND_CLASSIFICATION_Upon_this_handful_of_soil_our_survival_depends_Husband_it_and_it_will_grow_our_food_our_fuel_and_our_shelter_and_surround_us_with_beauty_Abuse_it_and_the_soil_will_coll/figures?lo=1].<br />
<br />
[7] Brevik, Eric & Hartemink, Alfred. (2010). History, Philosophy, and Sociology of Soil Science. [http://www.eolss.net www.eolss.net]. <br />
<br />
[8] Faisca, F. “Hans Jenny and Cymatics - The Study of Wave Phenomena.” Hans Jenny and Cymatics, [https://www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=1993Ascomycota2018-05-06T21:57:21Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Ascomycota */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Ascomycota ==<br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif |thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=1992Ascomycota2018-05-06T21:54:51Z<p>Eliasgua: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Ascomycota ==<br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif |thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [https://www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [https://tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [https://science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [https://eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [https://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=1991Ascomycota2018-05-06T21:54:02Z<p>Eliasgua: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Ascomycota ==<br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif |thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
[8] “Simon's Blog - Winter Fungus.” ITV News, ITV Hub, [www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/ www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/].</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=1990Ascomycota2018-05-06T21:50:50Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Ascomycota ==<br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif |thumb|Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
http://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=1989Ascomycota2018-05-06T21:50:07Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Ascomycota ==<br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif Life Cycle of Ascomycota]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
http://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/</div>Eliasguahttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Ascomycota&diff=1988Ascomycota2018-05-06T21:49:44Z<p>Eliasgua: /* Reproduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Ascomycota ==<br />
[[File:Ascomycota.jpg|thumb|Ascomycota: Scarlet Elf Cup Fungus [8]]]<br />
Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi characterized by their formation of a sac-like structure or “ascus” [1]. It is the largest phylum of fungi species, accounting for approximately 75% of all described fungi, with over 65,000 species [3]. This group is also referred to as “Ascomycetes”, or Sac Fungi. Ascomycota together with Basidiomycota form the subkingdom Dikarya [4]. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance and some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts, truffles and morels [1]. Among the famous Ascomycota fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast of commerce and foundation of the baking and brewing industries, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', producer of penicillin, ''Morchella esculentum'', the edible morel, and ''Neurospora crassa'', the "one-gene-one-enzyme" organism [3]. Infamous Ascomysetes include: ''Aspergillus flavus'', producer of aflatoxin (the fungal contaminant of nuts and stored grain that is both a toxin and the most potent known natural carcinogen), ''Candida albicans'', cause of thrush, diaper rash and vaginitis, and ''Cryphonectria parasitica'', responsible for the demise of 4 billion chestnut trees in the eastern USA [5].<br />
<br />
==Reproduction ==<br />
[[File:Fungalsac.gif|thumb|Drawing showing a cross-section of a cup fungus, a kind of sac fungus, and the microsopic view shows how asci cover the inside of the cup [2]]]<br />
<br />
Ascomycota can make spores sexually (ascospores or meiospores) and asexually (condia or mitospores) [3]. Asexually, the hyphae of the sac fungi are divided by septa with pores, that is, they have perforated walls between adjacent cells [6]. They reproduce asexually by producing spores, called conidia, which are born on specialized erect hyphae, called conidiophores. The sac fungi are typically prolific producers of conidia [6].<br />
Sexual reproduction begins with the development of particular hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains. The “male” strain produces an antheridium and the “female” strain develops an ascogonium [1]. At fertilization, the antheridium and the ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the “male” strain and one from the “female” strain. In each ascus, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei [1]. During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia [1]. Wind is the primary dispersal agent once the spores have been released from the ascus, but splashing, running water, and animals can be a method of spore transport as well [3].<br />
<br />
[[File:Lifecycle.gif Life Cycle of Ascomycota [3]]]<br />
<br />
== Subgroups ==<br />
Ascomycota, which includes both unicellular and multicellular forms, is divided into three monophyletic subphyla: Pneumocystidomycetes, Schizosaccharomycetes, and Taphrinomycetes. <br />
'''Pezizomycotina''' is the largest subphylum of Ascomycota, including the vast majority of filamentous, ascocarp-producing species of ascomycetes [7]. <br />
'''Saccharomycotina''' includes the "true yeasts", among others like ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' or Bakers' Yeast, the most famous fungus, and ''Candida albicans'', the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen of humans and often the agent responsible for vaginal yeast infections and thrush and some toenail infections, among others human medical woes [3, 7]. <br />
'''Taphrinomycotina''' includes, among others, ''Pneumocystis jirovecii'', a fungus that is often present in the lungs of healthy people but can cause pneumocystosis in individuals with weakened immune systems [7].<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Learning, Lumen. “Biology for Majors II.” Lumen, Open SUNY Textbooks, [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/ courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/ascomycota/].<br />
<br />
[2] “Sac Fungi.” Silk Tree or Mimosa, ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN, [www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm www.backyardnature.net/fungsac.htm].<br />
<br />
[3] Taylor, John, et al. “Ascomycota.” Tree of Life Web Project, [tolweb.org/Ascomycota tolweb.org/Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[4] “Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota).” INaturalist.org, [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48250-Ascomycota].<br />
<br />
[5] Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, and M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 868p.<br />
<br />
[6] Rahima. “Fungi - Ascomycota, Sac Fungi.” Carbon, Energy, Greenhouse, and Atmosphere - JRank Articles, [science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html science.jrank.org/pages/2893/Fungi-Ascomycota-sac-fungi.html]. <br />
<br />
[7] “Ascomycetes - Ascomycota - Overview.” Encyclopedia of Life, [eol.org/pages/5577/overview eol.org/pages/5577/overview].<br />
<br />
http://www.itv.com/news/meridian/2016-02-04/simons-blog-winter-fungus/</div>Eliasgua