Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Octolasion cyaneum

2025-05-02T16:23:25Z

Ehkapaws: /* Life Cycle */

''Octolasion cyaneum'', a blue gray worm, is in the family Lumbricidae that are the dominant earthworms of pastures and croplands of Europe <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>. They are large sluggish species mostly found in the topsoil of low-fertility pastures on many [[soil]] types <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. Native to Europe, ''O. cyaneum'' was unintentionally introduced to other regions, including New Zealand and North America, most likely through ballast from ships or via imported potted plants brought by early European settlers <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. ''O. cyaneum'' feed on fresh [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], [[microorganisms]], and large quantities of soil and accompanied organic residues.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|-
|colspan="2"| [[File:Octo.jpeg|900px|thumb|Picture of ''Octolasion cyaneum'' <ref name= "iNaturalist">iNaturalist. 2025. Octolasion. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/333503-Octolasion </ref>.]]
|-
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Annelida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Citellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crassiclitellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Lumbricidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Octolasion
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |Octolasion cyaneum
|}

==Range==
''O. cyaneum'' is a temperate endogenic species, meaning that they are soil dwelling species that live and feed within the soil rather than above. It is widely distributed across Europe, North America, Australia, northern India, and Pakistan <ref name= “Kliszcz”>Kliszcz, A., and J. Puła. 2020. The change of pH value and Octolasion cyaneum Savigny earthworms’ activity under stubble crops after spring triticale continuous cultivation. Soil Systems 4(3):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems4030039 </ref> <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. Due to its broad geographical distribution, ''O. cyaneum'' is frequently used in ecological assessments and chronic soil studies <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. In natural environments, they can commonly be found under stones, burrowing tree trunks, and near riverbeds <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>.

==Ecology==
Like all earthworms, ''O. cyaneum'' contributes to soil fertility by enhancing nitrogen availability and increasing potassium levels through the production of vermicompost [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>. They can be used as bioindicators of soil management because they are sensitive to both chemical and physical soil parameters <ref name= “Paoletti”>Paoletti, M. G., G. Fohrer, C. Favretto, D. J. Howard, and A. M. Toniolo. 1998. Earthworms as useful bioindicators of agroecosystem sustainability in orchards and vineyards with different inputs. Applied Soil [[Ecology]] 10:137–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0929-1393(98)00036-5</ref>. This can be observed through their cocoon numbers and biomass because they reflect both natural soil parameters and agricultural practices <ref name= “Lowe, Butt”>Lowe CN, Butt KR, Cheynier V, Lowe SD. 2016. Assessment of avoidance behaviour by earthworms ([[Lumbricus rubellus]] and Octolasion cyaneum) in linear pollution gradients. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 124:324–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.11.015 </ref>.

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Octo_Life_cycle.jpg|600px|thumb|left|''Octolasion cyaneum'' life cycle <ref name= "Bobbie">Bobbie Kalman, The life cycle of an earthworm. New York: Crabtree, 2004 </ref>.]]
''O. cyaneum'' are hermaphrodites, possessing both male and female reproductive organs <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. The common mode of reproduction is parthenogenesis that results in the production of genetically homogeneous clones in populations founded on one or only few individuals <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. They produce either one hatching (singleton) or two hatchings (twins) per cocoon, which are rare but not impossible <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. The mature ''O. cyaneum'' display a citellum on the front portion of the body that is used for reproduction <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. ''O. cyaneum'' prefer environments that have high values of [[porosity]] and C content, soils with a pH of 5.5-8, and moist soil for development, buckwheat [[rhizosphere]] being the best <ref name= “Kliszcz”>Kliszcz, A., and J. Puła. 2020. The change of pH value and Octolasion cyaneum Savigny earthworms’ activity under stubble crops after spring triticale continuous cultivation. Soil Systems 4(3):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems4030039 </ref> <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>.

==References==

Rhizobia

2025-05-02T15:00:41Z

Ehkapaws: /* Soil Benefits */

Rhizobia are Gram-negative bacteria that fix nitrogen in [[soil]] and aid in the growth and development of plants. Rhizobia comes from two Greek words — 'rhiza' meaning 'root', and 'bios', meaning 'life' <ref name= “Maitra”>Maitra, S., Praharaj, S., Brestic, M., Sahoo, R. K., Sagar, L., Shankar, T., Palai, J. B., Sahoo, U., Sairam, M., Pramanick, B., Nath, S., Venugopalan, V. K., Skalický, M., & Hossain, A. (2023). Rhizobium as Biotechnological Tools for Green Solutions: An Environment-Friendly Approach for Sustainable Crop Production in the Modern Era of Climate Change. Current microbiology, 80(7), 219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-023-03317-w </ref>. Rhizobia can only fix nitrogen when associated with a plant that provides it with carbohydrates and are only associated with legumes, but not all legumes associate with rhizobia.

==Taxonomy==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|-
|colspan="2"| [[File:Rhizobia.jpeg|900px|thumb|Pink rhizobia nodules actively fixing nitrogen]]
|-
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Domain:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bacteria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Pseudomonadota
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Alphaproteobacteria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hyphomicrobiales
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rhizobiaceae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rhizobium
|}

Rhizobia are not confined to a single genus, as they span multiple genera: Rhizobium, Ensifer, Mesorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Azorhizobium <ref name= “Ormeño-Orrillo”>Ormeño-Orrillo, E., Servín-Garcidueñas, L. E., Rogel, M. A., González, V., Peralta, H., Mora, J., Martínez-Romero, J., & Martínez-Romero, E. (2015). Taxonomy of rhizobia and agrobacteria from the Rhizobiaceae family in light of genomics. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 38(4), 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.syapm.2014.12.002 </ref>. The ability to fix nitrogen and form nodules is determined by symbiosis-related genes, which can be transferred between species. A characteristic of rhizobia belonging to the family Rhizobiaceae is their genome organization in multireplicons and their phenotypic distinctive characteristics in extrachromosomal replicons <ref name= “Ormeño-Orrillo”>Ormeño-Orrillo, E., Servín-Garcidueñas, L. E., Rogel, M. A., González, V., Peralta, H., Mora, J., Martínez-Romero, J., & Martínez-Romero, E. (2015). Taxonomy of rhizobia and agrobacteria from the Rhizobiaceae family in light of genomics. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 38(4), 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.syapm.2014.12.002 </ref>.

==Ecology and Habitat==

Rhizobia live in various environments, including soil, [[plant roots]], infection threads, and legume nodules at different stages <ref name= "Burghardt">Burghardt, L. T., & diCenzo, G. C. (2023). The evolutionary [[ecology]] of rhizobia: multiple facets of competition before, during, and after symbiosis with legumes. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 72, 102281–102281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2023.102281 </ref>. They also live in the phyllosphere and root, flower, and leaf endospheres of legumes <ref name= "Burghardt">Burghardt, L. T., & diCenzo, G. C. (2023). The evolutionary [[ecology]] of rhizobia: multiple facets of competition before, during, and after symbiosis with legumes. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 72, 102281–102281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2023.102281 </ref>. Their competition strategies change depending on nutrient availability, microbial density, and host plant. Rhizobia have a competitive advantage, as they use organic acids as key carbon sources in the [[rhizosphere]] and have various transporters and metabolic genes that help them absorb and break down nutrients <ref name= "Burghardt">Burghardt, L. T., & diCenzo, G. C. (2023). The evolutionary [[ecology]] of rhizobia: multiple facets of competition before, during, and after symbiosis with legumes. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 72, 102281–102281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2023.102281 </ref>. Along with traits impacting the ability of rhizobia to inhabit the rhizosphere, competition for nodule occupancy also has an impact. Legumes can form dozens to over a thousand nodules, usually infected by a single rhizobium strain, creating a competitive bottleneck <ref name= "Burghardt">Burghardt, L. T., & diCenzo, G. C. (2023). The evolutionary [[ecology]] of rhizobia: multiple facets of competition before, during, and after symbiosis with legumes. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 72, 102281–102281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2023.102281 </ref>.

==Symbiotic Relationship with Legumes==

[[File:Rhizobium_and_Legumes.png|400px|thumb|left|Rhizobia-legume Symbiosis <ref name= "Yates">Yates, D. 2015. Long-term nitrogen fertilizer use disrupts plant-microbe mutualisms. University of Illinois News Bureau. Available at: https://news.illinois.edu/long-term-nitrogen-fertilizer-use-disrupts-plant-microbe-mutualisms/ </ref>.]]
The symbiosis between rhizobia and legumes begins with a signal exchange between the host and plant and its microsymbiont, where the host induces cell divisions to form root nodule primordia, and simultaneously initiates an infection process to deliver the bacteria into the nodule cells <ref name= “Wang”>Wang, Q., Liu, J., & Zhu, H. (2018). Genetic and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Symbiotic Specificity in Legume-Rhizobium Interactions. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 313–313. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.00313 </ref>. [[Root hairs]] then curl around the bacteria, forming infection threads that guide rhizobia into the root, where they are enclosed in membrane-bound structures called symbiosomes, where the bacteria transform into nitrogen-fixing bacteria <ref name= “Wang”>Wang, Q., Liu, J., & Zhu, H. (2018). Genetic and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Symbiotic Specificity in Legume-Rhizobium Interactions. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 313–313. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.00313 </ref>. This symbiotic relationship is highly specific because no single rhizobial strain can form symbiosis with all legumes, and compatibility varies at species and genotypic levels <ref name= “Wang”>Wang, Q., Liu, J., & Zhu, H. (2018). Genetic and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Symbiotic Specificity in Legume-Rhizobium Interactions. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 313–313. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.00313 </ref>.

Through their symbiotic relationship with legumes, they enhance the availability of nutrients by breaking down [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and releasing the nutrients into the soil <ref name= “Mng’ong’o”>Mng’ong’o, M. E., Ojija, F., & Aloo, B. N. (2023). The role of Rhizobia toward food production, food and soil security through microbial agro-input utilization in developing countries. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100404-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100404 </ref>. Rhizobia and legumes work together to promote the growth of numerous plant species, thus strengthening the ecosystem <ref name= “Mng’ong’o”>Mng’ong’o, M. E., Ojija, F., & Aloo, B. N. (2023). The role of Rhizobia toward food production, food and soil security through microbial agro-input utilization in developing countries. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100404-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100404 </ref>.

==Soil Benefits==

[[File:RhizoNodules.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Root nodules in legumes formed by rhizobia <ref name= "Kirksey"> Kirksey, K. 2020. How to get better garden soil with my favorite bacteria. Rancho Incognito. Available at: https://www.ranchoincognito.com/blog-1/2020/1/23/how-to-get-better-garden-soil-with-my-favorite-bacteria </ref>.]]
Nitrogen is an important nutrient for plant growth and development, but plants do not have the ability to use the nitrogen in the atmosphere directly <ref name= “Ormeño-Orrillo”>Ormeño-Orrillo, E., Servín-Garcidueñas, L. E., Rogel, M. A., González, V., Peralta, H., Mora, J., Martínez-Romero, J., & Martínez-Romero, E. (2015). Taxonomy of rhizobia and agrobacteria from the Rhizobiaceae family in light of genomics. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 38(4), 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.syapm.2014.12.002 </ref>. Rhizobium forms symbiotic relationships with legume plants by developing root nodules, where it converts the nitrogen in the atmosphere into a form that plants can absorb <ref name= “Ormeño-Orrillo”>Ormeño-Orrillo, E., Servín-Garcidueñas, L. E., Rogel, M. A., González, V., Peralta, H., Mora, J., Martínez-Romero, J., & Martínez-Romero, E. (2015). Taxonomy of rhizobia and agrobacteria from the Rhizobiaceae family in light of genomics. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 38(4), 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.syapm.2014.12.002 </ref>. This process improves soil health by increasing nitrogen availability, contributing to increased soil microbial [[diversity]], and improving soil structure. Rhizobia also enhances soil security by creating and maintaining soil aggregates and increasing soil [[porosity]], water infiltration, nutrient retention, and resistance to erosion and deterioration <ref name= “Mng’ong’o”>Mng’ong’o, M. E., Ojija, F., & Aloo, B. N. (2023). The role of Rhizobia toward food production, food and soil security through microbial agro-input utilization in developing countries. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100404-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100404 </ref>. Some strains of rhizobia also possess biocontrol [[properties]], suppressing plant infections and illnesses <ref name= “Mng’ong’o”>Mng’ong’o, M. E., Ojija, F., & Aloo, B. N. (2023). The role of Rhizobia toward food production, food and soil security through microbial agro-input utilization in developing countries. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100404-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100404 </ref>. The use of rhizobia through biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) by farmers reduces the negative effects of pesticide use on the environment <ref name= “Mng’ong’o”>Mng’ong’o, M. E., Ojija, F., & Aloo, B. N. (2023). The role of Rhizobia toward food production, food and soil security through microbial agro-input utilization in developing countries. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100404-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100404 </ref>.

==Rhizobium Biotechnology==

Biological nitrogen fixation is a process where nitrogen-fixing bacteria trap atmospheric nitrogen and convert it to NH3 for utilization by plants <ref name= “Maitra”>Maitra, S., Praharaj, S., Brestic, M., Sahoo, R. K., Sagar, L., Shankar, T., Palai, J. B., Sahoo, U., Sairam, M., Pramanick, B., Nath, S., Venugopalan, V. K., Skalický, M., & Hossain, A. (2023). Rhizobium as Biotechnological Tools for Green Solutions: An Environment-Friendly Approach for Sustainable Crop Production in the Modern Era of Climate Change. Current microbiology, 80(7), 219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-023-03317-w </ref>. The use of rhizobia in [[agriculture]] is an alternative to pesticide to increase crop growth. Rhizobia may produce phytohormones such as gibberellic acid, IAA, and cytokinins that promote plant growth and development. Rhizobium biotechnology can provide additional benefits of crop stress tolerance, improvement in crop growth, and better quality of produce <ref name= “Maitra”>Maitra, S., Praharaj, S., Brestic, M., Sahoo, R. K., Sagar, L., Shankar, T., Palai, J. B., Sahoo, U., Sairam, M., Pramanick, B., Nath, S., Venugopalan, V. K., Skalický, M., & Hossain, A. (2023). Rhizobium as Biotechnological Tools for Green Solutions: An Environment-Friendly Approach for Sustainable Crop Production in the Modern Era of Climate Change. Current microbiology, 80(7), 219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-023-03317-w </ref>. Rhizobia also have the potential to support crops under climatic conditions and abiotic stress because Rhizobium inocula are often subjected to harsh soil environments, such as drought-tolerant and heat-tolerant strains of Rhizobium <ref name= “Maitra”>Maitra, S., Praharaj, S., Brestic, M., Sahoo, R. K., Sagar, L., Shankar, T., Palai, J. B., Sahoo, U., Sairam, M., Pramanick, B., Nath, S., Venugopalan, V. K., Skalický, M., & Hossain, A. (2023). Rhizobium as Biotechnological Tools for Green Solutions: An Environment-Friendly Approach for Sustainable Crop Production in the Modern Era of Climate Change. Current microbiology, 80(7), 219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-023-03317-w </ref>. As research on rhizobium biotechnology advances, this approach can mitigate the challenges posed by climate change and soil degradation and improve crop production sustainably.

==References==

File:RhizoNodules.jpg

2025-05-02T14:56:34Z

Ehkapaws: Ehkapaws reverted File:RhizoNodules.jpg to an old version

File:RhizoNodules.jpg

2025-05-02T14:55:19Z

Ehkapaws: Ehkapaws uploaded a new version of File:RhizoNodules.jpg

Rhizobia

2025-05-02T14:50:08Z

Ehkapaws: /* Symbiotic Relationship with Legumes */

Rhizobia are Gram-negative bacteria that fix nitrogen in [[soil]] and aid in the growth and development of plants. Rhizobia comes from two Greek words — 'rhiza' meaning 'root', and 'bios', meaning 'life' <ref name= “Maitra”>Maitra, S., Praharaj, S., Brestic, M., Sahoo, R. K., Sagar, L., Shankar, T., Palai, J. B., Sahoo, U., Sairam, M., Pramanick, B., Nath, S., Venugopalan, V. K., Skalický, M., & Hossain, A. (2023). Rhizobium as Biotechnological Tools for Green Solutions: An Environment-Friendly Approach for Sustainable Crop Production in the Modern Era of Climate Change. Current microbiology, 80(7), 219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-023-03317-w </ref>. Rhizobia can only fix nitrogen when associated with a plant that provides it with carbohydrates and are only associated with legumes, but not all legumes associate with rhizobia.

==Taxonomy==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|-
|colspan="2"| [[File:Rhizobia.jpeg|900px|thumb|Pink rhizobia nodules actively fixing nitrogen]]
|-
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Domain:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bacteria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Pseudomonadota
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Alphaproteobacteria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hyphomicrobiales
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rhizobiaceae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rhizobium
|}

Rhizobia are not confined to a single genus, as they span multiple genera: Rhizobium, Ensifer, Mesorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Azorhizobium <ref name= “Ormeño-Orrillo”>Ormeño-Orrillo, E., Servín-Garcidueñas, L. E., Rogel, M. A., González, V., Peralta, H., Mora, J., Martínez-Romero, J., & Martínez-Romero, E. (2015). Taxonomy of rhizobia and agrobacteria from the Rhizobiaceae family in light of genomics. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 38(4), 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.syapm.2014.12.002 </ref>. The ability to fix nitrogen and form nodules is determined by symbiosis-related genes, which can be transferred between species. A characteristic of rhizobia belonging to the family Rhizobiaceae is their genome organization in multireplicons and their phenotypic distinctive characteristics in extrachromosomal replicons <ref name= “Ormeño-Orrillo”>Ormeño-Orrillo, E., Servín-Garcidueñas, L. E., Rogel, M. A., González, V., Peralta, H., Mora, J., Martínez-Romero, J., & Martínez-Romero, E. (2015). Taxonomy of rhizobia and agrobacteria from the Rhizobiaceae family in light of genomics. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 38(4), 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.syapm.2014.12.002 </ref>.

==Ecology and Habitat==

Rhizobia live in various environments, including soil, [[plant roots]], infection threads, and legume nodules at different stages <ref name= "Burghardt">Burghardt, L. T., & diCenzo, G. C. (2023). The evolutionary [[ecology]] of rhizobia: multiple facets of competition before, during, and after symbiosis with legumes. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 72, 102281–102281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2023.102281 </ref>. They also live in the phyllosphere and root, flower, and leaf endospheres of legumes <ref name= "Burghardt">Burghardt, L. T., & diCenzo, G. C. (2023). The evolutionary [[ecology]] of rhizobia: multiple facets of competition before, during, and after symbiosis with legumes. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 72, 102281–102281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2023.102281 </ref>. Their competition strategies change depending on nutrient availability, microbial density, and host plant. Rhizobia have a competitive advantage, as they use organic acids as key carbon sources in the [[rhizosphere]] and have various transporters and metabolic genes that help them absorb and break down nutrients <ref name= "Burghardt">Burghardt, L. T., & diCenzo, G. C. (2023). The evolutionary [[ecology]] of rhizobia: multiple facets of competition before, during, and after symbiosis with legumes. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 72, 102281–102281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2023.102281 </ref>. Along with traits impacting the ability of rhizobia to inhabit the rhizosphere, competition for nodule occupancy also has an impact. Legumes can form dozens to over a thousand nodules, usually infected by a single rhizobium strain, creating a competitive bottleneck <ref name= "Burghardt">Burghardt, L. T., & diCenzo, G. C. (2023). The evolutionary [[ecology]] of rhizobia: multiple facets of competition before, during, and after symbiosis with legumes. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 72, 102281–102281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2023.102281 </ref>.

==Symbiotic Relationship with Legumes==

[[File:Rhizobium_and_Legumes.png|400px|thumb|left|Rhizobia-legume Symbiosis <ref name= "Yates">Yates, D. 2015. Long-term nitrogen fertilizer use disrupts plant-microbe mutualisms. University of Illinois News Bureau. Available at: https://news.illinois.edu/long-term-nitrogen-fertilizer-use-disrupts-plant-microbe-mutualisms/ </ref>.]]
The symbiosis between rhizobia and legumes begins with a signal exchange between the host and plant and its microsymbiont, where the host induces cell divisions to form root nodule primordia, and simultaneously initiates an infection process to deliver the bacteria into the nodule cells <ref name= “Wang”>Wang, Q., Liu, J., & Zhu, H. (2018). Genetic and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Symbiotic Specificity in Legume-Rhizobium Interactions. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 313–313. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.00313 </ref>. [[Root hairs]] then curl around the bacteria, forming infection threads that guide rhizobia into the root, where they are enclosed in membrane-bound structures called symbiosomes, where the bacteria transform into nitrogen-fixing bacteria <ref name= “Wang”>Wang, Q., Liu, J., & Zhu, H. (2018). Genetic and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Symbiotic Specificity in Legume-Rhizobium Interactions. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 313–313. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.00313 </ref>. This symbiotic relationship is highly specific because no single rhizobial strain can form symbiosis with all legumes, and compatibility varies at species and genotypic levels <ref name= “Wang”>Wang, Q., Liu, J., & Zhu, H. (2018). Genetic and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Symbiotic Specificity in Legume-Rhizobium Interactions. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 313–313. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.00313 </ref>.

Through their symbiotic relationship with legumes, they enhance the availability of nutrients by breaking down [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] and releasing the nutrients into the soil <ref name= “Mng’ong’o”>Mng’ong’o, M. E., Ojija, F., & Aloo, B. N. (2023). The role of Rhizobia toward food production, food and soil security through microbial agro-input utilization in developing countries. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100404-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100404 </ref>. Rhizobia and legumes work together to promote the growth of numerous plant species, thus strengthening the ecosystem <ref name= “Mng’ong’o”>Mng’ong’o, M. E., Ojija, F., & Aloo, B. N. (2023). The role of Rhizobia toward food production, food and soil security through microbial agro-input utilization in developing countries. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100404-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100404 </ref>.

==Soil Benefits==

[[File:RhizoNodules.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Root nodules in legumes formed by rhizobia]]
Nitrogen is an important nutrient for plant growth and development, but plants do not have the ability to use the nitrogen in the atmosphere directly <ref name= “Ormeño-Orrillo”>Ormeño-Orrillo, E., Servín-Garcidueñas, L. E., Rogel, M. A., González, V., Peralta, H., Mora, J., Martínez-Romero, J., & Martínez-Romero, E. (2015). Taxonomy of rhizobia and agrobacteria from the Rhizobiaceae family in light of genomics. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 38(4), 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.syapm.2014.12.002 </ref>. Rhizobium forms symbiotic relationships with legume plants by developing root nodules, where it converts the nitrogen in the atmosphere into a form that plants can absorb <ref name= “Ormeño-Orrillo”>Ormeño-Orrillo, E., Servín-Garcidueñas, L. E., Rogel, M. A., González, V., Peralta, H., Mora, J., Martínez-Romero, J., & Martínez-Romero, E. (2015). Taxonomy of rhizobia and agrobacteria from the Rhizobiaceae family in light of genomics. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 38(4), 287–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.syapm.2014.12.002 </ref>. This process improves soil health by increasing nitrogen availability, contributing to increased soil microbial [[diversity]], and improving soil structure. Rhizobia also enhances soil security by creating and maintaining soil aggregates and increasing soil [[porosity]], water infiltration, nutrient retention, and resistance to erosion and deterioration <ref name= “Mng’ong’o”>Mng’ong’o, M. E., Ojija, F., & Aloo, B. N. (2023). The role of Rhizobia toward food production, food and soil security through microbial agro-input utilization in developing countries. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100404-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100404 </ref>. Some strains of rhizobia also possess biocontrol [[properties]], suppressing plant infections and illnesses <ref name= “Mng’ong’o”>Mng’ong’o, M. E., Ojija, F., & Aloo, B. N. (2023). The role of Rhizobia toward food production, food and soil security through microbial agro-input utilization in developing countries. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100404-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100404 </ref>. The use of rhizobia through biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) by farmers reduces the negative effects of pesticide use on the environment <ref name= “Mng’ong’o”>Mng’ong’o, M. E., Ojija, F., & Aloo, B. N. (2023). The role of Rhizobia toward food production, food and soil security through microbial agro-input utilization in developing countries. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100404-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100404 </ref>.

==Rhizobium Biotechnology==

Biological nitrogen fixation is a process where nitrogen-fixing bacteria trap atmospheric nitrogen and convert it to NH3 for utilization by plants <ref name= “Maitra”>Maitra, S., Praharaj, S., Brestic, M., Sahoo, R. K., Sagar, L., Shankar, T., Palai, J. B., Sahoo, U., Sairam, M., Pramanick, B., Nath, S., Venugopalan, V. K., Skalický, M., & Hossain, A. (2023). Rhizobium as Biotechnological Tools for Green Solutions: An Environment-Friendly Approach for Sustainable Crop Production in the Modern Era of Climate Change. Current microbiology, 80(7), 219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-023-03317-w </ref>. The use of rhizobia in [[agriculture]] is an alternative to pesticide to increase crop growth. Rhizobia may produce phytohormones such as gibberellic acid, IAA, and cytokinins that promote plant growth and development. Rhizobium biotechnology can provide additional benefits of crop stress tolerance, improvement in crop growth, and better quality of produce <ref name= “Maitra”>Maitra, S., Praharaj, S., Brestic, M., Sahoo, R. K., Sagar, L., Shankar, T., Palai, J. B., Sahoo, U., Sairam, M., Pramanick, B., Nath, S., Venugopalan, V. K., Skalický, M., & Hossain, A. (2023). Rhizobium as Biotechnological Tools for Green Solutions: An Environment-Friendly Approach for Sustainable Crop Production in the Modern Era of Climate Change. Current microbiology, 80(7), 219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-023-03317-w </ref>. Rhizobia also have the potential to support crops under climatic conditions and abiotic stress because Rhizobium inocula are often subjected to harsh soil environments, such as drought-tolerant and heat-tolerant strains of Rhizobium <ref name= “Maitra”>Maitra, S., Praharaj, S., Brestic, M., Sahoo, R. K., Sagar, L., Shankar, T., Palai, J. B., Sahoo, U., Sairam, M., Pramanick, B., Nath, S., Venugopalan, V. K., Skalický, M., & Hossain, A. (2023). Rhizobium as Biotechnological Tools for Green Solutions: An Environment-Friendly Approach for Sustainable Crop Production in the Modern Era of Climate Change. Current microbiology, 80(7), 219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-023-03317-w </ref>. As research on rhizobium biotechnology advances, this approach can mitigate the challenges posed by climate change and soil degradation and improve crop production sustainably.

==References==

Octolasion cyaneum

2025-05-02T14:43:16Z

Ehkapaws:

''Octolasion cyaneum'', a blue gray worm, is in the family Lumbricidae that are the dominant earthworms of pastures and croplands of Europe <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>. They are large sluggish species mostly found in the topsoil of low-fertility pastures on many [[soil]] types <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. Native to Europe, ''O. cyaneum'' was unintentionally introduced to other regions, including New Zealand and North America, most likely through ballast from ships or via imported potted plants brought by early European settlers <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. ''O. cyaneum'' feed on fresh [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], [[microorganisms]], and large quantities of soil and accompanied organic residues.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|-
|colspan="2"| [[File:Octo.jpeg|900px|thumb|Picture of ''Octolasion cyaneum'' <ref name= "iNaturalist">iNaturalist. 2025. Octolasion. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/333503-Octolasion </ref>.]]
|-
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Annelida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Citellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crassiclitellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Lumbricidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Octolasion
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |Octolasion cyaneum
|}

==Range==
''O. cyaneum'' is a temperate endogenic species, meaning that they are soil dwelling species that live and feed within the soil rather than above. It is widely distributed across Europe, North America, Australia, northern India, and Pakistan <ref name= “Kliszcz”>Kliszcz, A., and J. Puła. 2020. The change of pH value and Octolasion cyaneum Savigny earthworms’ activity under stubble crops after spring triticale continuous cultivation. Soil Systems 4(3):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems4030039 </ref> <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. Due to its broad geographical distribution, ''O. cyaneum'' is frequently used in ecological assessments and chronic soil studies <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. In natural environments, they can commonly be found under stones, burrowing tree trunks, and near riverbeds <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>.

==Ecology==
Like all earthworms, ''O. cyaneum'' contributes to soil fertility by enhancing nitrogen availability and increasing potassium levels through the production of vermicompost [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>. They can be used as bioindicators of soil management because they are sensitive to both chemical and physical soil parameters <ref name= “Paoletti”>Paoletti, M. G., G. Fohrer, C. Favretto, D. J. Howard, and A. M. Toniolo. 1998. Earthworms as useful bioindicators of agroecosystem sustainability in orchards and vineyards with different inputs. Applied Soil [[Ecology]] 10:137–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0929-1393(98)00036-5</ref>. This can be observed through their cocoon numbers and biomass because they reflect both natural soil parameters and agricultural practices <ref name= “Lowe, Butt”>Lowe CN, Butt KR, Cheynier V, Lowe SD. 2016. Assessment of avoidance behaviour by earthworms ([[Lumbricus rubellus]] and Octolasion cyaneum) in linear pollution gradients. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 124:324–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.11.015 </ref>.

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Octo_Life_cycle.jpg|600px|thumb|left|Octolasion cyaneum life cycle <ref name= "Bobbie">Bobbie Kalman, The life cycle of an earthworm. New York: Crabtree, 2004 </ref>.]]
''O. cyaneum'' are hermaphrodites, possessing both male and female reproductive organs <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. The common mode of reproduction is parthenogenesis that results in the production of genetically homogeneous clones in populations founded on one or only few individuals <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. They produce either one hatching (singleton) or two hatchings (twins) per cocoon, which are rare but not impossible <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. The mature ''O. cyaneum'' display a citellum on the front portion of the body that is used for reproduction <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. ''O. cyaneum'' prefer environments that have high values of [[porosity]] and C content, soils with a pH of 5.5-8, and moist soil for development, buckwheat [[rhizosphere]] being the best <ref name= “Kliszcz”>Kliszcz, A., and J. Puła. 2020. The change of pH value and Octolasion cyaneum Savigny earthworms’ activity under stubble crops after spring triticale continuous cultivation. Soil Systems 4(3):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems4030039 </ref> <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>.

==References==

File:Octo Life cycle.jpg

2025-05-02T14:41:13Z

Ehkapaws: Ehkapaws uploaded a new version of File:Octo Life cycle.jpg

Octolasion cyaneum

2025-05-02T14:36:44Z

Ehkapaws: /* Life Cycle */

''Octolasion cyaneum'', a blue gray worm, is in the family Lumbricidae that are the dominant earthworms of pastures and croplands of Europe <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>. They are large sluggish species mostly found in the topsoil of low-fertility pastures on many [[soil]] types <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. Native to Europe, ''O. cyaneum'' was unintentionally introduced to other regions, including New Zealand and North America, most likely through ballast from ships or via imported potted plants brought by early European settlers <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. ''O. cyaneum'' feed on fresh [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], [[microorganisms]], and large quantities of soil and accompanied organic residues.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|-
|colspan="2"| [[File:Octo.jpeg|900px|thumb|Picture of ''Octolasion cyaneum'']]
|-
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Annelida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Citellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crassiclitellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Lumbricidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Octolasion
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |Octolasion cyaneum
|}

==Range==
''O. cyaneum'' is a temperate endogenic species, meaning that they are soil dwelling species that live and feed within the soil rather than above. It is widely distributed across Europe, North America, Australia, northern India, and Pakistan <ref name= “Kliszcz”>Kliszcz, A., and J. Puła. 2020. The change of pH value and Octolasion cyaneum Savigny earthworms’ activity under stubble crops after spring triticale continuous cultivation. Soil Systems 4(3):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems4030039 </ref> <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. Due to its broad geographical distribution, ''O. cyaneum'' is frequently used in ecological assessments and chronic soil studies <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. In natural environments, they can commonly be found under stones, burrowing tree trunks, and near riverbeds <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>.

==Ecology==
Like all earthworms, ''O. cyaneum'' contributes to soil fertility by enhancing nitrogen availability and increasing potassium levels through the production of vermicompost [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>. They can be used as bioindicators of soil management because they are sensitive to both chemical and physical soil parameters <ref name= “Paoletti”>Paoletti, M. G., G. Fohrer, C. Favretto, D. J. Howard, and A. M. Toniolo. 1998. Earthworms as useful bioindicators of agroecosystem sustainability in orchards and vineyards with different inputs. Applied Soil [[Ecology]] 10:137–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0929-1393(98)00036-5</ref>. This can be observed through their cocoon numbers and biomass because they reflect both natural soil parameters and agricultural practices <ref name= “Lowe, Butt”>Lowe CN, Butt KR, Cheynier V, Lowe SD. 2016. Assessment of avoidance behaviour by earthworms ([[Lumbricus rubellus]] and Octolasion cyaneum) in linear pollution gradients. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 124:324–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.11.015 </ref>.

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Octo_Life_cycle.jpg|600px|thumb|left|Octolasion cyaneum life cycle <ref name= "Bobbie">Bobbie Kalman, The life cycle of an earthworm. New York: Crabtree, 2004 </ref>.]]
''O. cyaneum'' are hermaphrodites, possessing both male and female reproductive organs <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. The common mode of reproduction is parthenogenesis that results in the production of genetically homogeneous clones in populations founded on one or only few individuals <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. They produce either one hatching (singleton) or two hatchings (twins) per cocoon, which are rare but not impossible <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. The mature ''O. cyaneum'' display a citellum on the front portion of the body that is used for reproduction <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. ''O. cyaneum'' prefer environments that have high values of [[porosity]] and C content, soils with a pH of 5.5-8, and moist soil for development, buckwheat [[rhizosphere]] being the best <ref name= “Kliszcz”>Kliszcz, A., and J. Puła. 2020. The change of pH value and Octolasion cyaneum Savigny earthworms’ activity under stubble crops after spring triticale continuous cultivation. Soil Systems 4(3):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems4030039 </ref> <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>.

==References==

Octolasion cyaneum

2025-05-02T14:36:21Z

Ehkapaws: /* Life Cycle */

''Octolasion cyaneum'', a blue gray worm, is in the family Lumbricidae that are the dominant earthworms of pastures and croplands of Europe <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>. They are large sluggish species mostly found in the topsoil of low-fertility pastures on many [[soil]] types <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. Native to Europe, ''O. cyaneum'' was unintentionally introduced to other regions, including New Zealand and North America, most likely through ballast from ships or via imported potted plants brought by early European settlers <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. ''O. cyaneum'' feed on fresh [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], [[microorganisms]], and large quantities of soil and accompanied organic residues.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|-
|colspan="2"| [[File:Octo.jpeg|900px|thumb|Picture of ''Octolasion cyaneum'']]
|-
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Annelida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Citellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crassiclitellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Lumbricidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Octolasion
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |Octolasion cyaneum
|}

==Range==
''O. cyaneum'' is a temperate endogenic species, meaning that they are soil dwelling species that live and feed within the soil rather than above. It is widely distributed across Europe, North America, Australia, northern India, and Pakistan <ref name= “Kliszcz”>Kliszcz, A., and J. Puła. 2020. The change of pH value and Octolasion cyaneum Savigny earthworms’ activity under stubble crops after spring triticale continuous cultivation. Soil Systems 4(3):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems4030039 </ref> <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. Due to its broad geographical distribution, ''O. cyaneum'' is frequently used in ecological assessments and chronic soil studies <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. In natural environments, they can commonly be found under stones, burrowing tree trunks, and near riverbeds <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>.

==Ecology==
Like all earthworms, ''O. cyaneum'' contributes to soil fertility by enhancing nitrogen availability and increasing potassium levels through the production of vermicompost [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>. They can be used as bioindicators of soil management because they are sensitive to both chemical and physical soil parameters <ref name= “Paoletti”>Paoletti, M. G., G. Fohrer, C. Favretto, D. J. Howard, and A. M. Toniolo. 1998. Earthworms as useful bioindicators of agroecosystem sustainability in orchards and vineyards with different inputs. Applied Soil [[Ecology]] 10:137–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0929-1393(98)00036-5</ref>. This can be observed through their cocoon numbers and biomass because they reflect both natural soil parameters and agricultural practices <ref name= “Lowe, Butt”>Lowe CN, Butt KR, Cheynier V, Lowe SD. 2016. Assessment of avoidance behaviour by earthworms ([[Lumbricus rubellus]] and Octolasion cyaneum) in linear pollution gradients. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 124:324–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.11.015 </ref>.

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Octo_Life_cycle.jpg|600px|thumb|left|Octolasion cyaneum life cycle </ref> <ref name= "Bobbie">Bobbie Kalman, The life cycle of an earthworm. New York: Crabtree, 2004 </ref>.]]
''O. cyaneum'' are hermaphrodites, possessing both male and female reproductive organs <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. The common mode of reproduction is parthenogenesis that results in the production of genetically homogeneous clones in populations founded on one or only few individuals <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. They produce either one hatching (singleton) or two hatchings (twins) per cocoon, which are rare but not impossible <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. The mature ''O. cyaneum'' display a citellum on the front portion of the body that is used for reproduction <ref name= “Bendle”>Bendle, P. 2015. Octolasion cyaneum (Common earthworm). Phil Bendle Collection: Worms (Common). CitSciHub. https://citscihub.nz/Phil_Bendle_Collection:Worms_(Common)_Octolasion_cyaneum </ref>. ''O. cyaneum'' prefer environments that have high values of [[porosity]] and C content, soils with a pH of 5.5-8, and moist soil for development, buckwheat [[rhizosphere]] being the best <ref name= “Kliszcz”>Kliszcz, A., and J. Puła. 2020. The change of pH value and Octolasion cyaneum Savigny earthworms’ activity under stubble crops after spring triticale continuous cultivation. Soil Systems 4(3):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems4030039 </ref> <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>.

==References==

Carpenter bee

2025-04-30T14:18:50Z

Ehkapaws:

If you ever wonder if there were bees near wood structures around your home, chances are those are carpenter bees. They are large, solitary bees belonging to the genus Xylocopa. They get their name from the female bee because they bore into wood to create tunnels when they lay their eggs [1].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-right: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Screenshot_2025-04-28_234322.png|400px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Arthropoda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Hymenoptera]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Apidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Xylocopa
|-
|}

== Identification ==
They can range from 0.7 to 1 inches long. The thorax is covered with fuzzy yellow, orange, or white hairs. The abdomen is shiny black, The female has an entirely black head while the male has yellow or white markings.
They closely resemble bumble bees; unlike carpenter bees, bumble bees' entire body is covered with hairs, and they are also social, living together in an underground nest [2]. Male carpenter bees do not have a stinger, but female carpenter bees can sting when they feel threatened [1].

== Life Cycle ==
In April or May, the female carpenter bee searches for a good nesting site. She will reuse and expand on existing tunnels or bore her own [2]. At times, some carpenter bees will occupy the same piece of wood with nest galleries so close to each other. However, all carpenter bees behave independently of the other bees [2]. They can live up to 3 years, and there can be one or two generations per year [3]. The females do the majority of the work. They use their strong jaws (mandibles) to excavate a clean cut, which should approximately fix the diameter of her body [2]. Once she has chewed out these tunnels, she will eventually lay her eggs. When this is done, she places a "bee bread" (a mixture of pollen and regurgitated nectar), which serves as food for the larvae [4]. Eggs will then hatch into larvae, feeding on the pollen and then eventually becoming a pupa. Later on, new adults will emerge in the late summer, chew through, and exit the tunnel.
[[File:Carpenter Bee Tunnel.png|400px|thumb|left|Carpenter bee's tunnel]]

== Ecological Significance ==
Females are attracted to raw, unfinished, or stained wood when they are searching for a nesting site. Carpenter bees cause sawdust piles below a perfectly circular hole drilled into the wood around your home. While it may sound like they aren't causing much damage, multiple tunnels, which are caused by the females, can weaken the wood over time [2].

1. Moisture entering the woods is accelerating the rate of decay

2. Mold growth on the excrement

3. Woodpeckers cause damage due to feeding on immature bees

== Natural Predators ==
Woodpeckers can locate their favorite treat by simply keeping a sharp ear to the wind. This is due to carpenter bee larvae because they are noisy and tend to attract woodpeckers [5].

Carpenter bee

2025-04-30T14:18:36Z

Ehkapaws:

If you ever wonder if there were bees near wood structures around your home, chances are those are carpenter bees. They are large, solitary bees belonging to the genus Xylocopa. They get their name from the female bee because they bore into wood to create tunnels when they lay their eggs <ref name= “Best Bee Brothers”>Best Bee Brothers. 2021. Carpenter bee predators: What eats carpenter bees?https://bestbeebrothers.com/blogs/blog/carpenter-bee-predators</ref>.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-right: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:Screenshot_2025-04-28_234322.png|400px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Arthropoda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Hymenoptera]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Apidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Xylocopa
|-
|}

== Identification ==
They can range from 0.7 to 1 inches long. The thorax is covered with fuzzy yellow, orange, or white hairs. The abdomen is shiny black, The female has an entirely black head while the male has yellow or white markings.
They closely resemble bumble bees; unlike carpenter bees, bumble bees' entire body is covered with hairs, and they are also social, living together in an underground nest [2]. Male carpenter bees do not have a stinger, but female carpenter bees can sting when they feel threatened [1].

== Life Cycle ==
In April or May, the female carpenter bee searches for a good nesting site. She will reuse and expand on existing tunnels or bore her own [2]. At times, some carpenter bees will occupy the same piece of wood with nest galleries so close to each other. However, all carpenter bees behave independently of the other bees [2]. They can live up to 3 years, and there can be one or two generations per year [3]. The females do the majority of the work. They use their strong jaws (mandibles) to excavate a clean cut, which should approximately fix the diameter of her body [2]. Once she has chewed out these tunnels, she will eventually lay her eggs. When this is done, she places a "bee bread" (a mixture of pollen and regurgitated nectar), which serves as food for the larvae [4]. Eggs will then hatch into larvae, feeding on the pollen and then eventually becoming a pupa. Later on, new adults will emerge in the late summer, chew through, and exit the tunnel.
[[File:Carpenter Bee Tunnel.png|400px|thumb|left|Carpenter bee's tunnel]]

== Ecological Significance ==
Females are attracted to raw, unfinished, or stained wood when they are searching for a nesting site. Carpenter bees cause sawdust piles below a perfectly circular hole drilled into the wood around your home. While it may sound like they aren't causing much damage, multiple tunnels, which are caused by the females, can weaken the wood over time [2].

1. Moisture entering the woods is accelerating the rate of decay

2. Mold growth on the excrement

3. Woodpeckers cause damage due to feeding on immature bees

== Natural Predators ==
Woodpeckers can locate their favorite treat by simply keeping a sharp ear to the wind. This is due to carpenter bee larvae because they are noisy and tend to attract woodpeckers [5].

2025-04-30T02:12:47Z

Ehkapaws:

Bryophyte

2025-04-30T02:12:21Z

Ehkapaws: /* Uses */

File:Bryophytes 2.jpg

2025-04-30T02:12:01Z

Ehkapaws:

Bryophyte

2025-04-30T02:09:30Z

Ehkapaws:

2025-04-29T20:19:16Z

Ehkapaws: /* Life Cycle */

Octolasion cyaneum, a blue gray worm considered an invasive species in the U.S., is in the family Lumbricidae that are the dominant earthworms of pastures and croplands of Europe <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>. They are large sluggish species mostly found in the topsoil of low-fertility pastures on many [[soil]] types [.]. They originated in Europe and were brought to New Zealand through either ballast ships or imported plants by early European settlers [.]. O. cyaneum feed on fresh [[Organic Matter|organic matter]], [[microorganisms]], and large quantities of soil and accompanied organic residues [.].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|-
|colspan="2"| [[File:Octo.jpeg|900px|thumb]]
|-
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Animalia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Annelida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Citellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crassiclitellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Lumbricidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Octolasion
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |Octolasion cyaneum
|}

==Range==
O. cyaneum is a temperate endogenic species, meaning that they are soil dwelling species that live and feed within the soil rather than above, found throughout Europe, America, Australia, northern India, and Pakistan <ref name= “Kliszcz”>Kliszcz, A., and J. Puła. 2020. The change of pH value and Octolasion cyaneum Savigny earthworms’ activity under stubble crops after spring triticale continuous cultivation. Soil Systems 4(3):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems4030039 </ref> <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. Its widespread geographical distribution predisposes them as a subject for ecological assessment and chronic toxicity studies [low]. They can be found under stones, burrowing tree trunks, and near riverbeds <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>.

==Ecology==
Like all earthworms, O. cyaneum increases the concentration of nitrogen in the soil and increases potassium through the production of vermicompost, making the soil fertile and rich in [[Organic Matter|organic matter]] <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>. They can be used as bioindicators of soil management because they are sensitive to both chemical and physical soil parameters [pao in 1]. This can be observed through their cocoon numbers and biomass because they reflect both natural soil parameters and agricultural practices [chris].

==Behavior==

==Life Cycle==
[[File:Octo_Life_cycle.jpg|600px|thumb|left|Octolasion cyaneum life cycle]]
O. cyaneum are hermaphrodites, possessing both male and female reproductive organs [phil]. The common mode of reproduction is parthenogenesis that results in the production of genetically homogeneous clones in populations founded on one or only few individuals [.]. They produce either one hatching (singleton) or two hatchings (twins) per cocoon, which are rare but not impossible <ref name= “Lowe”>Lowe, C. N., and K. R. Butt. 2008. Life cycle traits of the parthenogenetic earthworm Octolasion cyaneum (Savigny, 1826). European Journal of Soil Biology 44:541–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2008.08.002 </ref>. The mature O. cyaneum display a citellum on the front portion of the body that is used for reproduction [phil]. O. cyaneum prefer environments that have high values of [[porosity]] and C content, soils with a pH of 5.5-8, and moist soil for development, buckwheat [[rhizosphere]] being the best <ref name= “Kliszcz”>Kliszcz, A., and J. Puła. 2020. The change of pH value and Octolasion cyaneum Savigny earthworms’ activity under stubble crops after spring triticale continuous cultivation. Soil Systems 4(3):39. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems4030039 </ref> <ref name= “Muslim”>Muslim, T. M. 2024. Morphological and environmental conditions of new record [[earthworm]] Octolasion cyaneum in Al-Diwaniyah City/Iraq. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences 17:582–586. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajbs.2024.582.586 </ref>.

==References==

Octolasion cyaneum

2025-04-29T20:18:15Z

Ehkapaws: /* Range */

Octolasion cyaneum

2025-04-29T20:15:48Z

Ehkapaws: /* Life Cycle */

Octolasion cyaneum

2025-04-29T20:15:26Z

Ehkapaws: /* Range */

Octolasion cyaneum

2025-04-29T20:12:48Z

Ehkapaws: /* Life Cycle */

Octolasion cyaneum

2025-04-29T20:12:23Z

Ehkapaws: /* Ecology */