Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Microarthropods

2019-05-06T13:23:30Z

Earlbalg:

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

Soil microarthropods include [[chelicerates]] ([[mite]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[pseudoscorpion]]s), [[myriapod]]s ([[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[symphyla]]ns), [[crustacean]]s (small aquatic forms often found in water features), [[springtail]]s, and insects. Many groups do not have popular names; [[protura]]ns and [[diplura]]ns, for instance, are small soil arthropods related to insects.

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly mites and [[collembola]]. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the decomposition process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in [[food chains]]/webs. They feed on fungi and nematodes and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

Microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals so small pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from them in a laboratory. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the [[Tullgren funnel]], floatation in solvents, or filtration.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the [[rhizosphere]], constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the diversity and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the Prostigmata may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these animals can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and protozoa, microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation.

=References=

1. “Berlese Funnels - Collecting Methods - Mississippi Entomological Museum Home.” Camponotus(Tanaemyrmex) Castaneus (Latreille) , mississippientomologicalmuseum.org.msstate.edu/collecting.preparation.methods/Berlesefunnel.htm#.WvLuxUxFzIV.

2. “Proper Soil Sampling Techniques.” Volusia County, www.volusia.org/services/community-services/extension/agriculture/proper-soil-sampling-techniques.stml.

3. Christian, E., 1978. The jump of the springtails. Naturwissenschaften 65:495-496.

4. Piper, Ross (2007). Extraordinary animals: an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press.

5. "The incredible shrinking springtail". Science. 341 (6149): 945. 30 August 2013. doi:10.1126/science.341.6149.945-a.

Microarthropods

2019-05-06T01:30:22Z

Earlbalg:

Ciliates

2019-05-06T01:27:01Z

Earlbalg:

==Overview==

[[File:wiki5.jpg|300px|left|thumb|Paramecium[5]]]

Ciliates are part of a group called [[Protozoa]], which means they are unicellular eukaryotic [[microorganisms]].
There are around 3,500 species that have been described by scientists with the potential of thousands more to still be discovered. Ciliate species can have a wide range in not only size, but complexity. These species can measure anywhere from 10 µm to as large as 4 mm long and include some of the most morphologically advanced protozoans.

Ciliates are easily recognized by their [[cilia]] or hair-like organelles which are structurally similar to [[flagella]]. These organelles can be found in most members of the group. Cilia are more numerous and generally shorter than flagella. and are variously used in swimming, eating, staying in place, and other general movement.

Ciliates are protists and love water. These organisms can be found almost anywhere there is water. Besides soil, Ciliates can be found in lakes, ponds, rivers, and even oceans.

'''History'''

The oldest ciliate fossils known are from the Ordovician Period. A separate description of fossil ciliates was published in 2007, of which came from the Doushantuo Formation in the Ediacaran Period. Ciliate fossils are extremely rare. Only a very few have been found preserved in amber or extremely fast phosphatization under unusual marine conditions.

[[File:wiki7.png|300px|right|thumb|First Hairy Microbe (Tiny Fossils of First Known Ciliates)[3]]]

'''Examples of Ciliates:'''

''[[Paramecium]]'' : First ciliate to be used extensively for genetic studies, because conjugation could be controlled. Normally feeds on bacteria.

''[[Tetrahymena]]'' : Used in genetics because of methods for controlling conjugation so that it occurs synchronously in a large populations. Relatively easy to isolate the two kinds of nuclei.

''[[Stentor]]'' : Large ciliate used for grafting and micromanipulations. Its morphology of its outer layer is revealed by bands of blue pigment.

[[File:wiki6.jpg|300px|left|thumb|Stentor[12]]]

== Cell Structure ==

'''Nuclei'''

Ciliates have a set of two different of nuclei, which is different from most protists. The first is called the diploid micronucleus, which is the smaller of the two. This nucleus carries the germline of the cell and is used to pass genetic material to offspring, meaning it is specialized for sexual exchange. As such, this nucleus does not contain nucleoli, meaning the micronucleus does not share its genes. The second, larger, nucleus is called the polyploid macronucleus, which takes care of general cell regulation. The macronucleus is formed by the micronucleus and displays the phenotype of the organism. The macronucleus is what allows vegetative growth because it is specialized with nucleoli to move RNA into ribosomes.

[[File:Wiki1.png|300px|thumb|left|Ciliate Nucliei]]

'''Conjunction'''

This is the process Ciliates must go through when the macronucleus needs to be regenerated due to cell age. The process involves two cells lining up and the micronuclei undergoing meiosis then fuse to form new micronuclei and macronuclei. Conjunction results in genetic recombination and nuclear reorganization within the cell. In most cases, the two partners are similar in size and shape. In uncommon situations, the conjoining cells may become permanently fused. This results in the conjugant cell being absorbed by the other cell.

'''Cell Body'''

Ciliates also contain several vacuoles that enclose food and waste. Digestive vacuoles form in the gullet as food particles are ingested, and then are circulated through the cell. Any remaining waste in these vacuoles is discharged through a point in the cell membrane called the cytoproct. Ciliates also have contractile vacuoles, which collect water and expel it from the cell to maintain osmotic pressure.

== Reproduction ==

[[File:Wiki3.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Binary Reproduction[11]]]

Ciliates reproduce asexually. This process involves various cases of fission, including binary. During fission, the micronucleus undergoes mitosis and the macronucleus undergoes amitosis. Afterwards, the cell divides in two, each with a copy of the micronucleus and the macronucleus.

[[File:Wiki4.jpg|thumb|Asexual Reproduction[10]]]

The other types of fission that can occur in ciliate groups include:

'''Budding''': the emergence of small offspring from the body of a mature parent

'''Strobilation''': multiple divisions along the cell body, producing chain of new organisms

'''Palintomy''': multiple fissions, usually within a cyst

== Feeding ==

Ciliates are mostly heterotrophic, meaning they feed on smaller organisms. Food such as bacteria and algae, are swept into the”mouth” by the organism’s cilia. The food is moved by the cilia through the mouth pore into the gullet, which forms food vacuoles.
Feeding techniques vary from species to species. Some ciliates are mouthless and feed by osmotrophy, while others are predatory and feed on other protozoa. There are also ciliates that parasitize animals.

== References ==

[1] Beaver, John, and Thomas Crisman. “Microbial Ecology.” Microbial Ecology, 2nd ed., vol. 17, Springer-Verlag, 1989, pp. 111–136. SpringerLink.

[2] Berthold, A., and M. Palzenberger. “Biology and Fertility of Soils.” Biology and Fertility of Soils, 4th ed., vol. 19, Springer-Verlag, 1995, pp. 348–356. SpringerLink.

[3] Chu, Jennifer. “The First Hairy Microbes.” MIT News, 16 Nov. 2011, news.mit.edu/2011/hairy-microbes-1116.

[4] “Ciliates.” Ciliates, California Institute of Technology.

[5] Collins, Kyle. “Biology IV.” Biology IV Evolution & Zoology, kylecollinsbiology.weebly.com/biology-iv.html.

[6] Ekelund, Flemming, and Reginn Ronn. “Notes on Protozoa in Agricultural Soil with Emphasis on Heterotrophic Flagellates and Naked Amoebae and Their Ecology.” FEMS Microbiology Reviews, vol. 15, no. 4, Dec. 1994, pp. 321–353. Wiley Online Library.

[7] Foissner, Wilhelm & Berger, Helmut. (1996). A user-friendly guide to the ciliates (Protozoa, Ciliophora) commonly used by hydrobiologists as bioindicators in rivers, lakes, and waste waters, with notes on their ecology. Freshwater Biology. 35.

[8] Foissner, Wilhelm & O'Donoghue, PJ. (1989). Morphology and infraciliature of some freshwater ciliates (Protozoa : Ciliophora) from Western and South Australia. Invertebrate Systematics - INVERTEBR SYST. 3. 10.

[9] Li, C.-W.; et al. (2007). "Ciliated protozoans from the Precambrian Doushantuo Formation, Wengan, South China". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 286: 151–156.

[10] Mackean, D G. “Biological Drawings: Protista. Paramecium.” Biology Teaching and Learning Resources, www.biology-resources.com/drawing-paramecium-reproduction.html.

[11] Spiller, Marco. “Paramecium Reproduction.” BiologyWise, BiologyWise, biologywise.com/paramecium-reproduction.

[12] Slabodnick, Mark M., and Wallace F. Marshall. “Stentor Coeruleus.” Advances in Pediatrics., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 8 Sept. 2014, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5036449/.

[13] Waggoner, Ben. “Ciliata: Morphology.” More on Morphology of the Ciliata, University of California Museum of Paleontology, 2 Dec. 1995.

File:457065 1 En 26 Fig5 HTML.jpg

2019-05-06T01:18:02Z

Earlbalg:

File:Tullgren.jpg

2019-05-06T01:17:15Z

Earlbalg:

File:1 microarthropods scaled.jpg

2019-05-06T01:16:45Z

Earlbalg:

Microarthropods

2019-05-06T01:16:17Z

Earlbalg:

=Overview=

[[File:1_microarthropods_scaled.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

Soil microarthropods include chelicerates (mites, spiders, and pseudoscorpions), myriapods (centipedes, millipedes, and symphylans), crustaceans (small aquatic forms often found in water features), springtails, and insects. Many groups do not have popular names; proturans and diplurans, for instance, are small soil arthropods related to insects.

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly mites and collembola. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the decomposition process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in food chains/webs. They feed on fungi and nematodes and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

Microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals so small pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from them in a laboratory. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the Tullgren funnel, floatation in solvents, or filtration.

[[File:tullgren.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Tullgren Funnel]]

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the rhizosphere, constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the diversity and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the Prostigmata may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

[[File:457065_1_En_26_Fig5_HTML.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Microarthropod Biodiversity]]

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these animals can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and protozoa, microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation.

Microarthropods

2019-05-06T01:10:55Z

Earlbalg: Created page with "=Overview= Link title Soil microarthropods include chelicerates (mites, spiders, and pseudoscorpions), myriapods (centipedes, millipedes, and symphylans), crustaceans (sm..."

=Overview=

[[Link title]]
Soil microarthropods include chelicerates (mites, spiders, and pseudoscorpions), myriapods (centipedes, millipedes, and symphylans), crustaceans (small aquatic forms often found in water features), springtails, and insects. Many groups do not have popular names; proturans and diplurans, for instance, are small soil arthropods related to insects.

Much of the microarthropod group are discovered in most types of soils. A square meter of woodland floor could contain hundreds of thousands of individuals representing thousands of different species, mainly mites and collembola. Microarthropods have a substantial impact on the decomposition process in the forest floor and are important reservoirs of biodiversity in forest ecosystems

Microarthropods form an important set of connections in food chains/webs. They feed on fungi and nematodes and are prey for macroarthropods such as spiders, beetles, ants, and centipedes.

=Extraction Methods=

Microarthropods are too small and numerous to be sampled as individuals so small pieces of habitat are collected and the microarthropods are then extracted from them in a laboratory. Most of the methods used for microarthropod extraction are either variations of the Tullgren funnel, floatation in solvents, or filtration.

=Biodiversity=
Soils, including the deepest horizons and the rhizosphere, constitute a huge reservoir of understudied biodiversity, yet our sampling techniques may be inadequate to assess the diversity and abundance of soil fauna.

Temperate forest floors with large accumulation of organic matter support high numbers of microarthropods compared to tropical forests where the organic layer is thin.

Mites outnumber collembolans but these become more abundant in some situations. Among the mites themselves, the oribatids usually dominate but the Prostigmata may develop large populations in cultivated soils with a surface crust of algae. After cultivation asigmatic mites have been seen to increase dramatically.

Soil arthropods are significant reservoirs of biodiversity. In an extensive review, reports show that at most 10% of soil microarthropod populations have been explored and 10% of species described.

=Role in Soil Ecology=

While soil fauna is generally acknowledged as being important for soil aggregation, direct empirical evidence is scarce for microarthropods, including mites and collembolans, the two most abundant and diverse groups. This is surprising given that these animals can occur at high densities, and given their role in the processing of organic matter via chemical, physical and biological mechanisms

Due to their relatively small body size and total biomass, which is lower than that of fungi, bacteria and other taxa such as nematodes and protozoa, microarthropods may rather indirectly than directly affect soil structure. However, in some cases the impact of the production of assumedly large amounts of organic material in form of eggs might play an important role as direct starting points for microaggregate formation.

Food chains

2019-05-02T20:52:50Z

Earlbalg:

=Definition=

[[File:Main-qimg-a220ab524cb7ccf983a94fc98cb65a68-c.png|300px|thumb|left|Food Chain]]

Food chains are described as sequences of transfers of energy in the form of food from one organism to another organism. Food chains commonly intertwine into a food web as most organisms feed on more than one species of animal or plant. Plants that convert solar energy to glucose through the process of photosynthesis are the primary source of food for all life. [1]

In predator chains plant-eating animals are eaten by a carnivorous animal. In a parasite chain small organisms consume part of a host. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms feed and live on dead organic matter. [2]

Because energy is lost at each trophic level, chains do not usually incorporate more than four trophic levels. Humans are able to increase the total food supply by cutting out one step in the food chain. For example, instead of consuming animals that eat cereal grains, the people themselves consume the grains. Because the food chain is made shorter, the total amount of energy available to the final consumers is increased which in turn forms a more sustainable food production process. [3][4]

=Food Web and Guilds=
Since most species eat both plants and animals and more than one species, they therefore feed at more than one trophic level. In turn, food chains commonly conglomerate into complex food webs. Simplified food webs are able to show networks of numerous trophic relationships. [5]

[[File:LCYGzHylT1qf681IUhHL Food+Web.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Food Web]]

Most communities contain groups of species known as guilds, which feed on similar resources in comparable ways. Guilds stresses that these groups are associations of likeminded species who incorporate similar methods in plying their trade. Guilds could consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators. [3]

Guilds are made of groups of closely connected species that originated from a mutual ancestor. These guilds use resources similarly because of their shared ancestry. [2]

=Keystone Species=
A fully constructed food web can provide an artificial and fixed interpretation of the structure of communities. Not every relationships between species are equally important in the dynamics and evolution of populations and the organization of communities. Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species, and these differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. [1]

=Interspecific Interactions=
Since members of one guild involve themselves similar doings they are often competitors for a mutual resources, mainly when resources are uncommon. Competition within guilds the structure of their community is built on other interaction. Species eat each other, compete for resources, which in turn creates a variety of interspecific among intraspecific interactions. Most species interact cooperatively to search for food or avoid predators where these relationships between species are important as food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of biological communities. [1][2][3]

=References=
[1] Thompson, J. N. (2019, January 15). Community ecology. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/community-ecology

[2] Elton, C. S. (1927). Animal Ecology. London, UK.: Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 0-226-20639-4.

[3] Egerton, F. N. (2007). "Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700-1970". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 88: 50–69. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[50:UFCAFW]2.0.CO;2.

[4] Pimm S.L. (1982) Food webs. In: Food Webs. Population and Community Biology. Springer, Dordrecht

[5] Cohen J. E., Briand F., Newman C. M. and Steele J. H. A stochastic theory of community food webs. III. Predicted and observed lengths of food chains228Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences

Food chains

2019-05-02T20:50:29Z

Earlbalg:

=Definition=

[[File:Main-qimg-a220ab524cb7ccf983a94fc98cb65a68-c.png]]

Food chains are described as sequences of transfers of energy in the form of food from one organism to another organism. Food chains commonly intertwine into a food web as most organisms feed on more than one species of animal or plant. Plants that convert solar energy to glucose through the process of photosynthesis are the primary source of food for all life. [1]

In predator chains plant-eating animals are eaten by a carnivorous animal. In a parasite chain small organisms consume part of a host. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms feed and live on dead organic matter. [2]

Because energy is lost at each trophic level, chains do not usually incorporate more than four trophic levels. Humans are able to increase the total food supply by cutting out one step in the food chain. For example, instead of consuming animals that eat cereal grains, the people themselves consume the grains. Because the food chain is made shorter, the total amount of energy available to the final consumers is increased which in turn forms a more sustainable food production process. [3][4]

=Food Web and Guilds=
Since most species eat both plants and animals and more than one species, they therefore feed at more than one trophic level. In turn, food chains commonly conglomerate into complex food webs. Simplified food webs are able to show networks of numerous trophic relationships. [5]

[[File:LCYGzHylT1qf681IUhHL Food+Web.jpg]]

Most communities contain groups of species known as guilds, which feed on similar resources in comparable ways. Guilds stresses that these groups are associations of likeminded species who incorporate similar methods in plying their trade. Guilds could consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators. [3]

Guilds are made of groups of closely connected species that originated from a mutual ancestor. These guilds use resources similarly because of their shared ancestry. [2]

=Keystone Species=
A fully constructed food web can provide an artificial and fixed interpretation of the structure of communities. Not every relationships between species are equally important in the dynamics and evolution of populations and the organization of communities. Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species, and these differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. [1]

=Interspecific Interactions=
Since members of one guild involve themselves similar doings they are often competitors for a mutual resources, mainly when resources are uncommon. Competition within guilds the structure of their community is built on other interaction. Species eat each other, compete for resources, which in turn creates a variety of interspecific among intraspecific interactions. Most species interact cooperatively to search for food or avoid predators where these relationships between species are important as food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of biological communities. [1][2][3]

=References=
[1] Thompson, J. N. (2019, January 15). Community ecology. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/community-ecology

[2] Elton, C. S. (1927). Animal Ecology. London, UK.: Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 0-226-20639-4.

[3] Egerton, F. N. (2007). "Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700-1970". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 88: 50–69. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[50:UFCAFW]2.0.CO;2.

[4] Pimm S.L. (1982) Food webs. In: Food Webs. Population and Community Biology. Springer, Dordrecht

[5] Cohen J. E., Briand F., Newman C. M. and Steele J. H. A stochastic theory of community food webs. III. Predicted and observed lengths of food chains228Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences

File:LCYGzHylT1qf681IUhHL Food+Web.jpg

2019-05-02T20:49:38Z

Earlbalg:

Food chains

2019-05-02T20:47:57Z

Earlbalg:

=Definition=

[[File:Main-qimg-a220ab524cb7ccf983a94fc98cb65a68-c.png]]

Food chains are described as sequences of transfers of energy in the form of food from one organism to another organism. Food chains commonly intertwine into a food web as most organisms feed on more than one species of animal or plant. Plants that convert solar energy to glucose through the process of photosynthesis are the primary source of food for all life. [1]

In predator chains plant-eating animals are eaten by a carnivorous animal. In a parasite chain small organisms consume part of a host. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms feed and live on dead organic matter. [2]

Because energy is lost at each trophic level, chains do not usually incorporate more than four trophic levels. Humans are able to increase the total food supply by cutting out one step in the food chain. For example, instead of consuming animals that eat cereal grains, the people themselves consume the grains. Because the food chain is made shorter, the total amount of energy available to the final consumers is increased which in turn forms a more sustainable food production process. [3][4]

=Food Web and Guilds=
Since most species eat both plants and animals and more than one species, they therefore feed at more than one trophic level. In turn, food chains commonly conglomerate into complex food webs. Simplified food webs are able to show networks of numerous trophic relationships. [5]

[[File:yurrrr.png]]

Most communities contain groups of species known as guilds, which feed on similar resources in comparable ways. Guilds stresses that these groups are associations of likeminded species who incorporate similar methods in plying their trade. Guilds could consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators. [3]

Guilds are made of groups of closely connected species that originated from a mutual ancestor. These guilds use resources similarly because of their shared ancestry. [2]

=Keystone Species=
A fully constructed food web can provide an artificial and fixed interpretation of the structure of communities. Not every relationships between species are equally important in the dynamics and evolution of populations and the organization of communities. Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species, and these differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. [1]

=Interspecific Interactions=
Since members of one guild involve themselves similar doings they are often competitors for a mutual resources, mainly when resources are uncommon. Competition within guilds the structure of their community is built on other interaction. Species eat each other, compete for resources, which in turn creates a variety of interspecific among intraspecific interactions. Most species interact cooperatively to search for food or avoid predators where these relationships between species are important as food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of biological communities. [1][2][3]

=References=
[1] Thompson, J. N. (2019, January 15). Community ecology. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/community-ecology

[2] Elton, C. S. (1927). Animal Ecology. London, UK.: Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 0-226-20639-4.

[3] Egerton, F. N. (2007). "Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700-1970". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 88: 50–69. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[50:UFCAFW]2.0.CO;2.

[4] Pimm S.L. (1982) Food webs. In: Food Webs. Population and Community Biology. Springer, Dordrecht

[5] Cohen J. E., Briand F., Newman C. M. and Steele J. H. A stochastic theory of community food webs. III. Predicted and observed lengths of food chains228Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences

Food chains

2019-05-02T20:45:20Z

Earlbalg:

=Definition=

[[File:Main-qimg-a220ab524cb7ccf983a94fc98cb65a68-c.png]]

Food chains are described as sequences of transfers of energy in the form of food from one organism to another organism. Food chains commonly intertwine into a food web as most organisms feed on more than one species of animal or plant. Plants that convert solar energy to glucose through the process of photosynthesis are the primary source of food for all life. [1]

In predator chains plant-eating animals are eaten by a carnivorous animal. In a parasite chain small organisms consume part of a host. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms feed and live on dead organic matter. [2]

Because energy is lost at each trophic level, chains do not usually incorporate more than four trophic levels. Humans are able to increase the total food supply by cutting out one step in the food chain. For example, instead of consuming animals that eat cereal grains, the people themselves consume the grains. Because the food chain is made shorter, the total amount of energy available to the final consumers is increased which in turn forms a more sustainable food production process. [3][4]

=Food Web and Guilds=
Since most species eat both plants and animals and more than one species, they therefore feed at more than one trophic level. In turn, food chains commonly conglomerate into complex food webs. Simplified food webs are able to show networks of numerous trophic relationships. [5]

Most communities contain groups of species known as guilds, which feed on similar resources in comparable ways. Guilds stresses that these groups are associations of likeminded species who incorporate similar methods in plying their trade. Guilds could consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators. [3]

Guilds are made of groups of closely connected species that originated from a mutual ancestor. These guilds use resources similarly because of their shared ancestry. [2]

=Keystone Species=
A fully constructed food web can provide an artificial and fixed interpretation of the structure of communities. Not every relationships between species are equally important in the dynamics and evolution of populations and the organization of communities. Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species, and these differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. [1]

=Interspecific Interactions=
Since members of one guild involve themselves similar doings they are often competitors for a mutual resources, mainly when resources are uncommon. Competition within guilds the structure of their community is built on other interaction. Species eat each other, compete for resources, which in turn creates a variety of interspecific among intraspecific interactions. Most species interact cooperatively to search for food or avoid predators where these relationships between species are important as food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of biological communities. [1][2][3]

=References=
[1] Thompson, J. N. (2019, January 15). Community ecology. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/community-ecology

[2] Elton, C. S. (1927). Animal Ecology. London, UK.: Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 0-226-20639-4.

[3] Egerton, F. N. (2007). "Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700-1970". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 88: 50–69. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[50:UFCAFW]2.0.CO;2.

[4] Pimm S.L. (1982) Food webs. In: Food Webs. Population and Community Biology. Springer, Dordrecht

[5] Cohen J. E., Briand F., Newman C. M. and Steele J. H. A stochastic theory of community food webs. III. Predicted and observed lengths of food chains228Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences

Food chains

2019-05-02T20:43:34Z

Earlbalg: /* Definition */

=Definition=
Food chains are described as sequences of transfers of energy in the form of food from one organism to another organism. Food chains commonly intertwine into a food web as most organisms feed on more than one species of animal or plant. Plants that convert solar energy to glucose through the process of photosynthesis are the primary source of food for all life. [1]

[[File:Main-qimg-a220ab524cb7ccf983a94fc98cb65a68-c.png]]

In predator chains plant-eating animals are eaten by a carnivorous animal. In a parasite chain small organisms consume part of a host. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms feed and live on dead organic matter. [2]

Because energy is lost at each trophic level, chains do not usually incorporate more than four trophic levels. Humans are able to increase the total food supply by cutting out one step in the food chain. For example, instead of consuming animals that eat cereal grains, the people themselves consume the grains. Because the food chain is made shorter, the total amount of energy available to the final consumers is increased which in turn forms a more sustainable food production process. [3][4]

=Food Web and Guilds=
Since most species eat both plants and animals and more than one species, they therefore feed at more than one trophic level. In turn, food chains commonly conglomerate into complex food webs. Simplified food webs are able to show networks of numerous trophic relationships. [5]

Most communities contain groups of species known as guilds, which feed on similar resources in comparable ways. Guilds stresses that these groups are associations of likeminded species who incorporate similar methods in plying their trade. Guilds could consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators. [3]

Guilds are made of groups of closely connected species that originated from a mutual ancestor. These guilds use resources similarly because of their shared ancestry. [2]

=Keystone Species=
A fully constructed food web can provide an artificial and fixed interpretation of the structure of communities. Not every relationships between species are equally important in the dynamics and evolution of populations and the organization of communities. Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species, and these differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. [1]

=Interspecific Interactions=
Since members of one guild involve themselves similar doings they are often competitors for a mutual resources, mainly when resources are uncommon. Competition within guilds the structure of their community is built on other interaction. Species eat each other, compete for resources, which in turn creates a variety of interspecific among intraspecific interactions. Most species interact cooperatively to search for food or avoid predators where these relationships between species are important as food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of biological communities. [1][2][3]

=References=
[1] Thompson, J. N. (2019, January 15). Community ecology. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/community-ecology

[2] Elton, C. S. (1927). Animal Ecology. London, UK.: Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 0-226-20639-4.

[3] Egerton, F. N. (2007). "Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700-1970". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 88: 50–69. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[50:UFCAFW]2.0.CO;2.

[4] Pimm S.L. (1982) Food webs. In: Food Webs. Population and Community Biology. Springer, Dordrecht

[5] Cohen J. E., Briand F., Newman C. M. and Steele J. H. A stochastic theory of community food webs. III. Predicted and observed lengths of food chains228Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences

Food chains

2019-05-02T20:43:02Z

Earlbalg:

=Definition=
Food chains are described as sequences of transfers of energy in the form of food from one organism to another organism. Food chains commonly intertwine into a food web as most organisms feed on more than one species of animal or plant. Plants that convert solar energy to glucose through the process of photosynthesis are the primary source of food for all life. [1]

[[Main-qimg-a220ab524cb7ccf983a94fc98cb65a68-c.png]]

In predator chains plant-eating animals are eaten by a carnivorous animal. In a parasite chain small organisms consume part of a host. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms feed and live on dead organic matter. [2]

Because energy is lost at each trophic level, chains do not usually incorporate more than four trophic levels. Humans are able to increase the total food supply by cutting out one step in the food chain. For example, instead of consuming animals that eat cereal grains, the people themselves consume the grains. Because the food chain is made shorter, the total amount of energy available to the final consumers is increased which in turn forms a more sustainable food production process. [3][4]

=Food Web and Guilds=
Since most species eat both plants and animals and more than one species, they therefore feed at more than one trophic level. In turn, food chains commonly conglomerate into complex food webs. Simplified food webs are able to show networks of numerous trophic relationships. [5]

Most communities contain groups of species known as guilds, which feed on similar resources in comparable ways. Guilds stresses that these groups are associations of likeminded species who incorporate similar methods in plying their trade. Guilds could consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators. [3]

Guilds are made of groups of closely connected species that originated from a mutual ancestor. These guilds use resources similarly because of their shared ancestry. [2]

=Keystone Species=
A fully constructed food web can provide an artificial and fixed interpretation of the structure of communities. Not every relationships between species are equally important in the dynamics and evolution of populations and the organization of communities. Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species, and these differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. [1]

=Interspecific Interactions=
Since members of one guild involve themselves similar doings they are often competitors for a mutual resources, mainly when resources are uncommon. Competition within guilds the structure of their community is built on other interaction. Species eat each other, compete for resources, which in turn creates a variety of interspecific among intraspecific interactions. Most species interact cooperatively to search for food or avoid predators where these relationships between species are important as food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of biological communities. [1][2][3]

=References=
[1] Thompson, J. N. (2019, January 15). Community ecology. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/community-ecology

[2] Elton, C. S. (1927). Animal Ecology. London, UK.: Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 0-226-20639-4.

[3] Egerton, F. N. (2007). "Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700-1970". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 88: 50–69. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[50:UFCAFW]2.0.CO;2.

[4] Pimm S.L. (1982) Food webs. In: Food Webs. Population and Community Biology. Springer, Dordrecht

[5] Cohen J. E., Briand F., Newman C. M. and Steele J. H. A stochastic theory of community food webs. III. Predicted and observed lengths of food chains228Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences

File:Main-qimg-a220ab524cb7ccf983a94fc98cb65a68-c.png

2019-05-02T20:41:26Z

Earlbalg:

Food chains

2019-05-02T20:40:55Z

Earlbalg:

=Definition=
Food chains are described as sequences of transfers of energy in the form of food from one organism to another organism. Food chains commonly intertwine into a food web as most organisms feed on more than one species of animal or plant. Plants that convert solar energy to glucose through the process of photosynthesis are the primary source of food for all life. [1]

[[Media:https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-a220ab524cb7ccf983a94fc98cb65a68-c]]

In predator chains plant-eating animals are eaten by a carnivorous animal. In a parasite chain small organisms consume part of a host. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms feed and live on dead organic matter. [2]

Because energy is lost at each trophic level, chains do not usually incorporate more than four trophic levels. Humans are able to increase the total food supply by cutting out one step in the food chain. For example, instead of consuming animals that eat cereal grains, the people themselves consume the grains. Because the food chain is made shorter, the total amount of energy available to the final consumers is increased which in turn forms a more sustainable food production process. [3][4]

=Food Web and Guilds=
Since most species eat both plants and animals and more than one species, they therefore feed at more than one trophic level. In turn, food chains commonly conglomerate into complex food webs. Simplified food webs are able to show networks of numerous trophic relationships. [5]

Most communities contain groups of species known as guilds, which feed on similar resources in comparable ways. Guilds stresses that these groups are associations of likeminded species who incorporate similar methods in plying their trade. Guilds could consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators. [3]

Guilds are made of groups of closely connected species that originated from a mutual ancestor. These guilds use resources similarly because of their shared ancestry. [2]

=Keystone Species=
A fully constructed food web can provide an artificial and fixed interpretation of the structure of communities. Not every relationships between species are equally important in the dynamics and evolution of populations and the organization of communities. Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species, and these differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. [1]

=Interspecific Interactions=
Since members of one guild involve themselves similar doings they are often competitors for a mutual resources, mainly when resources are uncommon. Competition within guilds the structure of their community is built on other interaction. Species eat each other, compete for resources, which in turn creates a variety of interspecific among intraspecific interactions. Most species interact cooperatively to search for food or avoid predators where these relationships between species are important as food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of biological communities. [1][2][3]

=References=
[1] Thompson, J. N. (2019, January 15). Community ecology. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/community-ecology

[2] Elton, C. S. (1927). Animal Ecology. London, UK.: Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 0-226-20639-4.

[3] Egerton, F. N. (2007). "Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700-1970". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 88: 50–69. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[50:UFCAFW]2.0.CO;2.

[4] Pimm S.L. (1982) Food webs. In: Food Webs. Population and Community Biology. Springer, Dordrecht

[5] Cohen J. E., Briand F., Newman C. M. and Steele J. H. A stochastic theory of community food webs. III. Predicted and observed lengths of food chains228Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences

Food chains

2019-05-02T20:36:16Z

Earlbalg:

=Definition=
Food chains are described as sequences of transfers of energy in the form of food from one organism to another organism. Food chains commonly intertwine into a food web as most organisms feed on more than one species of animal or plant. Plants that convert solar energy to glucose through the process of photosynthesis are the primary source of food for all life. [1]

In predator chains plant-eating animals are eaten by a carnivorous animal. In a parasite chain small organisms consume part of a host. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms feed and live on dead organic matter. [2]

Because energy is lost at each trophic level, chains do not usually incorporate more than four trophic levels. Humans are able to increase the total food supply by cutting out one step in the food chain. For example, instead of consuming animals that eat cereal grains, the people themselves consume the grains. Because the food chain is made shorter, the total amount of energy available to the final consumers is increased which in turn forms a more sustainable food production process. [3][4]

=Food Web and Guilds=
Since most species eat both plants and animals and more than one species, they therefore feed at more than one trophic level. In turn, food chains commonly conglomerate into complex food webs. Simplified food webs are able to show networks of numerous trophic relationships. [5]

Most communities contain groups of species known as guilds, which feed on similar resources in comparable ways. Guilds stresses that these groups are associations of likeminded species who incorporate similar methods in plying their trade. Guilds could consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators. [3]

Guilds are made of groups of closely connected species that originated from a mutual ancestor. These guilds use resources similarly because of their shared ancestry. [2]

=Keystone Species=
A fully constructed food web can provide an artificial and fixed interpretation of the structure of communities. Not every relationships between species are equally important in the dynamics and evolution of populations and the organization of communities. Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species, and these differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. [1]

=Interspecific Interactions=
Since members of one guild involve themselves similar doings they are often competitors for a mutual resources, mainly when resources are uncommon. Competition within guilds the structure of their community is built on other interaction. Species eat each other, compete for resources, which in turn creates a variety of interspecific among intraspecific interactions. Most species interact cooperatively to search for food or avoid predators where these relationships between species are important as food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of biological communities. [1][2][3]

=References=
[1] Thompson, J. N. (2019, January 15). Community ecology. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/community-ecology

[2] Elton, C. S. (1927). Animal Ecology. London, UK.: Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 0-226-20639-4.

[3] Egerton, F. N. (2007). "Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700-1970". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 88: 50–69. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[50:UFCAFW]2.0.CO;2.

[4] Pimm S.L. (1982) Food webs. In: Food Webs. Population and Community Biology. Springer, Dordrecht

[5] Cohen J. E., Briand F., Newman C. M. and Steele J. H. A stochastic theory of community food webs. III. Predicted and observed lengths of food chains228Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences

Food chains

2019-05-02T20:35:36Z

Earlbalg:

=Definition=
Food chains are described as sequences of transfers of energy in the form of food from one organism to another organism. Food chains commonly intertwine into a food web as most organisms feed on more than one species of animal or plant. Plants that convert solar energy to glucose through the process of photosynthesis are the primary source of food for all life. [1]
In predator chains plant-eating animals are eaten by a carnivorous animal. In a parasite chain small organisms consume part of a host. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms feed and live on dead organic matter. [2]
Because energy is lost at each trophic level, chains do not usually incorporate more than four trophic levels. Humans are able to increase the total food supply by cutting out one step in the food chain. For example, instead of consuming animals that eat cereal grains, the people themselves consume the grains. Because the food chain is made shorter, the total amount of energy available to the final consumers is increased which in turn forms a more sustainable food production process. [3][4]

=Food Web and Guilds=
Since most species eat both plants and animals and more than one species, they therefore feed at more than one trophic level. In turn, food chains commonly conglomerate into complex food webs. Simplified food webs are able to show networks of numerous trophic relationships. [5]
Most communities contain groups of species known as guilds, which feed on similar resources in comparable ways. Guilds stresses that these groups are associations of likeminded species who incorporate similar methods in plying their trade. Guilds could consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators. [3]
Guilds are made of groups of closely connected species that originated from a mutual ancestor. These guilds use resources similarly because of their shared ancestry. [2]

=Keystone Species=
A fully constructed food web can provide an artificial and fixed interpretation of the structure of communities. Not every relationships between species are equally important in the dynamics and evolution of populations and the organization of communities. Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species, and these differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. [1]

=Interspecific Interactions=
Since members of one guild involve themselves similar doings they are often competitors for a mutual resources, mainly when resources are uncommon. Competition within guilds the structure of their community is built on other interaction. Species eat each other, compete for resources, which in turn creates a variety of interspecific among intraspecific interactions. Most species interact cooperatively to search for food or avoid predators where these relationships between species are important as food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of biological communities. [1][2][3]

=References=
[1] Thompson, J. N. (2019, January 15). Community ecology. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/community-ecology

[2] Elton, C. S. (1927). Animal Ecology. London, UK.: Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 0-226-20639-4.

[3] Egerton, F. N. (2007). "Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700-1970". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 88: 50–69. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[50:UFCAFW]2.0.CO;2.

[4] Pimm S.L. (1982) Food webs. In: Food Webs. Population and Community Biology. Springer, Dordrecht

[5] Cohen J. E., Briand F., Newman C. M. and Steele J. H. A stochastic theory of community food webs. III. Predicted and observed lengths of food chains228Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences

Food chains

2019-05-02T20:34:58Z

Earlbalg: Created page with "=Definition= Food chains are described as sequences of transfers of energy in the form of food from one organism to another organism. Food chains commonly intertwine into a fo..."

=Definition=
Food chains are described as sequences of transfers of energy in the form of food from one organism to another organism. Food chains commonly intertwine into a food web as most organisms feed on more than one species of animal or plant. Plants that convert solar energy to glucose through the process of photosynthesis are the primary source of food for all life. [1]
In predator chains plant-eating animals are eaten by a carnivorous animal. In a parasite chain small organisms consume part of a host. In a saprophytic chain, microorganisms feed and live on dead organic matter. [2]
Because energy is lost at each trophic level, chains do not usually incorporate more than four trophic levels. Humans are able to increase the total food supply by cutting out one step in the food chain. For example, instead of consuming animals that eat cereal grains, the people themselves consume the grains. Because the food chain is made shorter, the total amount of energy available to the final consumers is increased which in turn forms a more sustainable food production process. [3][4]

=Food Web and Guilds=
Since most species eat both plants and animals and more than one species, they therefore feed at more than one trophic level. In turn, food chains commonly conglomerate into complex food webs. Simplified food webs are able to show networks of numerous trophic relationships. [5]
Most communities contain groups of species known as guilds, which feed on similar resources in comparable ways. Guilds stresses that these groups are associations of likeminded species who incorporate similar methods in plying their trade. Guilds could consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators. [3]
Guilds are made of groups of closely connected species that originated from a mutual ancestor. These guilds use resources similarly because of their shared ancestry. [2]

=Keystone Species=
A fully constructed food web can provide an artificial and fixed interpretation of the structure of communities. Not every relationships between species are equally important in the dynamics and evolution of populations and the organization of communities. Food webs include both strong and weak interactions between species, and these differences in interaction strength influence the organization of communities. Some species, called keystone species, have a disproportionately large effect on the communities in which they occur. They help to maintain local diversity within a community either by controlling populations of species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. [1]

=Interspecific Interactions=
Since members of one guild involve themselves similar doings they are often competitors for a mutual resources, mainly when resources are uncommon. Competition within guilds the structure of their community is built on other interaction. Species eat each other, compete for resources, which in turn creates a variety of interspecific among intraspecific interactions. Most species interact cooperatively to search for food or avoid predators where these relationships between species are important as food chains and food webs in shaping the organization of biological communities. [1][2][3]

=References=
[1] Thompson, J. N. (2019, January 15). Community ecology. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/community-ecology
[2] Elton, C. S. (1927). Animal Ecology. London, UK.: Sidgwick and Jackson. ISBN 0-226-20639-4.
[3] Egerton, F. N. (2007). "Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700-1970". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 88: 50–69. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2007)88[50:UFCAFW]2.0.CO;2.
[4] Pimm S.L. (1982) Food webs. In: Food Webs. Population and Community Biology. Springer, Dordrecht
[5] Cohen J. E., Briand F., Newman C. M. and Steele J. H. A stochastic theory of community food webs. III. Predicted and observed lengths of food chains228Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences