https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=EjbannisSoil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-13T14:00:07ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.0https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=13732Tiger Centipede2025-05-09T18:17:40Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 12px;<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="2" |[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
|-<br />
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''<br />
|-<br />
!style="min-width:6em; |Domain:<br />
|style="min-width:6em; |Eukaryota<br />
|-<br />
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:<br />
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia<br />
|-<br />
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:<br />
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropod]]<br />
|-<br />
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:<br />
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Chilopoda]]<br />
|-<br />
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:<br />
|style="min-width:6em; |Scolopendromorpha<br />
|-<br />
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:<br />
|style="min-width:6em; |Scolopendridae <br />
|-<br />
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:<br />
|style="min-width:6em; |Scolopendra<br />
|-<br />
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:<br />
|style="min-width:6em; |S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref>. The hind end forms a "psudeohead" that looks very similar to the head of the centipede, a pair of long legs somewhat Resemble the antenna of the head.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps. To prevent drying, desert centipedes hid under rocks during the day and come out at night to hunt.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic nocturnal predators. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
<ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=13731Tiger Centipede2025-05-09T18:17:13Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref>. The hind end forms a "psudeohead" that looks very similar to the head of the centipede, a pair of long legs somewhat Resemble the antenna of the head.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps. To prevent drying, desert centipedes hid under rocks during the day and come out at night to hunt.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic nocturnal predators. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
<ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=13714Tiger Centipede2025-05-09T16:11:01Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| [[Arthropoda]]<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref>. The hind end forms a "psudeohead" that looks very similar to the head of the centipede, a pair of long legs somewhat Resemble the antenna of the head.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps. To prevent drying, desert centipedes hid under rocks during the day and come out at night to hunt.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic nocturnal predators. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
<ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=13713Tiger Centipede2025-05-09T16:10:29Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Habitat and Range */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| [[Arthropoda]]<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref>. The hind end forms a "psudeohead" that looks very similar to the head of the centipede, a pair of long legs somewhat Resemble the antenna of the head.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps. To prevent drying, desert centipedes hid under rocks during the day and come out at night to hunt.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
<ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13706Tree fern2025-05-09T08:48:07Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Species */</p>
<hr />
<div>The two main genera of hardy tree ferns are ''Cyathea'' and ''Dicksonia''. Species of ''Dicksonia'' are readily identified by hairs growing on the newly emerging fronds, and the most common ''Cyathea'' species can be identified by the presence of scales on many (but not all) species.<ref name="source3" /> They are among the most ancient botanical species on earth. They originated during the Carboniferous Period, roughly 360 million years ago. Members of both Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae appear to have been diverse and relatively common during the succeeding Jurassic Period (199.6 to 145.5 million years ago) and Cretaceous Period (145.5 to 65.5 million years ago). However, the modern genera only became evident during the early Cenozoic (65.5 to 2.6 million years ago).<ref name="source2" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg|600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica.<ref name="image1" />]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns do not develop a woody trunk that functions like other trees. All ferns have a rhizome, from which the fronds emerge. These rhizomes can vary (from species to species) from long to short, or be creeping along the ground. A tree fern is simply a case of the rhizome being very long and strong enough to support itself.<ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
Leaves of all ferns, including tree ferns, are referred to as fronds. On tree ferns, the fronds are held at the top of the plant in a spreading manner. They form by uncurling from the crown in the center, which is at the top of the trunk. The crown might be considered the most important part of the plant, since that is where all the leaf growth comes from. If it is destroyed, no more croziers will emerge from it, and the rest of the plant will eventually die.<ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
== Reproduction ==<br />
Unlike most plants, tree ferns do not reproduce via flowers or seeds but through spores. If the leaves reach maturity, they unfold into leafy fronds and develop spores on the underside of the fronds. When the spores germinate, they transform into minuscule plants.<ref name="conscious-explorer" /><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source2" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include:<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds, grows in open places with full exposure to wind and sun. <br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns<ref name="source1" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source1" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="source1">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–165. [https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103 https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103].</ref><br />
<ref name="source2">Yatskievych, George; Mickel, John T.; Wagner, Warren H.; Gifford, Ernest M.; Walker, Warren F. "Fern." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 22 Mar. 2025. [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica].</ref><br />
<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." ''Angelfire''. [http://www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/ www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/]. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="conscious-explorer">Cindy. "Costa Rica – Flora Focus: Tree Ferns." ''Conscious Explorer''. [https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns]. Accessed 9 May 2025.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13705Tree fern2025-05-09T08:44:57Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>The two main genera of hardy tree ferns are ''Cyathea'' and ''Dicksonia''. Species of ''Dicksonia'' are readily identified by hairs growing on the newly emerging fronds, and the most common ''Cyathea'' species can be identified by the presence of scales on many (but not all) species.<ref name="source3" /> They are among the most ancient botanical species on earth. They originated during the Carboniferous Period, roughly 360 million years ago. Members of both Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae appear to have been diverse and relatively common during the succeeding Jurassic Period (199.6 to 145.5 million years ago) and Cretaceous Period (145.5 to 65.5 million years ago). However, the modern genera only became evident during the early Cenozoic (65.5 to 2.6 million years ago).<ref name="source2" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg|600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica.<ref name="image1" />]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns do not develop a woody trunk that functions like other trees. All ferns have a rhizome, from which the fronds emerge. These rhizomes can vary (from species to species) from long to short, or be creeping along the ground. A tree fern is simply a case of the rhizome being very long and strong enough to support itself.<ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
Leaves of all ferns, including tree ferns, are referred to as fronds. On tree ferns, the fronds are held at the top of the plant in a spreading manner. They form by uncurling from the crown in the center, which is at the top of the trunk. The crown might be considered the most important part of the plant, since that is where all the leaf growth comes from. If it is destroyed, no more croziers will emerge from it, and the rest of the plant will eventually die.<ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
== Reproduction ==<br />
Unlike most plants, tree ferns do not reproduce via flowers or seeds but through spores. If the leaves reach maturity, they unfold into leafy fronds and develop spores on the underside of the fronds. When the spores germinate, they transform into minuscule plants.<ref name="conscious-explorer" /><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source2" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include:<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds. Unlike C. dealbata and C. smithii, it grows in open places with full exposure to wind and sun. <br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns<ref name="source1" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source1" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="source1">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–165. [https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103 https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103].</ref><br />
<ref name="source2">Yatskievych, George; Mickel, John T.; Wagner, Warren H.; Gifford, Ernest M.; Walker, Warren F. "Fern." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 22 Mar. 2025. [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica].</ref><br />
<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." ''Angelfire''. [http://www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/ www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/]. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="conscious-explorer">Cindy. "Costa Rica – Flora Focus: Tree Ferns." ''Conscious Explorer''. [https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns]. Accessed 9 May 2025.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13704Tree fern2025-05-09T08:35:11Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>The two main genera of hardy tree ferns are ''Cyathea'' and ''Dicksonia''. Species of ''Dicksonia'' are readily identified by hairs growing on the newly emerging fronds, and the most common ''Cyathea'' species can be identified by the presence of scales on many (but not all) species.<ref name="source3" /> They are among the most ancient botanical species on earth. They originated during the Carboniferous Period, roughly 360 million years ago. Members of both Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae appear to have been diverse and relatively common during the succeeding Jurassic Period (199.6 to 145.5 million years ago) and Cretaceous Period (145.5 to 65.5 million years ago). However, the modern genera only became evident during the early Cenozoic (65.5 to 2.6 million years ago).<ref name="source2" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg|600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica.<ref name="image1" />]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns do not develop a woody trunk that functions like other trees. All ferns have a rhizome, from which the fronds emerge. These rhizomes can vary (from species to species) from long to short, or be creeping along the ground. A tree fern is simply a case of the rhizome being very long and strong enough to support itself.<ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
Leaves of all ferns, including tree ferns, are referred to as fronds. On tree ferns, the fronds are held at the top of the plant in a spreading manner. They form by uncurling from the crown in the center, which is at the top of the trunk. The crown might be considered the most important part of the plant, since that is where all the leaf growth comes from. If it is destroyed, no more croziers will emerge from it, and the rest of the plant will eventually die.<ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
== Reproduction ==<br />
Unlike most plants, tree ferns do not reproduce via flowers or seeds but through spores. If the leaves reach maturity, they unfold into leafy fronds and develop spores on the underside of the fronds. When the spores germinate, they transform into minuscule plants.<ref name="conscious-explorer" /><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source2" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4" /><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include:<ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds. Unlike C. dealbata and C. smithii, it grows in open places with full exposure to wind and sun. <br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns<ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="source2">Yatskievych, George; Mickel, John T.; Wagner, Warren H.; Gifford, Ernest M.; Walker, Warren F. "Fern." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 22 Mar. 2025. [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica].</ref><br />
<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." ''Angelfire''. [http://www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/ www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/]. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="conscious-explorer">Cindy. "Costa Rica – Flora Focus: Tree Ferns." ''Conscious Explorer''. [https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns]. Accessed 9 May 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–165. [https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103 https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103].</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13703Tree fern2025-05-09T08:31:32Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>The two main genera of hardy tree ferns are ''Cyathea'' and ''Dicksonia''. Species of ''Dicksonia'' are readily identified by hairs growing on the newly emerging fronds, and the most common ''Cyathea'' species can be identified by the presence of scales on many (but not all) species.<ref name="">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." ''Angelfire''. [http://www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/ www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/]. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref> They are among the most ancient botanical species on earth. They originated during the Carboniferous Period, roughly 360 million years ago. Members of both Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae appear to have been diverse and relatively common during the succeeding Jurassic Period (199.6 to 145.5 million years ago) and Cretaceous Period (145.5 to 65.5 million years ago). However, the modern genera only became evident during the early Cenozoic (65.5 to 2.6 million years ago).<ref name="source2">Yatskievych, George; Mickel, John T.; Wagner, Warren H.; Gifford, Ernest M.; Walker, Warren F. "Fern." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 22 Mar. 2025. [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns do not develop a woody trunk that functions like other trees. All ferns have a rhizome, from which the fronds emerge. These rhizomes can vary (from species to species) from long to short, or be creeping along the ground. A tree fern is simply a case of the rhizome being very long and strong enough to support itself.<ref name="sourc">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." ''Angelfire''. [http://www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/ www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/]. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
Leaves of all ferns, including tree ferns, are referred to as fronds. On tree ferns, the fronds are held at the top of the plant in a spreading manner. They form by uncurling from the crown in the center, which is at the top of the trunk. The crown might be considered the most important part of the plant, since that is where all the leaf growth comes from. If it is destroyed, no more croziers will emerge from it, and the rest of the plant will eventually die.<ref name="" /><br />
<br />
==Reproduction==<br />
Unlike most plants, tree ferns do not reproduce via flowers or seeds but through spores. If the leaves reach maturity, they unfold into leafy fronds and develop spores on the underside of the fronds. When the spores germinate, they transform into minuscule plants.<ref name="conscious-explorer">Cindy. "Costa Rica – Flora Focus: Tree Ferns." ''Conscious Explorer''. [https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns]. Accessed 9 May 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds. Unlike C. dealbata and C. smithii, it grows in open places with full exposure to wind and sun. <br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13702Tree fern2025-05-09T08:29:58Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Description */</p>
<hr />
<div>The two main genera of hardy tree ferns are ''Cyathea'' and ''Dicksonia''. Species of ''Dicksonia'' are readily identified by hairs growing on the newly emerging fronds, and the most common ''Cyathea'' species can be identified by the presence of scales on many (but not all) species.<ref name="">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." ''Angelfire''. [http://www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/ www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/]. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref> They are among the most ancient botanical species on earth. They originated during the Carboniferous Period, roughly 360 million years ago. Members of both Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae appear to have been diverse and relatively common during the succeeding Jurassic Period (199.6 to 145.5 million years ago) and Cretaceous Period (145.5 to 65.5 million years ago). However, the modern genera only became evident during the early Cenozoic (65.5 to 2.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George; Mickel, John T.; Wagner, Warren H.; Gifford, Ernest M.; Walker, Warren F. "Fern." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 22 Mar. 2025. [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns do not develop a woody trunk that functions like other trees. All ferns have a rhizome, from which the fronds emerge. These rhizomes can vary (from species to species) from long to short, or be creeping along the ground. A tree fern is simply a case of the rhizome being very long and strong enough to support itself.<ref name="">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." ''Angelfire''. [http://www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/ www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/]. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
Leaves of all ferns, including tree ferns, are referred to as fronds. On tree ferns, the fronds are held at the top of the plant in a spreading manner. They form by uncurling from the crown in the center, which is at the top of the trunk. The crown might be considered the most important part of the plant, since that is where all the leaf growth comes from. If it is destroyed, no more croziers will emerge from it, and the rest of the plant will eventually die.<ref name="" /><br />
<br />
==Reproduction==<br />
Unlike most plants, tree ferns do not reproduce via flowers or seeds but through spores. If the leaves reach maturity, they unfold into leafy fronds and develop spores on the underside of the fronds. When the spores germinate, they transform into minuscule plants.<ref name="conscious-explorer">Cindy. "Costa Rica – Flora Focus: Tree Ferns." ''Conscious Explorer''. [https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns]. Accessed 9 May 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds. Unlike C. dealbata and C. smithii, it grows in open places with full exposure to wind and sun. <br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13701Tree fern2025-05-09T08:27:53Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Description */</p>
<hr />
<div>The two main genera of hardy tree ferns are ''Cyathea'' and ''Dicksonia''. Species of ''Dicksonia'' are readily identified by hairs growing on the newly emerging fronds, and the most common ''Cyathea'' species can be identified by the presence of scales on many (but not all) species.<ref name="">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." ''Angelfire''. [http://www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/ www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/]. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref> They are among the most ancient botanical species on earth. They originated during the Carboniferous Period, roughly 360 million years ago. Members of both Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae appear to have been diverse and relatively common during the succeeding Jurassic Period (199.6 to 145.5 million years ago) and Cretaceous Period (145.5 to 65.5 million years ago). However, the modern genera only became evident during the early Cenozoic (65.5 to 2.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George; Mickel, John T.; Wagner, Warren H.; Gifford, Ernest M.; Walker, Warren F. "Fern." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 22 Mar. 2025. [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns do not develop a woody trunk that functions like other trees. All ferns have a rhizome, from which the fronds emerge. These rhizomes can vary (from species to species) from long to short, or be creeping along the ground. A tree fern is simply a case of the rhizome being very long and strong enough to support itself.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." ''Angelfire''. [http://www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/ www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/]. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
Leaves of all ferns, including tree ferns, are referred to as fronds. On tree ferns, the fronds are held at the top of the plant in a spreading manner. They form by uncurling from the crown in the center, which is at the top of the trunk. The crown might be considered the most important part of the plant, since that is where all the leaf growth comes from. If it is destroyed, no more croziers will emerge from it, and the rest of the plant will eventually die.<ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
==Reproduction==<br />
Unlike most plants, tree ferns do not reproduce via flowers or seeds but through spores. If the leaves reach maturity, they unfold into leafy fronds and develop spores on the underside of the fronds. When the spores germinate, they transform into minuscule plants.<ref name="conscious-explorer">Cindy. "Costa Rica – Flora Focus: Tree Ferns." ''Conscious Explorer''. [https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns]. Accessed 9 May 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds. Unlike C. dealbata and C. smithii, it grows in open places with full exposure to wind and sun. <br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13700Tree fern2025-05-09T08:23:57Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>The two main genera of hardy tree ferns are ''Cyathea'' and ''Dicksonia''. Species of ''Dicksonia'' are readily identified by hairs growing on the newly emerging fronds, and the most common ''Cyathea'' species can be identified by the presence of scales on many (but not all) species.<ref name="">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." ''Angelfire''. [http://www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/ www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/]. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref> They are among the most ancient botanical species on earth. They originated during the Carboniferous Period, roughly 360 million years ago. Members of both Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae appear to have been diverse and relatively common during the succeeding Jurassic Period (199.6 to 145.5 million years ago) and Cretaceous Period (145.5 to 65.5 million years ago). However, the modern genera only became evident during the early Cenozoic (65.5 to 2.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George; Mickel, John T.; Wagner, Warren H.; Gifford, Ernest M.; Walker, Warren F. "Fern." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 22 Mar. 2025. [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns are characterized by their tree-like growth habit, featuring a trunk-like stem that supports a crown of large, feathery fronds. The trunk is typically formed from a modified rhizome and is often covered with a mat of roots, providing structural support. Unlike woody trees, the trunks of tree ferns lack true secondary growth. Fronds can vary in length, with some species exhibiting fronds up to several meters long. Tree ferns generally prefer shade or partial shade rather than full-sun positions. Some species can live for over 250 years in the wild due to their slow growth and resilience.<ref name="source2">Brock, James M.R., George L.W. Perry, William G. Lee, and Bruce R. Burns. "Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in New Zealand: A Model for Southern Temperate Rainforests." ''Forest Ecology and Management'' 375 (September 2016): 112–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.030.</ref><br />
<br />
==Reproduction==<br />
Unlike most plants, tree ferns do not reproduce via flowers or seeds but through spores. If the leaves reach maturity, they unfold into leafy fronds and develop spores on the underside of the fronds. When the spores germinate, they transform into minuscule plants.<ref name="conscious-explorer">Cindy. "Costa Rica – Flora Focus: Tree Ferns." ''Conscious Explorer''. [https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns]. Accessed 9 May 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern Ecology in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds. Unlike C. dealbata and C. smithii, it grows in open places with full exposure to wind and sun. <br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13699Tree fern2025-05-09T08:21:43Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>The two main genera of hardy tree ferns are ''Cyathea'' and ''Dicksonia''. Species of ''Dicksonia'' are readily identified by hairs growing on the newly emerging fronds, and the most common ''Cyathea'' species can be identified by the presence of scales on many (but not all) species.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." ''Angelfire''. [http://www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/ www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/]. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref> They are among the most ancient botanical species on earth. They originated during the Carboniferous Period, roughly 360 million years ago. Members of both Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae appear to have been diverse and relatively common during the succeeding Jurassic Period (199.6 to 145.5 million years ago) and Cretaceous Period (145.5 to 65.5 million years ago). However, the modern genera only became evident during the early Cenozoic (65.5 to 2.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George; Mickel, John T.; Wagner, Warren H.; Gifford, Ernest M.; Walker, Warren F. "Fern." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 22 Mar. 2025. [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns are characterized by their tree-like growth habit, featuring a trunk-like stem that supports a crown of large, feathery fronds. The trunk is typically formed from a modified rhizome and is often covered with a mat of roots, providing structural support. Unlike woody trees, the trunks of tree ferns lack true secondary growth. Fronds can vary in length, with some species exhibiting fronds up to several meters long. Tree ferns generally prefer shade or partial shade rather than full-sun positions. Some species can live for over 250 years in the wild due to their slow growth and resilience.<ref name="source2">Brock, James M.R., George L.W. Perry, William G. Lee, and Bruce R. Burns. "Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in New Zealand: A Model for Southern Temperate Rainforests." ''Forest Ecology and Management'' 375 (September 2016): 112–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.030.</ref><br />
<br />
==Reproduction==<br />
Unlike most plants, tree ferns do not reproduce via flowers or seeds but through spores. If the leaves reach maturity, they unfold into leafy fronds and develop spores on the underside of the fronds. When the spores germinate, they transform into minuscule plants.<ref name="conscious-explorer">Cindy. "Costa Rica – Flora Focus: Tree Ferns." ''Conscious Explorer''. [https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns]. Accessed 9 May 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern Ecology in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds. Unlike C. dealbata and C. smithii, it grows in open places with full exposure to wind and sun. <br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13698Tree fern2025-05-09T08:14:18Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Tree ferns''' belong to the order Cyatheales, which includes most tree ferns, and are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, thriving in humid forest environments. They have been shown to have a lengthy fossil record stretching back to the Triassic Period (251 to 199.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George, Mickel, John T., Wagner, Warren H., Gifford, Ernest M., Walker, Warren F. "Fern." *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 22 Mar. 2025, * [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns are characterized by their tree-like growth habit, featuring a trunk-like stem that supports a crown of large, feathery fronds. The trunk is typically formed from a modified rhizome and is often covered with a mat of roots, providing structural support. Unlike woody trees, the trunks of tree ferns lack true secondary growth. Fronds can vary in length, with some species exhibiting fronds up to several meters long. Tree ferns generally prefer shade or partial shade rather than full-sun positions. Some species can live for over 250 years in the wild due to their slow growth and resilience.<ref name="source2">Brock, James M.R., George L.W. Perry, William G. Lee, and Bruce R. Burns. "Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in New Zealand: A Model for Southern Temperate Rainforests." ''Forest Ecology and Management'' 375 (September 2016): 112–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.030.</ref><br />
<br />
==Reproduction==<br />
Unlike most plants, tree ferns do not reproduce via flowers or seeds but through spores. If the leaves reach maturity, they unfold into leafy fronds and develop spores on the underside of the fronds. When the spores germinate, they transform into minuscule plants.<ref name="conscious-explorer">Cindy. "Costa Rica – Flora Focus: Tree Ferns." ''Conscious Explorer''. [https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns https://conscious-explorer.com/magazine/costa-rica-flora-focus-tree-ferns]. Accessed 9 May 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern Ecology in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds. Unlike C. dealbata and C. smithii, it grows in open places with full exposure to wind and sun. <br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13697Tree fern2025-05-09T07:24:25Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Tree ferns''' belong to the order Cyatheales, which includes most tree ferns, and are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, thriving in humid forest environments. They have been shown to have a lengthy fossil record stretching back to the Triassic Period (251 to 199.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George, Mickel, John T., Wagner, Warren H., Gifford, Ernest M., Walker, Warren F. "Fern." *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 22 Mar. 2025, * [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns are characterized by their tree-like growth habit, featuring a trunk-like stem that supports a crown of large, feathery fronds. The trunk is typically formed from a modified rhizome and is often covered with a mat of roots, providing structural support. Unlike woody trees, the trunks of tree ferns lack true secondary growth. Fronds can vary in length, with some species exhibiting fronds up to several meters long. Tree ferns generally prefer shade or partial shade rather than full-sun positions. Some species can live for over 250 years in the wild due to their slow growth and resilience.<ref name="source2">Brock, James M.R., George L.W. Perry, William G. Lee, and Bruce R. Burns. "Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in New Zealand: A Model for Southern Temperate Rainforests." ''Forest Ecology and Management'' 375 (September 2016): 112–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.030.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern Ecology in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds. Unlike C. dealbata and C. smithii, it grows in open places with full exposure to wind and sun. <br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13610Tree fern2025-05-02T18:14:46Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Species */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Tree ferns''' belong to the order Cyatheales, which includes most tree ferns, and are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, thriving in humid forest environments. They have been shown to have a lengthy fossil record stretching back to the Triassic Period (251 to 199.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George, Mickel, John T., Wagner, Warren H., Gifford, Ernest M., Walker, Warren F. "Fern." *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 22 Mar. 2025, [https://www.britannica.com/plant/fern].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns are characterized by their tree-like growth habit, featuring a trunk-like stem that supports a crown of large, feathery fronds. The trunk is typically formed from a modified rhizome and is often covered with a mat of roots, providing structural support. Unlike woody trees, the trunks of tree ferns lack true secondary growth. Fronds can vary in length, with some species exhibiting fronds up to several meters long. Tree ferns generally prefer shade or partial shade rather than full-sun positions. Some species can live for over 250 years in the wild due to their slow growth and resilience.<ref name="source2">Brock, James M.R., George L.W. Perry, William G. Lee, and Bruce R. Burns. "Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in New Zealand: A Model for Southern Temperate Rainforests." ''Forest Ecology and Management'' 375 (September 2016): 112–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.030.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern Ecology in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds. Unlike C. dealbata and C. smithii, it grows in open places with full exposure to wind and sun. <br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== External Links ==<br />
* [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=13535Tiger Centipede2025-05-02T05:57:57Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Description */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| [[Arthropoda]]<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref>. The hind end forms a "psudeohead" that looks very similar to the head of the centipede, a pair of long legs somewhat Resemble the antenna of the head.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
<ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=13534Tiger Centipede2025-05-02T05:57:39Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Description */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| [[Arthropoda]]<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref>. The hind end forms a "psudeohead" that looks very similar to the head of the centipede, a pair of long legs somewhat Resemble the antenna of the head<br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps.<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
<ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13379Tree fern2025-04-30T19:10:51Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Tree ferns''' belong to the order Cyatheales, which includes most tree ferns, and are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, thriving in humid forest environments. They have been shown to have a lengthy fossil record stretching back to the Triassic Period (251 to 199.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George, Mickel, John T., Wagner, Warren H., Gifford, Ernest M., Walker, Warren F. "Fern." *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 22 Mar. 2025, [https://www.britannica.com/plant/fern].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns are characterized by their tree-like growth habit, featuring a trunk-like stem that supports a crown of large, feathery fronds. The trunk is typically formed from a modified rhizome and is often covered with a mat of roots, providing structural support. Unlike woody trees, the trunks of tree ferns lack true secondary growth. Fronds can vary in length, with some species exhibiting fronds up to several meters long. Tree ferns generally prefer shade or partial shade rather than full-sun positions. Some species can live for over 250 years in the wild due to their slow growth and resilience.<ref name="source2">Brock, James M.R., George L.W. Perry, William G. Lee, and Bruce R. Burns. "Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in New Zealand: A Model for Southern Temperate Rainforests." ''Forest Ecology and Management'' 375 (September 2016): 112–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.030.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern Ecology in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds.<br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== External Links ==<br />
* [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13269Tree fern2025-04-30T16:37:37Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Tree ferns''' grow a trunk that elevates their fronds above ground level, resulting in a tree-like form. They belong to the order Cyatheales, which includes most tree ferns, and are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, thriving in humid forest environments. They have been shown to have a lengthy fossil record stretching back to the Triassic Period (251 to 199.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George, Mickel, John T., Wagner, Warren H., Gifford, Ernest M., Walker, Warren F. "Fern." *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 22 Mar. 2025, [https://www.britannica.com/plant/fern].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns are characterized by their tree-like growth habit, featuring a trunk-like stem that supports a crown of large, feathery fronds. The trunk is typically formed from a modified rhizome and is often covered with a mat of roots, providing structural support. Unlike woody trees, the trunks of tree ferns lack true secondary growth. Fronds can vary in length, with some species exhibiting fronds up to several meters long. Tree ferns generally prefer shade or partial shade rather than full-sun positions. Some species can live for over 250 years in the wild due to their slow growth and resilience.<ref name="source2">Brock, James M.R., George L.W. Perry, William G. Lee, and Bruce R. Burns. "Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in New Zealand: A Model for Southern Temperate Rainforests." ''Forest Ecology and Management'' 375 (September 2016): 112–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.030.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern Ecology in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds.<br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== External Links ==<br />
* [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13268Tree fern2025-04-30T16:37:17Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Tree ferns''' are ferns grow a trunk that elevates their fronds above ground level, resulting in a tree-like form. They belong to the order Cyatheales, which includes most tree ferns, and are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, thriving in humid forest environments. They have been shown to have a lengthy fossil record stretching back to the Triassic Period (251 to 199.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George, Mickel, John T., Wagner, Warren H., Gifford, Ernest M., Walker, Warren F. "Fern." *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 22 Mar. 2025, [https://www.britannica.com/plant/fern].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns are characterized by their tree-like growth habit, featuring a trunk-like stem that supports a crown of large, feathery fronds. The trunk is typically formed from a modified rhizome and is often covered with a mat of roots, providing structural support. Unlike woody trees, the trunks of tree ferns lack true secondary growth. Fronds can vary in length, with some species exhibiting fronds up to several meters long. Tree ferns generally prefer shade or partial shade rather than full-sun positions. Some species can live for over 250 years in the wild due to their slow growth and resilience.<ref name="source2">Brock, James M.R., George L.W. Perry, William G. Lee, and Bruce R. Burns. "Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in New Zealand: A Model for Southern Temperate Rainforests." ''Forest Ecology and Management'' 375 (September 2016): 112–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.030.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern Ecology in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds.<br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== External Links ==<br />
* [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=13194Tree fern2025-04-30T14:31:16Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Tree ferns''' grow a trunk that elevates the fronds above ground level, resulting in a tree-like form. They belong to the order Cyatheales, which includes most tree ferns, and are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, thriving in humid forest environments. They have been shown to have a lengthy fossil record stretching back to the Triassic Period (251 to 199.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George, Mickel, John T., Wagner, Warren H., Gifford, Ernest M., Walker, Warren F. "Fern." *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 22 Mar. 2025, [https://www.britannica.com/plant/fern].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns are characterized by their tree-like growth habit, featuring a trunk-like stem that supports a crown of large, feathery fronds. The trunk is typically formed from a modified rhizome and is often covered with a mat of roots, providing structural support. Unlike woody trees, the trunks of tree ferns lack true secondary growth. Fronds can vary in length, with some species exhibiting fronds up to several meters long. Tree ferns generally prefer shade or partial shade rather than full-sun positions. Some species can live for over 250 years in the wild due to their slow growth and resilience.<ref name="source2">Brock, James M.R., George L.W. Perry, William G. Lee, and Bruce R. Burns. "Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in New Zealand: A Model for Southern Temperate Rainforests." ''Forest Ecology and Management'' 375 (September 2016): 112–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.030.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern Ecology in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds.<br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== External Links ==<br />
* [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12951Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T18:18:02Z<p>Ejbannis: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
<ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12950Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T18:08:20Z<p>Ejbannis: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
<ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12949Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T18:08:02Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.<br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12948Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T18:04:56Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="Colorado Chilopod of Interest" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.<br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12947Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T18:03:57Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.<br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12946Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T18:03:40Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insect]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.<br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12945Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T18:03:11Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[Earthworm|earthworms]], and [[Insect|insects]], which it subdues using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may also prey on small reptiles or mammals.<ref name="csu" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.<br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12944Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T18:02:50Z<p>Ejbannis: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals.<br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.<br />
<ref name="csu">“Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” Colorado State University, https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12943Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T18:00:58Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
[[File:Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg|thumb|Tiger Centipede. Photo by Marshal Hedin.<ref name="flickr"/>]]<br />
<br />
<ref name="flickr">Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, https://flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983.</ref><br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals.<br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12942Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T17:58:09Z<p>Ejbannis: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals.<br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12941Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T17:57:47Z<p>Ejbannis: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals.<br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="CSUDesertCentipede2025">"Desert Centipede." Department of Bioagricultural Sciences and Pest Management, Colorado State University. https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12940Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T17:56:24Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals.<br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12939Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T17:56:11Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="CSUDesertCentipede2025" /> <ref name="CSUDesertCentipede2025">"Desert Centipede." Department of Bioagricultural Sciences and Pest Management, Colorado State University. https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12938Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T17:55:06Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="CSUDesertCentipede2025">"Desert Centipede." Department of Bioagricultural Sciences and Pest Management, Colorado State University. https://webdoc.agsci.colostate.edu/bspm/Chilopoda/DesertCentipede.pdf. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12937Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:47:54Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Venom */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
Tiger Centipedes' venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12936Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:42:43Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12935Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:39:34Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Description */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12934Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:39:12Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Description */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025" /> <ref name="PictureInsect2025">"Scolopendra polymorpha – Tiger Centipede." ''Picture Insect Wiki'', https://pictureinsect.com/wiki/Scolopendra_polymorpha.html. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12933Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:38:51Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Description */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /> Tiger centipedes can regenerate lost limbs, making them more resilient against predation. <ref name="PictureInsect2025" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12932Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:35:01Z<p>Ejbannis: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], [[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12931Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:33:48Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]],[[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12930Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:33:30Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]],[[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12929Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:33:12Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]],[[earthworm]],[[insects]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12928Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:31:15Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]],[[earthworm]], [[spider]] which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tree_fern&diff=12927Tree fern2025-04-23T16:28:31Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Use and Management */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Tree ferns''' are ferns that grow with a trunk elevating the fronds above ground level, resulting in a tree-like form. They belong to the order Cyatheales, which includes most tree ferns, and are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, thriving in humid forest environments. They have been shown to have a lengthy fossil record stretching back to the Triassic Period (251 to 199.6 million years ago).<ref name="source1">Yatskievych, George, Mickel, John T., Wagner, Warren H., Gifford, Ernest M., Walker, Warren F. "Fern." *Encyclopedia Britannica*, 22 Mar. 2025, [https://www.britannica.com/plant/fern].</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Tree_fern.jpg |600px|thumb|A Tree fern in its natural habitat in the cloud rainforests of Costa Rica<ref name="image1">User. "Tree fern in Costa Rica." Photograph taken in the cloud rainforest of Costa Rica by Ethan Bannister, January 2025.</ref>]]<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Tree ferns are characterized by their arborescent (tree-like) growth habit, featuring a trunk-like stem that supports a crown of large, feathery fronds. The trunk is typically formed from a modified rhizome and is often covered with a mat of roots, providing structural support. Unlike woody trees, the trunks of tree ferns lack true secondary growth. Fronds can vary in length, with some species exhibiting fronds up to several meters long. Tree ferns generally prefer shade or partial shade rather than full-sun positions. Some species can live for over 250 years in the wild due to their slow growth and resilience.<ref name="source2">Brock, James M.R., George L.W. Perry, William G. Lee, and Bruce R. Burns. "Tree Fern [[Ecology]] in New Zealand: A Model for Southern Temperate Rainforests." ''Forest Ecology and Management'' 375 (September 2016): 112–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.05.030.</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and Habitat ==<br />
Tree ferns are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, with significant populations in Southeast Asia, Australasia, and the Americas. They thrive in humid forests, especially in mountainous regions with high rainfall. Some species can also be found in temperate rainforests, particularly in countries like Costa Rica, New Zealand, and Chile. Species found at lower elevations are often widespread colonizers of disturbed or successional habitats.<ref name="source1" /><br />
<br />
== Ecology ==<br />
Tree ferns play a crucial role in forest ecosystems. Their fibrous trunks provide habitats for epiphytic plants, mosses, and ferns, supporting a diverse range of species. Tree ferns can harvest water both through the soil and aerially through the stem and fronds. The root masses of tree ferns accumulate organic material, contributing to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] and improving [[soil]] fertility. Studies have found that tree ferns provide double the amount of nitrogen in the soil that canopy trees produce and three times the amount of phosphorus. In disturbed forests, tree ferns often act as [[pioneer species]], stabilizing the soil and creating microhabitats that facilitate the regeneration of other plant species.<ref name="source4">Donoghue, Shavawn, and Perpetua A. M. Turner. “A Review of Australian Tree Fern Ecology in Forest Communities.” ''Austral Ecology'' 47, no. 2 (April 2022): 145–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/aec.13103.</ref><br />
<br />
== Species ==<br />
The exact number of tree fern species is uncertain, but notable species include: <ref name="source3" /><br />
<br />
* '''''Cyathea dealbata''''' – Commonly known as the silver [[fern]] or ''ponga'', it is endemic to New Zealand and recognized by the distinctive silver-white coloration on the underside of its fronds.<br />
* '''''Dicksonia antarctica''''' – Known as the soft tree fern or Tasmanian tree fern, it is native to southeastern Australia and is one of the most abundant tree ferns in the region.<br />
* '''''Cyathea medullaris''''' – Referred to as the black tree fern or ''mamaku'', it is native to New Zealand and some Pacific islands, known for its fast growth and large fronds.<br />
* '''''Sphaeropteris excelsa''''' – This species can reach heights of up to 20 meters, with fronds extending up to 5 meters in length.<br />
* '''''Cyathea smithii''''' – The southernmost naturally occurring tree fern, adapted to cooler temperate climates.<ref name="source3">Itb. "Cold-Hardy Tree Ferns Page." Angelfire, www.angelfire.com/bc/eucalyptus/treeferns/. Accessed 31 Mar. 2025.</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand Species === <br />
Cyatheaceae – scaly tree ferns <ref name="source2" /><br />
* ''Cyathea cunninghamii''<br />
* ''C. dealbata'' (Silver fern)<br />
* ''C. medullaris'' (Black tree fern)<br />
* ''C. smithii'' (Soft tree fern)<br />
* ''C. colensoi'' <br />
* ''C. kermadecensis'' <br />
* ''C. milnei'' <br />
Dicksoniaceae – hairy tree ferns<br />
* ''Dicksonia lanata''<br />
* ''D. fibrosa''<br />
* ''D. squarrosa''<br />
<br />
== Use and Management ==<br />
Indigenous communities in the southern temperate regions have historically used tree ferns for various purposes, such as food, medicine, and construction. In New Zealand and Australia, tree ferns have been harvested for commercial use, including ornamental gardening and fencing, though concerns about sustainability have led to the establishment of nurseries.<ref name="source2" /> While tree ferns can support forest ecosystems, they may also hinder tree regeneration in some areas, leading to selective management efforts, particularly in places where they have become invasive, such as Hawaii.<br />
<br />
== External Links ==<br />
* [https://www.britannica.com/plant/tree-fern Tree Fern – Britannica]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}</div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12926Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:22:52Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]],[[earthworm]], which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12925Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:22:34Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Diet */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]],[[earthworms]], which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12924Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:18:26Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Description */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows up to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannishttps://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Tiger_Centipede&diff=12923Tiger Centipede2025-04-23T16:17:51Z<p>Ejbannis: /* Description */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Tiger Centipede ==<br />
<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'', commonly known as the '''Tiger Centipede''', it is a species of centipede in the family [[Scolopendridae]]. its also known for the distinctive dark bands across its body segments, giving it a tiger-striped appearance.<ref name="inat" /><br />
<br />
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/images/c/cf/Tiger_centepede_inaturalsist.jpg <ref name="Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha)">[Hedin, Marshal. “Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra Polymorpha).” Flickr, Yahoo!, 23 Apr. 2025, flickr.com/photos/23660854@N07/50159557983]</ref><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:80%;"<br />
|+ ''Scolopendra Polymorpha'' Taxonomy<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
! scope="row" | Kingdom<br />
! scope="row" | Phylum<br />
! scope="row" | Class<br />
! scope="row" | Order<br />
! scope="row" | Family<br />
! scope="row" | Genus<br />
! scope="row" | Species<br />
|-<br />
! scope="col" | Classification<br />
| Animalia<br />
| Arthropoda<br />
| [[Chilopoda]]<br />
| Scolopendromorpha<br />
| Scolopendridae<br />
| Scolopendra<br />
| S. polymorpha<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Scolopendra polymorpha'' typically grows to 4–7 inches (10–18 cm) in length. Its coloration varies widely, ranging from light brown to brick red, and sometimes olive, yellow, or bluish hues.<ref name="inat" /> A dark band usually runs across each tergite (body segment), inspiring the nickname "Tiger Centipede".<ref name="archive" /> The species name, ''polymorpha'', means "many forms" in Latin, reflecting its variable coloration.<ref name="godofinsects" /><br />
<br />
== Habitat and Range ==<br />
This species is distributed across the southwestern United States, from Louisiana to California and Oregon, and south into northern Mexico. ''S. polymorpha'' typically inhabits arid environments and tolerates a broad temperature range, from 65–90°F (18–32°C).<ref name="godofinsects" /> They are typically found under various sizes of debris, such as boards, logs, and stumps<br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
''S. polymorpha'' are opportunistic eaters, mainly feeding at night. It feeds on [[arthropods]], which it subdues by using venom-injecting maxillipeds (modified front legs). Larger individuals may prey on small reptiles or mammals. <ref name="uci" /><br />
<br />
== Venom ==<br />
The venom contains a peptide called SPC13, which exhibits antimicrobial activity against ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', both major causes of hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="spc13" /> In mice, the venom has been shown to cause muscle damage, necrosis, and mitochondrial disruption, evidenced by the presence of ragged red fibers.<ref name="mito" /> Venom regeneration is limited. After venom extraction, only 65–86% of the venom volume and 29–47% of the protein mass are regenerated within 48 hours. No further regeneration is observed, even after seven months. . As the body length of the centipede increases, the rate at which it regenerates venom decreases. Larger centipedes regenerate venom more slowly than smaller ones. making size a limiting factor in its regenerative abilities.<ref name="mito" /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references><br />
<ref name="inat">“Common Desert Centipede (Scolopendra polymorpha).” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/53762-Scolopendra-polymorpha. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="godofinsects">“Godofinsects.com.” Godofinsects.com, https://www.godofinsects.com/index.php/museum/all-non-insects/chilopoda-centipedes/tiger-centipede-scolopendra-polymorpha/. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="uci">“Tiger Centipede, Scolopendra polymorpha.” Uci.edu, https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/Myriapods/Scolopendra.htm. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="archive">“Scolopendra polymorpha.” Archive.org, https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114731/http://cacoseraph.exofire.net/centis/S_polymorpha.php. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.</ref><br />
<ref name="spc13">Rodríguez-Alejandro, C.I., and M.C. Gutiérrez. “Antimicrobial Activity of SPC13, New Antimicrobial Peptide Purified from Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Anti-Infective Agents* 18, no. 3 (2020): 233–38. https://doi.org/10.2174/2211352517666190531110829.</ref><br />
<ref name="mito">Robles, Judith Tabullo De, et al. “Mitochondrial Activity Disruption and Local Muscle Damage Induced in Mice by Scolopendra polymorpha Venom.” *Journal of Venomous [[Animals]] and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases* 26 (2020): e20190079. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0079.</ref><br />
</references></div>Ejbannis