https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Eavolker 2026-04-14T22:33:49Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.43.0 https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=7287 2021-05-07T20:32:07Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Overview */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between larger [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are substantially beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> [[Auxin]], a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in [[nutrient acquisition]] because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling methods/limitations==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. [[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Vizualizing the minirhizotron]]<br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=7286 2021-05-07T20:31:20Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Overview */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between larger [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> [[Auxin]], a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in [[nutrient acquisition]] because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling methods/limitations==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. [[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Vizualizing the minirhizotron]]<br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=7285 2021-05-07T20:30:46Z

<p>Eavolker: </p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> [[Auxin]], a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in [[nutrient acquisition]] because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling methods/limitations==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. [[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Vizualizing the minirhizotron]]<br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=7281 2021-05-07T20:00:37Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Groups of Flagellates */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zooflagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ==Types of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===Phytoflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellate [[protozoans]] have much in common with typical algae. Some actually contain the pigment chlorophyll and use a photosynthetic type of nutrition [10]. Flagellates that do not use photosynthesis as a source of food can also absorb nutrients through their body surface, or can ingest food particles. Species that are members of this group include but are not limited to Euglena, Chloromonad, Dinoflagellate, Cryptomonad, Chrysomonad. Phytoflagellates are considered as a group because (1) possession of a nucleus in the conventional sense and centriolar mitosis (2) mobility by means of flagella (3) photosynthetic pigments located in the plastids [11].<br /> <br /> *'''Euglena'''<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all Flagellates, Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> *'''Volvox'''<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cytoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===Zooflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellates are non-photosynthetic [[organisms]] compared to the other group of flagellates discussed in the previous section [12]. These flagellates lack cell walls and feed by either phagocytosis or endocytosis. This group of flagellates is one of the most diverse of all eukaryotes and have given rise to most other parts of the eukaryotic cells that we see today. Zooflagellates are classified over thirteen or fourteen phyla and are spread across four of the seven eukaryotic kingdoms that we have currently classified to date [12]. <br /> <br /> *'''Parasites'''<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].<br /> :[10] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. &quot;Phytoflagellate.&quot; Encyclopedia Britannica, December 17, 2012. https://www.britannica.com/science/phytoflagellate.<br /> :[11] Hunter, S.H. Provasoli, Luigi. 1951. The Phytoflagellates. Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa. pp. 28-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-3139-6.50006-9<br /> :[12] Cavalier, Smith T. 1955. Zooflagellate phylogeny and classification. Tsitologiia. 37(11):1010-29. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8868448/</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=7280 2021-05-07T19:56:09Z

<p>Eavolker: </p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom [[Plante]]. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, [[gymnosperms]] in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either [[pinnate]] or [[palmate]]. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6]. <br /> <br /> ====Pinnate Vs. Palmte====<br /> [[File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpeg|500px|thumb|left|Contrasting Pinnate and Palmate Structures]]<br /> <br /> ==Angiosperm-Pollinator Coevolution==<br /> By analyzing ancient pollen fossil clumps from angiosperms, scientists can properly say that the earliest flowering plants were insect pollinated. These pollen clumps can be a result of natural remains of anthers, insect pellets, and insect packaging [8]. Scientists have found that species mainly relying on pollination by [[insects]] (86% of now extant basal angiosperm families) relied on pollinated by generalized insects, specialized pollen collecting insects, and other specialized pollinators [8]. Some important pollinators to angiosperms are bees, wasps, flies, beetles, butterflies, moths, and some small birds. Angiosperms and pollinators took place in a biological phenomenon known as coevolution. Coevolution is a phenomenon in which two or more species reciprocally affect each other evolution. Many flowering plants and insects rely so heavily on one another that their relationships are exclusive because they have coevolved to fit the specific needs of each other [9].<br /> <br /> Short video summarizing the process of coevolution: https://www.britannica.com/video/21933/Insects-flowers-other-benefits<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.<br /> <br /> [7] What is the difference between Pinnate and Palmate. PEDIAA. June 4, 2019. https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-pinnate-and-palmate/<br /> <br /> [8] Shusheng Hu, David L. Dilcher, David M. Jarzen. 2007. Early steps of angiosperms-pollinator coevolution. PNAS. 105:240-245. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707989105<br /> <br /> [9] Coevolution. 2009. Understanding evolution. https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_33</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=7279 2021-05-07T19:54:51Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Nutrient Acquisition */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> [[Auxin]], a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in [[nutrient acquisition]] because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling techniques==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. [[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Vizualizing the minirhizotron]]<br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=7278 2021-05-07T19:54:05Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Type 3: */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> [[Auxin]], a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in nutrient acquisition because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling techniques==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. [[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Vizualizing the minirhizotron]]<br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6934 2021-05-05T19:31:52Z

<p>Eavolker: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zooflagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ==Groups of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===Phytoflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellate [[protozoans]] have much in common with typical algae. Some actually contain the pigment chlorophyll and use a photosynthetic type of nutrition [10]. Flagellates that do not use photosynthesis as a source of food can also absorb nutrients through their body surface, or can ingest food particles. Species that are members of this group include but are not limited to Euglena, Chloromonad, Dinoflagellate, Cryptomonad, Chrysomonad. Phytoflagellates are considered as a group because (1) possession of a nucleus in the conventional sense and centriolar mitosis (2) mobility by means of flagella (3) photosynthetic pigments located in the plastids [11].<br /> <br /> *'''Euglena'''<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all Flagellates, Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> *'''Volvox'''<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cytoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===Zooflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellates are non-photosynthetic [[organisms]] compared to the other group of flagellates discussed in the previous section [12]. These flagellates lack cell walls and feed by either phagocytosis or endocytosis. This group of flagellates is one of the most diverse of all eukaryotes and have given rise to most other parts of the eukaryotic cells that we see today. Zooflagellates are classified over thirteen or fourteen phyla and are spread across four of the seven eukaryotic kingdoms that we have currently classified to date [12]. <br /> <br /> *'''Parasites'''<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].<br /> :[10] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. &quot;Phytoflagellate.&quot; Encyclopedia Britannica, December 17, 2012. https://www.britannica.com/science/phytoflagellate.<br /> :[11] Hunter, S.H. Provasoli, Luigi. 1951. The Phytoflagellates. Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa. pp. 28-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-3139-6.50006-9<br /> :[12] Cavalier, Smith T. 1955. Zooflagellate phylogeny and classification. Tsitologiia. 37(11):1010-29. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8868448/</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6925 2021-05-05T19:29:21Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Zooflagellates */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zooflagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ==Groups of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===Phytoflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellate [[protozoans]] have much in common with typical algae. Some actually contain the pigment chlorophyll and use a photosynthetic type of nutrition [10]. Flagellates that do not use photosynthesis as a source of food can also absorb nutrients through their body surface, or can ingest food particles. Species that are members of this group include but are not limited to Euglena, Chloromonad, Dinoflagellate, Cryptomonad, Chrysomonad. Phytoflagellates are considered as a group because (1) possession of a nucleus in the conventional sense and centriolar mitosis (2) mobility by means of flagella (3) photosynthetic pigments located in the plastids [11].<br /> <br /> *'''Euglena'''<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all Flagellates, Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> *'''Volvox'''<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cytoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===Zooflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellates are non-photosynthetic [[organisms]] compared to the other group of flagellates discussed in the previous section [12]. These flagellates lack cell walls and feed by either phagocytosis or endocytosis. This group of flagellates is one of the most diverse of all eukaryotes and have given rise to most other parts of the eukaryotic cells that we see today. Zooflagellates are classified over thirteen or fourteen phyla and are spread across four of the seven eukaryotic kingdoms that we have currently classified to date [12]. <br /> <br /> *'''Parasites'''<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].<br /> :[10] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. &quot;Phytoflagellate.&quot; Encyclopedia Britannica, December 17, 2012. https://www.britannica.com/science/phytoflagellate.<br /> :[11] Hunter, S.H. Provasoli, Luigi. 1951. The Phytoflagellates. Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa. pp. 28-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-3139-6.50006-9</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6910 2021-05-05T19:20:29Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Groups of Flagellates */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zooflagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ==Groups of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===Phytoflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellate [[protozoans]] have much in common with typical algae. Some actually contain the pigment chlorophyll and use a photosynthetic type of nutrition [10]. Flagellates that do not use photosynthesis as a source of food can also absorb nutrients through their body surface, or can ingest food particles. Species that are members of this group include but are not limited to Euglena, Chloromonad, Dinoflagellate, Cryptomonad, Chrysomonad. Phytoflagellates are considered as a group because (1) possession of a nucleus in the conventional sense and centriolar mitosis (2) mobility by means of flagella (3) photosynthetic pigments located in the plastids [11].<br /> <br /> *'''Euglena'''<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all Flagellates, Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> *'''Volvox'''<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cytoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===Zooflagellates===<br /> <br /> *'''Parasites'''<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].<br /> :[10] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. &quot;Phytoflagellate.&quot; Encyclopedia Britannica, December 17, 2012. https://www.britannica.com/science/phytoflagellate.<br /> :[11] Hunter, S.H. Provasoli, Luigi. 1951. The Phytoflagellates. Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa. pp. 28-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-3139-6.50006-9</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6909 2021-05-05T19:19:25Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Overview */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zooflagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ==Groups of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===Phytoflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellate [[protozoans]] have much in common with typical algae. Some actually contain the pigment chlorophyll and use a photosynthetic type of nutrition [10]. Flagellates that do not use photosynthesis as a source of food can also absorb nutrients through their body surface, or can ingest food particles. Species that are members of this group include but are not limited to Euglena, Chloromonad, Dinoflagellate, Cryptomonad, Chrysomonad. Phytoflagellates are considered as a group because (1) possession of a nucleus in the conventional sense and centriolar mitosis (2) mobility by means of flagella (3) photosynthetic pigments located in the plastids [11].<br /> <br /> *Euglena<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> *Volvox<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cytoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===Zooflagellates===<br /> <br /> *Parasites<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].<br /> :[10] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. &quot;Phytoflagellate.&quot; Encyclopedia Britannica, December 17, 2012. https://www.britannica.com/science/phytoflagellate.<br /> :[11] Hunter, S.H. Provasoli, Luigi. 1951. The Phytoflagellates. Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa. pp. 28-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-3139-6.50006-9</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6908 2021-05-05T19:19:08Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Examples of Flagellates */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zooflagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ===Zooflagellates===<br /> <br /> ==Groups of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===Phytoflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellate [[protozoans]] have much in common with typical algae. Some actually contain the pigment chlorophyll and use a photosynthetic type of nutrition [10]. Flagellates that do not use photosynthesis as a source of food can also absorb nutrients through their body surface, or can ingest food particles. Species that are members of this group include but are not limited to Euglena, Chloromonad, Dinoflagellate, Cryptomonad, Chrysomonad. Phytoflagellates are considered as a group because (1) possession of a nucleus in the conventional sense and centriolar mitosis (2) mobility by means of flagella (3) photosynthetic pigments located in the plastids [11].<br /> <br /> *Euglena<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> *Volvox<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cytoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===Zooflagellates===<br /> <br /> *Parasites<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].<br /> :[10] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. &quot;Phytoflagellate.&quot; Encyclopedia Britannica, December 17, 2012. https://www.britannica.com/science/phytoflagellate.<br /> :[11] Hunter, S.H. Provasoli, Luigi. 1951. The Phytoflagellates. Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa. pp. 28-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-3139-6.50006-9</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6902 2021-05-05T19:14:30Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Phytoflagellates */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zooflagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ===Zooflagellates===<br /> <br /> ==Examples of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===Euglena===<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> ===Volvox===<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===Parasites===<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].<br /> :[10] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. &quot;Phytoflagellate.&quot; Encyclopedia Britannica, December 17, 2012. https://www.britannica.com/science/phytoflagellate.<br /> :[11] Hunter, S.H. Provasoli, Luigi. 1951. The Phytoflagellates. Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa. pp. 28-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-3139-6.50006-9</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6901 2021-05-05T19:14:04Z

<p>Eavolker: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zooflagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ===Phytoflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellate [[protozoans]] have much in common with typical algae. Some actually contain the pigment chlorophyll and use a photosynthetic type of nutrition [10]. Flagellates that do not use photosynthesis as a source of food can also absorb nutrients through their body surface, or can ingest food particles. Species that are members of this group include but are not limited to Euglena, Chloromonad, Dinoflagellate, Cryptomonad, Chrysomonad. Phytoflagellates are considered as a group because (1) possession of a nucleus in the conventional sense and centriolar mitosis (2) mobility by means of flagella (3) photosynthetic pigments located in the plastids [11]. <br /> <br /> ===Zooflagellates===<br /> <br /> ==Examples of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===Euglena===<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> ===Volvox===<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===Parasites===<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].<br /> :[10] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. &quot;Phytoflagellate.&quot; Encyclopedia Britannica, December 17, 2012. https://www.britannica.com/science/phytoflagellate.<br /> :[11] Hunter, S.H. Provasoli, Luigi. 1951. The Phytoflagellates. Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa. pp. 28-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4832-3139-6.50006-9</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6892 2021-05-05T19:10:13Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Overview */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zooflagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ===Phytoflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellate [[protozoans]] have much in common with typical algae. Some actually contain the pigment chlorophyll and use a photosynthetic type of nutrition [10]. Flagellates that do not use photosynthesis as a source of food can also absorb nutrients through their body surface, or can ingest food particles. Species that are members of this group include but are not limited to Euglena, Chloromonad, Dinoflagellate, Cryptomonad, Chrysomonad. Phytoflagellates are considered as a group because (1) possession of a nucleus in the conventional sense and centriolar mitosis (2) mobility by means of flagella (3) photosynthetic pigments located in the plastids [11]. <br /> <br /> ===Zooflagellates===<br /> <br /> ==Examples of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===Euglena===<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> ===Volvox===<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===Parasites===<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6875 2021-05-05T18:56:03Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Examples of Flagellates */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zoolagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ===Phytoflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellate [[protozoans]] have much in common with typical algae. Some actually contain the pigment chlorophyll and use a photosynthetic type of nutrition<br /> <br /> ==Examples of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===Euglena===<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> ===Volvox===<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===Parasites===<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6874 2021-05-05T18:55:27Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Overview */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zoolagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ===Phytoflagellates===<br /> This group of flagellate [[protozoans]] have much in common with typical algae. Some actually contain the pigment chlorophyll and use a photosynthetic type of nutrition<br /> <br /> ==Examples of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===''Euglena''===<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> ===''Volvox''===<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===''Parasites''===<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6859 2021-05-05T18:51:06Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Examples */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zoolagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ==Examples of Flagellates==<br /> <br /> ===''Euglena''===<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> ===''Volvox''===<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===''Parasites''===<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6795 2021-05-05T18:09:51Z

<p>Eavolker: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zoolagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ==Examples==<br /> <br /> ===''Euglena''===<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> ===''Volvox''===<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===''Parasites''===<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6794 2021-05-05T18:09:35Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Reproduction */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zoolagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ==Examples==<br /> <br /> ===''Euglena''===<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> ===''Volvox''===<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===''Parasites''===<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> ==Reproduction== <br /> <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony.<br /> <br /> =References=<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6793 2021-05-05T18:09:02Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Euglena */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zoolagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ==Examples==<br /> <br /> ===''Euglena''===<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|right|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> ===''Volvox''===<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===''Parasites''===<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> =Reproduction= <br /> ---- <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony. <br /> <br /> =References=<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6792 2021-05-05T18:08:42Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Examples */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zoolagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> ==Examples==<br /> <br /> ===''Euglena''===<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|left|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> <br /> ===''Volvox''===<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> ===''Parasites''===<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> =Reproduction= <br /> ---- <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony. <br /> <br /> =References=<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6791 2021-05-05T18:07:54Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Overview */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zoolagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> =Examples=<br /> <br /> ==''Euglena''==<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|left|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> ==''Volvox''==<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==''Parasites''==<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> =Reproduction= <br /> ---- <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony. <br /> <br /> =References=<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Flagellates&diff=6789 2021-05-05T18:07:05Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Examples */</p> <hr /> <div>=Overview=<br /> ----<br /> [[File:flagellaaa.jpg|right|200px|[5]|thumb]]Flagellates are unicellular [[microorganisms]] and are a part of the [[protozoa]] group. They are characterized by having one or more flagella, which is a hair-like whip organelle and very distinguishable. There are many different types of flagellates, and they all have different lifestyles. Some make up colonies and others live as single cells. The two main categories are phytoflagellates and zooflagellates. Phytoflagellates are green and plant-like creatures that use photosynthesis to produce food. Zooflagellates are colorless and animal-like. Parasitic flagellates also fall into this category.<br /> Both phytoflagellates and zoolagellates can be found in ponds, lagoons, and even shallow puddles. Wherever there are large amounts of soluble food, flagellates can thrive. However, parasitic zooflagellates live inside the intestines or bloodstream of a host and can cause harmful diseases like giardiasis.<br /> <br /> =Examples=<br /> <br /> ==''Euglena''==<br /> [[File:Euglena.jpg|left|200px|Euglena [9]|thumb]]<br /> :Like all [[Flagellates]], Euglena have a flagellum. They are green because they have chloroplasts, which are organelles that aid in photosynthesis and contain chlorophyll. They have a plasma membrane, which contains their cytoplasm and other organelles. The pellicle is a flexible membrane, which supports the plasma membrane. A contractile vacuole removes excess water from the cell, and a reservoir located near the flagellum expels the excess water. They also have a red eye spot, called a stigma, which is light sensitive and helps to guide their movement.<br /> ==''Volvox''==<br /> [[File:volvox.jpg|right|150px|Volvox colony [3]|thumb]]<br /> :A Volvox is a colony of freshwater algae that forms a hollow ball and can be made up of anywhere from 500-200,000 individual cells. Their flagella are pointed outward, and they move together as one in a spinning motion. They can be big enough to see with the naked eye. The Flagellates are connected by thin strands of cyptoplasm, and can be green, red, or brown.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==''Parasites''==<br /> [[File:giardia.jpg|left|100px|Giardia [1]|thumb]]<br /> :Parasitic Flagellates are categorized under the name Zooflagellates because they do not have the means to produce their food through photosynthesis. One example of a parasitic Flagellate is Giardia. Giardia causes disease in humans when their cyst form is ingested through contaminated water. The cyst form serves as a protective dormant state for Giardia until it enters a host's small intestine, causing diarrhea and malabsorption. Some cyst form Giardia pass through the host's system, allowing it to infect others.<br /> <br /> =Reproduction= <br /> ---- <br /> :Flagellates reproduce asexually, but in some cases, like that of the Volvox colony, they can reproduce sexually as well. The form of asexual reproduction is '''binary fission'''. This is the process where the organism duplicates its DNA and splits into two daughter cells. Most flagellates use this process. A Volvox uses a slightly different process. In the center of the colony, there are spheres which are colonies of daughter cells. These cells come from the middle of the colony, and undergo many cell divisions until they form a sphere. They are held inside the Volvox until the parent disintegrates and the daughter cells turn their flagella outward to become the new colony. <br /> <br /> =References=<br /> :[1] Adam, Rodney D. “Body of Giardia Lamblia.” American Society for Microbiology, July 2001. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88984/]<br /> :[2] Bailey, Regina. “Eugena Cells.” ThoughtCo, 26 Jan. 2018, [https://www.thoughtco.com/about-euglena-cells-4099133].<br /> :[3] Fiegl, Madison, and JD French. “Volvox Cateri.” Microbe Wiki, 28 Apr. 2018, [https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Volvox_carteri].<br /> :[4] &quot;Flagellates.” Environmental Leverage, 2003, [https://www.environmentalleverage.com/Flagellates.htm].<br /> :[5] “Flagellate (Protozoan).” Assignment Point, [https://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/biology/flagellate-protozoan.html].<br /> :[6] Palande, Leena. “Volvox Facts.” Biology Wise, [https://biologywise.com/volvox-facts].<br /> :[7] “Protozoan Parasites.” Para-Site, [https://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/protozoa-intoduction.html].<br /> :[8] Setia, Veenu, and Thinley Kalsang Bhutia. “Flagellate.” Britannica, 28 Mar. 2018, [https://www.britannica.com/science/flagellate].<br /> :[9] “The Structure and Illustration of Euglena.” Dreams Time, [https://www.dreamstime.com/the%C2%A0structure-and%C2%A0diagram%C2%A0of-euglena-illustration-science-anatomy-use-to-study-image115653623].</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6766 2021-05-05T17:57:21Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Angiosperm-Pollinator Coevolution */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6]. <br /> <br /> ====Pinnate Vs. Palmte====<br /> [[File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpeg|500px|thumb|left|Contrasting Pinnate and Palmate Structures]]<br /> <br /> ==Angiosperm-Pollinator Coevolution==<br /> By analyzing ancient pollen fossil clumps from angiosperms, scientists can properly say that the earliest flowering plants were insect pollinated. These pollen clumps can be a result of natural remains of anthers, insect pellets, and insect packaging [8]. Scientists have found that species mainly relying on pollination by [[insects]] (86% of now extant basal angiosperm families) relied on pollinated by generalized insects, specialized pollen collecting insects, and other specialized pollinators [8]. Some important pollinators to angiosperms are bees, wasps, flies, beetles, butterflies, moths, and some small birds. Angiosperms and pollinators took place in a biological phenomenon known as coevolution. Coevolution is a phenomenon in which two or more species reciprocally affect each other evolution. Many flowering plants and insects rely so heavily on one another that their relationships are exclusive because they have coevolved to fit the specific needs of each other [9].<br /> <br /> Short video summarizing the process of coevolution: https://www.britannica.com/video/21933/Insects-flowers-other-benefits<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.<br /> <br /> [7] What is the difference between Pinnate and Palmate. PEDIAA. June 4, 2019. https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-pinnate-and-palmate/<br /> <br /> [8] Shusheng Hu, David L. Dilcher, David M. Jarzen. 2007. Early steps of angiosperms-pollinator coevolution. PNAS. 105:240-245. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707989105<br /> <br /> [9] Coevolution. 2009. Understanding evolution. https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_33</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6763 2021-05-05T17:53:49Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Clades */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6]. <br /> <br /> ====Pinnate Vs. Palmte====<br /> [[File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpeg|500px|thumb|left|Contrasting Pinnate and Palmate Structures]]<br /> <br /> ==Angiosperm-Pollinator Coevolution==<br /> By analyzing ancient pollen fossil clumps from angiosperms, scientists can properly say that the earliest flowering plants were insect pollinated. These pollen clumps can be a result of natural remains of anthers, insect pellets, and insect packaging [8]. Scientists have found that species mainly relying on pollination by [[insects]] (86% of now extant basal angiosperm families) relied on pollinated by generalized insects, specialized pollen collecting insects, and other specialized pollinators [8]. Some important pollinators to angiosperms are bees, wasps, flies, beetles, butterflies, moths, and some small birds. Angiosperms and pollinators took place in a biological phenomenon known as coevolution. Coevolution is a phenomenon in which two or more species reciprocally affect each other evolution. Many flowering plants and insects rely so heavily on one another that their relationships are exclusive because they have coevolved to fit the specific needs of each other [9].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.<br /> <br /> [7] What is the difference between Pinnate and Palmate. PEDIAA. June 4, 2019. https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-pinnate-and-palmate/<br /> <br /> [8] Shusheng Hu, David L. Dilcher, David M. Jarzen. 2007. Early steps of angiosperms-pollinator coevolution. PNAS. 105:240-245. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707989105<br /> <br /> [9] Coevolution. 2009. Understanding evolution. https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_33</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6762 2021-05-05T17:49:43Z

<p>Eavolker: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6]. [[File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpeg|500px|thumb|left|Contrasting Pinnate and Palmate Structures]]<br /> <br /> ==Angiosperm-Pollinator Coevolution==<br /> By analyzing ancient pollen fossil clumps from angiosperms, scientists can properly say that the earliest flowering plants were insect pollinated. These pollen clumps can be a result of natural remains of anthers, insect pellets, and insect packaging [8]. Scientists have found that species mainly relying on pollination by [[insects]] (86% of now extant basal angiosperm families) relied on pollinated by generalized insects, specialized pollen collecting insects, and other specialized pollinators [8]. Some important pollinators to angiosperms are bees, wasps, flies, beetles, butterflies, moths, and some small birds. Angiosperms and pollinators took place in a biological phenomenon known as coevolution. Coevolution is a phenomenon in which two or more species reciprocally affect each other evolution. Many flowering plants and insects rely so heavily on one another that their relationships are exclusive because they have coevolved to fit the specific needs of each other [9].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.<br /> <br /> [7] What is the difference between Pinnate and Palmate. PEDIAA. June 4, 2019. https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-pinnate-and-palmate/<br /> <br /> [8] Shusheng Hu, David L. Dilcher, David M. Jarzen. 2007. Early steps of angiosperms-pollinator coevolution. PNAS. 105:240-245. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707989105<br /> <br /> [9] Coevolution. 2009. Understanding evolution. https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_33</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6757 2021-05-05T17:45:52Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Angiosperm-Pollinator Coevolution */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6]. [[File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpeg|500px|thumb|left|Contrasting Pinnate and Palmate Structures]]<br /> <br /> ==Angiosperm-Pollinator Coevolution==<br /> By analyzing ancient pollen fossil clumps from angiosperms, scientists can properly say that the earliest flowering plants were insect pollinated. These pollen clumps can be a result of natural remains of anthers, insect pellets, and insect packaging [8]. Scientists have found that species mainly relying on pollination by [[insects]] (86% of now extant basal angiosperm families) relied on pollinated by generalized insects, specialized pollen collecting insects, and other specialized pollinators [8]. Some important pollinators to angiosperms are bees, wasps, flies, beetles, butterflies, moths, and some small birds. Angiosperms and pollinators took place in a biological phenomenon known as coevolution. Coevolution is a phenomenon in which two or more species reciprocally affect each other evolution. Many flowering plants and insects rely so heavily on one another that their relationships are exclusive because they have coevolved to fit the specific needs of each other [9].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.<br /> <br /> [7] What is the difference between Pinnate and Palmate. PEDIAA. June 4, 2019. https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-pinnate-and-palmate/</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=6751 2021-05-05T17:31:33Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Minirhizotron */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> Auxin, a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in nutrient acquisition because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling techniques==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. [[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Vizualizing the minirhizotron]]<br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=6750 2021-05-05T17:30:48Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Minirhizotron */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> Auxin, a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in nutrient acquisition because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling techniques==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. [[File:Minirhizotron.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Vizualizing the minirhizotron]]<br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=6748 2021-05-05T17:26:19Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Growth and Development */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> Auxin, a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in nutrient acquisition because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling techniques==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. <br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=6747 2021-05-05T17:26:01Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Overview */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> Auxin, a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in nutrient acquisition because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling techniques==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. <br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=6745 2021-05-05T17:25:34Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Growth and Development */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|400px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> Auxin, a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in nutrient acquisition because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling techniques==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. <br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=6744 2021-05-05T17:25:17Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Growth and Development */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> Auxin, a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in nutrient acquisition because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling techniques==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. <br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6742 2021-05-05T17:23:37Z

<p>Eavolker: </p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6]. [[File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpeg|500px|thumb|left|Contrasting Pinnate and Palmate Structures]]<br /> <br /> ==Angiosperm-Pollinator Coevolution==<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.<br /> <br /> [7] What is the difference between Pinnate and Palmate. PEDIAA. June 4, 2019. https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-pinnate-and-palmate/</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6739 2021-05-05T17:21:48Z

<p>Eavolker: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6]. [[File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpeg|500px|thumb|left|Contrasting Pinnate and Palmate Structures]]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.<br /> <br /> [7] What is the difference between Pinnate and Palmate. PEDIAA. June 4, 2019. https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-pinnate-and-palmate/</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6734 2021-05-05T17:18:47Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Eudicots */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6]. [[File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpeg|500px|thumb|left|Contrasting Pinnate and Palmate Structures]]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpeg&diff=6732 2021-05-05T17:17:21Z

<p>Eavolker: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6731 2021-05-05T17:14:39Z

<p>Eavolker: </p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6]. [[File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Contrasting Pinnate and Palmate Structures]]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6730 2021-05-05T17:13:00Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Eudicots */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6729 2021-05-05T17:12:41Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Eudicots */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6]. [[File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpg&diff=6728 2021-05-05T17:10:55Z

<p>Eavolker: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6725 2021-05-05T17:10:18Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Eudicots */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. [[File:Pinnate_Palmate.jpg]] Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6].<br /> &lt;!--Great article, I think adding pictures would be very helpful--&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6724 2021-05-05T17:07:53Z

<p>Eavolker: </p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate.[[File:fref]] Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6].<br /> &lt;!--Great article, I think adding pictures would be very helpful--&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6721 2021-05-05T17:03:07Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Monocots */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|left|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. &lt;!--Can you explain what this means?--&gt; Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6].<br /> &lt;!--Great article, I think adding pictures would be very helpful--&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=6719 2021-05-05T17:02:43Z

<p>Eavolker: /* Monocots */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms.&lt;!--maybe include the name of this first group? could also be helpful to show a picture of the divergence tree of conifers and angiosperms, and then also the clades diverging from each other--&gt; The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2].&lt;!--are eudicots and dicots the same thing? adding a parenthesis could clarify if they are--&gt; To differentiate between monocots and [[dicots]], it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots=== <br /> [[File:Orchid-Flower-1.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of an Orchid as an example of a Monocot]]<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two.&lt;!--It would be really helpful to have pictures or diagrams of what you're describing here--&gt; Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Eudicots===<br /> [[File:Senecio angulatus 003.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Picture of Senecio angulatus as an example of an Eudicot]]<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure) [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. &lt;!--Can you explain what this means?--&gt; Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6].<br /> &lt;!--Great article, I think adding pictures would be very helpful--&gt;<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2] angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3] Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4] More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6] Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=6718 2021-05-05T17:01:01Z

<p>Eavolker: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> Auxin, a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in nutrient acquisition because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling techniques==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. <br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density<br /> <br /> [11] Majdi, Hooshang. [[Root sampling methods|Root Sampling Methods]] - Applications and Limitations of the Minirhizotron Technique. Plant and soil, vol. 185, no. 2, 1997, pp. 255-288. JSTOR, https://www-jstor-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/stable/42947826?sid=primo&amp;seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=6713 2021-05-05T16:55:26Z

<p>Eavolker: </p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> Auxin, a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in nutrient acquisition because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling techniques==<br /> ===Sequential Soil Coring===<br /> Root cores can be used to obtain information about root hair length and mass, number of root tips, mycorrhizal biomass, and distribution of nutrient contents. Iron cylinders are driven into penetrable soils at a desired sampling depth. This is hard to use past 1m because the presence of stones can prohibit the use of the coring tools to greater depths [11]. The limitations of this method are that it can be time consuming, which limits the amounts of samples that can be obtained during the growing period. [11]<br /> <br /> ===Ingrowth coring===<br /> This method is comparatively quicker and less laborious compared to the sequential soil coring method [11]. A specified volume of soil is removed from the sampling area, and this volume of soil is replaced with root free soil surrounded by a mesh bag. These bags are filled with root free sieved mineral soil from the study area; these mesh bags are then resampled after a defined time period. The varying growth of roots in this microsite can then be studied [11]. Major limitations of this method are that the soil mesh bag provides a high nutrient and low competition environment which recolonizes at different rates compared to other parts of the soil [11].<br /> <br /> ===Minirhizotron===<br /> This is a nondestructive method that can be useful for measuring the same root over longer time periods, which the ingrowth coring method does not offer [11]. Minirhizotrons are glass tubes that are installed into the soil, and root intersections along the tube can be viewed with a small camera. These can be used to obtain quantitative data on root length and production, root longevity, root density and root diameter [11]. Similar to the sequential soil coring method discussed previously, limitations of minirhizotrons include difficulty implementing them into stony soils. <br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Root_hairs&diff=6694 2021-05-05T16:26:08Z

<p>Eavolker: </p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Root hairs provide an interface between the primary [[plant roots]] and the [[soil]]. Aside from the larger more commonly known system, root hairs are smaller cylindrical extensions of larger roots that are important for nutrient acquisition, microbial interactions below-ground, and for plant anchorage in the soil. Root hairs are able to be beneficial to the health of a plant and its root systems because it effectively increases the surface area and diameter of the roots [1]. Root hairs can be 10μm in diameter or up to 1mm in diameter. The study of root hairs is important for [[ecology]], cell biology, and plant physiology because of their unique cell makeup and cell growth. Root hairs are often players in the formation of root nodules on legume plants; these facilitate symbiotic mycorrhizal interactions. Root hairs are usually visible to the naked eye but are better seen with a compound microscope or electron microscope. [[File:Root_hair_diagram.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of different zones of the root [9]]]<br /> <br /> ==Growth and Development==<br /> Root hairs are excellent specimens to study in the field of cell biology. Root hairs are tip growing extensions from specialized root epidermal cell (trichoblasts); in most [[angiosperms]] root hairs develop on epidermal cells in the differentiation zones of younger roots [2]. In most eudicots, the first sign of root hair development is a bulge on the outer radial wall (periclinal wall) of the epidermal cell [2]. Cells of the plant epidermis in the differentiation zone can either become a root hair or non root hair cell. After the basic understanding that the root epidermis consists of root hair cells and non root hair cells, it is important to understand that there are three different types patterns of differentiation that have been seen to occur in the development of root hairs [3].[[File:Root_hair_cells.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Diagram of root hair cells and non root hair cells.[1]]]]<br /> ====Type 1:====<br /> Root hairs can emerge from any kind of cell and can be considered a random type.<br /> <br /> ====Type 2:====<br /> Root hairs develop from a specific population of root epidermal cells composed of vertically alternating short and long cells; root hairs will <br /> emerge from the short cells.<br /> <br /> ====Type 3:====<br /> Root hairs grow from cells that are localized between two cortical cells (cell in the cortex) in which non hair cells contact only one <br /> cortical cell. This makes for adequate spacing between root hair growths. <br /> <br /> Auxin, a signaling hormone used for regulating the growth of almost all plant development was previously studied mainly in the aboveground development of plant leaves and shoots. Recently, genetic and physiological evidence has shown that auxin is also a key player in the growth of both lateral roots and root hairs below-ground [4].<br /> <br /> ==Root Hair Surface Area==<br /> Recent developments in technology used in studies to show the below-ground biomass of the root systems of plants has aided in studying the mass and surface area of tiny root hairs that were previously uncountable or immeasurable. In grassland plants such as ''Secale Cereale'' (Winter Rye), preliminary studies done on the counting of root hairs shows that root hairs alone can amount to up to 11, 483, 271 compared to around 2 million larger roots [5]. It was shown in this study that root hairs from just one rye plant can account for 4,322 square feet below ground. This remarkable discovery not only shows how much root hairs contribute to below-ground biomass, but points to root hair's importance in nutrient acquisition and water uptake.<br /> <br /> ==Nutrient Acquisition==<br /> Previously mentioned, root hairs play a significant role in nutrient acquisition because of their small size and role in increasing the surface area of the below-ground root system. Root hairs are especially important for the uptake of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for the health and growth of the shoots above ground [3]. Not only do root hairs increase nutrient acquisition through their extension of root surface area into soil spaces that could not otherwise be reached, root hairs also increase the preferential expression of enzymes involved in the mobilization of and uptake of multiple nutrients that are vital to plant growth [6]. These extensions of the root systems contribute to increased surface area as discussed above which improves soil contact, and can account for up to 80% of P intake [7]. Improving P uptake in particularly P deficient soil lays in the hands of root hairs. Certain root morphological and architectural adaptations can increase total soil exploration by altering the size, angle, and length of the root hairs. It has also been shown that even in P deficient environments, root hair growth increases in order to locate sparse sources of P in the soil. This has been seen with other vital nutrients as well such as Pi, K, N, and C [7].<br /> <br /> ==Water Uptake and Hydraulics==<br /> Root hairs also play significant roles in water uptake, similar to nutrient acquisition. Roots consist of many zones. Lateral roots and root caps sometimes exist in regions that have low water permeability due to immature water conduit and root suberization [8]. It has been shown that the root hair zone tends to be the most permeable zone which suggests the root hair's contributions to a plant's water uptake ability. Root water uptake is increased not only because of increased surface area of roots in small crevices of soil, but also because these small root hairs increase water potential which physically makes water uptake easier and more possible [8].<br /> <br /> ==Sampling techniques==<br /> <br /> ===Image Analysis===<br /> The program Image J can be used to measure root hair size and density. Below are some steps that can be taken to do so [10]. <br /> # Obtain two petri dishes - one will contain DI water, the other will contain Toluidine blue dye. <br /> # Using forceps, carefully submerge the root hair in the blue dye, after, carefully move the root hair to the DI water to rinse the excess blue dye off. <br /> # Using a image capturing microscope, adjust scale and capturing speed appropriately and lights on microscope to capture an image of the root hair that can be used in ImageJ<br /> # Upload image to ImageJ<br /> # Open the calibration image. Use the line tool to draw a line of known distance next to the calibration image (ruler). Click &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Scale&quot; and set the known distance to the distance measured and set to global. <br /> # Import your images using &quot;File&quot; &quot;Import&quot; &quot;Image Sequence&quot;<br /> # When image is uploaded, use &quot;Analyze&quot; &quot;Set Measurements&quot; to find &quot;Display label&quot; <br /> # To measure the length of the root hairs, select the line tool to trace and measure the root hair length in the images. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record in the results window. Record these results in a seprate spreadsheet.<br /> # To measure the root hair density, use the rectangle tool on preferred image to select a representative area of the root. Hit &quot;M&quot; to record the area. <br /> # Visually count the number of root hairs in the selected area. Record this in spreadsheet<br /> # When done, divide the recorded root hair count divided by the recorded area to obtain the number of root hairs per mm^2<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1] Grierson, C., E. Nielsen, T. Ketelaarc, and J. Schiefelbein. 2014. Root Hairs. The Arabidopsis Book / American Society of Plant Biologists 12.<br /> <br /> [2] Datta, S., C. M. Kim, M. Pernas, N. D. Pires, H. Proust, T. Tam, P. Vijayakumar, and L. Dolan. 2011. Root hairs: development, growth and evolution at the plant-soil interface. Plant and Soil 346:1–14.<br /> <br /> [3] Crespi, M. 2012. Root Genomics and Soil Interactions. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Incorporated, Somerset, UNITED STATES.<br /> <br /> [4] Santelia, D., V. Vincenzetti, E. Azzarello, L. Bovet, Y. Fukao, P. Düchtig, S. Mancuso, E. Martinoia, and M. Geisler. 2005. MDR-like ABC transporter AtPGP4 is involved in auxin-mediated lateral root and root hair development. FEBS Letters 579:5399–5406.<br /> <br /> [5] Dittmer, Howard J. A Quantitative Study of the Roots and Root Hairs of a Winter Rye Plant (Secale Cereale). American Journal of Botany, vol. 24, no. 7, 1937, pp. 417–420. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2436424. <br /> <br /> [6] Salazar-Henao, J. E., and W. Schmidt. 2016. An Inventory of Nutrient-Responsive Genes in Arabidopsis Root Hairs. Frontiers in Plant Science 7.<br /> <br /> [7] Haling, R. E., L. K. Brown, A. G. Bengough, I. M. Young, P. D. Hallett, P. J. White, and T. S. George. 2013. Root hairs improve root penetration, root–soil contact, and phosphorus acquisition in soils of different strength. Journal of Experimental Botany 64:3711–3721.<br /> <br /> [8] Segal, E., T. Kushnir, Y. Mualem, and U. Shani. 2008. Water uptake and hydraulics of the root hair [[rhizosphere]]. Vadose Zone Journal 7:1027–1034.<br /> <br /> [9] Caring for Plant Roots: What You Need to Know. 2017, March 18. . https://www.finegardening.com/article/caring-for-plant-roots-what-you-need-to-know.<br /> <br /> [10] Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. 2020. Imaging and Analyzing Root Hair Length and Density. https://plantscience.psu.edu/research/labs/roots/methods/methods-info/root-hairs/root-hair-imaging-protocol/imaging-and-analyzing-root-hair-length-and-density</div>

Eavolker https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Angiosperms&diff=5483 2021-04-22T02:54:26Z

<p>Eavolker: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>==Overview==<br /> Angiosperms are the largest and most diverse plant group within the kingdom Plante. This plant group consists of over 300,000 flowering plants and makes up 80% of plants that are living today [1]. Angiosperms are defined by being vascular seed plants where the ovule (egg) is fertilized and then enclosed into a hollow ovary. These contrast with another group that exists in the kingdom Plante, gymnosperms in which seeds (fertilized ovule) are not enclosed within the ovary and are often exposed (the most common examples being conifers and their cones) [1]. Angiosperms are a group of seed plants, also known as spermatophytes [2].<br /> <br /> ==Clades==<br /> Angiosperms are made up of three main clades. The first is a small basal relic clade which makes up a small percentage of the angiosperms. The two main clades that are most commonly discussed when talking about angiosperms are the [[monocots]] and the eudicots [2]. To differentiate between monocots and dicots, it is essential that we focus on the embryo morphology of the seed in its early growing stages, the stem vascular structure, and plastid protein inclusion [4].<br /> <br /> ===Monocots===<br /> Monocotyledon, more commonly known as [[monocots]], are one of the two major clades of angiosperms. This clade consists of around 60,000 species [3] many of which are some of the most economically important plant species such as Poaceae (true grasses), Orchidaceae (orchids), Lilaceae (lillies), and Arecaceae (palms) [3]. Monocots diverged early on from their dicot relatives early in the evolution of angiosperms. There are major characteristics that distinguish this clade of angiosperms from the other. The first, most telling characteristic are the small leaf-like structures on the embryo called the cotyledon [4]. Monocots have a single cotyledon, while other plants may have two. Another telling characteristic that is most commonly looked at when determining if an angiosperm is a monocot, is the vascular structure of the plant. The actactostele (the arrangement of vascular strands in the stem) is spread throughout the stem and is most concentrated at the periphery [4].<br /> <br /> ===Euicots===<br /> One of the largest groups of eudicots is the rosids (roses). Eudicots commonly have a repetitive flower structure that contains 5 sepals, 5 petals, 2 whorls of 5 stamen, and 3 or 5 fused carpels [5]. There are around 83,000 species in this group of angiosperms that we have discovered thus far. There is a rather large group within the rosids that are very economically and agriculturally important; it is termed the &quot;nitrogen fixing clade&quot; which consists of legumes, roses, apples, squashes, oaks, walnuts and many more [5]. Leaves of eudicots are usually characterized by netted venation (unlike monocots who have straight leaves and vascular structure [6]. These netted vascular structures are either pinnate or palmate. Vascular structures and bundles are usually bundled around the pith and eudicots usually have 2 cotyledons instead of just one like a monocot [6].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1]Angiosperm - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [2]angiosperm | Description, Evolution, Characteristics, &amp; Taxonomy. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm.<br /> <br /> [3]Monocotyledon | plant. https://www.britannica.com/plant/monocotyledon.<br /> <br /> [4]More on Morphology of the Monocots. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/monocots/monocotmm.html.<br /> <br /> [5]Stevens, P. F. 2016. Angiosperm Phylogeny and Diversification. Pages 78–83 in R. M. Kliman, editor. Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, Oxford.<br /> <br /> [6]Eudicot characteristics. https://james-vankley.com/PineywoodsPlants/groupkey/key_eudicotyledons.html.</div>

Eavolker