https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Chcamero 2026-04-14T04:06:59Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.43.0 https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11196 2023-05-12T16:52:28Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right|600px| A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11195 2023-05-12T16:52:08Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11194 2023-05-12T16:51:22Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11193 2023-05-12T16:50:39Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|500px| A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11192 2023-05-12T16:50:29Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|500 px| A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11190 2023-05-12T16:50:10Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|500px| A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11188 2023-05-12T16:49:55Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|400px| A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11187 2023-05-12T16:49:42Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|400px|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11183 2023-05-12T16:46:53Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|left|Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days [3].<br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [4].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.<br /> <br /> [4] “Mourning Cloak (Nymphalis Antiopa).” Vermont Atlas of Life, https://val.vtecostudies.org/projects/vermont-butterfly-atlas/mourning-cloak/ Accessed 10 May 2023.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11181 2023-05-12T16:46:38Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|left|Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days [3].<br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [4].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.<br /> <br /> [4] “Mourning Cloak (Nymphalis Antiopa).” Vermont Atlas of Life, https://val.vtecostudies.org/projects/vermont-butterfly-atlas/mourning-cloak/ Accessed 12 May 2023.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11178 2023-05-12T16:38:45Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|left|Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11177 2023-05-12T16:38:33Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|left|Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11176 2023-05-12T16:38:13Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak pupae.]][[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right|Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11175 2023-05-12T16:37:42Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right|Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11174 2023-05-12T16:37:03Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right|300px| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11173 2023-05-12T16:36:31Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right|300px| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].[[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11172 2023-05-12T16:36:16Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right|300px| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].[[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11171 2023-05-12T16:35:56Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right|300px| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11169 2023-05-12T16:33:32Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A mourning cloak pupae.]][[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right|300px| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11167 2023-05-12T16:32:55Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right|500px| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|left|A mourning cloak pupae.]][[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11165 2023-05-12T16:30:45Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|left|A mourning cloak pupae.]][[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11164 2023-05-12T16:29:53Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11163 2023-05-12T16:29:29Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11162 2023-05-12T16:28:08Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|left|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11160 2023-05-12T16:27:53Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|left|A mourning cloak pupae.]<br /> [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11159 2023-05-12T16:27:41Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|left|A mourning cloak pupae.]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11158 2023-05-12T16:27:12Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|left|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb|right| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11157 2023-05-12T16:26:53Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|left|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Mourning_Cloak_Butterfly&diff=11156 2023-05-12T16:26:26Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The mourning cloak, ''Nymphalis antiopa'', is a large butterfly and one of the most widely distributed butterfly species. It is known as the mourning cloak in North America and the Camberwell beauty in Britain. The name mourning cloak was coined as the butterfly resembles an archaic, traditional cloak worn when someone was in mourning. In northern areas where it overwinters, adults may be seen basking in the sun on warm days. Mourning cloaks are often referred to as the “Harbingers of Spring” as they are some of the first creatures seen in spring. <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak07-4rz.jpg|thumb|right| A mourning cloak butterfly perched on a tree branch.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Insecta<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Lepidoptera<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Nymphalidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Nymphalis<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Nymphalis antiopa''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults: Adult mourning cloaks have a wing span of approximately 3.0 inches. The upper surface of the wings is a deep maroon color with a black band containing a series of powder blue spots and a yellow marginal band. The ventral side of the wings is black, resembling charred wood with a marginal whitish-yellow band. <br /> <br /> Eggs: Mourning cloak eggs are whitish but darken before hatching. <br /> <br /> Larvae: Full-grown mourning cloak larvae are approximately 2.0 inches in length. The head is black with some white hair. The body is black and covered in small white dots and numerous white hairs. Most segments have a mid-dorsal reddish-orange patch. <br /> <br /> Pupae: Pupae are approximately 0.8 inches in length. They are gray with two rows of ventro-lateral, red-tipped, sharp points. The pupae hang vertically and are attached by the terminal end of a small silk pad [1].<br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-cat-1.jpg|thumb|left|A mourning cloak pupae.]]<br /> [[Image:Mourning+Cloak+Ova.jpg|thumb| Mourning cloak eggs laid on a stem.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> Every year, there is a single generation in most areas and possibly a second generation southward. Unmated adults overwinter and mate and lay eggs in the spring. The adults are long-lived and live for almost a year. Males perch and defend territories and fly out to meet potential mates. Adults are known for their graceful gliding behavior, and may feign death if attacked by predators. <br /> <br /> Eggs are laid in large clusters in a single layer around the stems of host plants. The larvae are sociable throughout their lives and feed within silken webs. When threatened, larvae twitch in unison as a defensive tactic to deter predators. Caterpillars mature in early summer and adults undergo summer dormancy [1].<br /> <br /> ==Range, Habitat, and Diet==<br /> <br /> The mourning cloak is found throughout North America from Canada to southern South America. It is rare in the Gulf states and Florida. Mourning cloaks are commonly found in sunny glades, forest borders, parks, gardens, open woodlands, streams, lakes, ponds, and groves. The caterpillar of the mourning cloak feeds in groups on the leaves of deciduous trees. The willow, elm, hackberry, aspen, cottonwood, poplar, rose, birch, hawthorne, and mulberry are common feeding trees. The adult butterfly feeds on tree sap and rotting fruit. It may also consume nectar from flowers [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Mourning-cloak-butterfly_1_orig.jpg|thumb|right|A mourning cloak butterfly perched on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> ==Migration==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies are seen throughout the year because they do not engage in long-distance migration. Instead of migrating, mourning cloak butterflies overwinter. They choose one location where they will hibernate during the winter. Typical locations of overwintering include tree cavities and underneath loose tree bark. Overwintering allows mourning cloaks to begin mating in the spring. This is why they are seen early in spring [3].<br /> <br /> ==Mating==<br /> <br /> Mourning cloak butterflies display polygynous mating behavior. This is where an individual male will mate with multiple females throughout the mating season. Males will use a display site to attract females or fly around searching for females. The male will also defend desirable areas, or areas that offer an increased probability of finding females. The more desirable territories will increase the males' chances of reproductive success. Locations of choice include sunny perches near ravines, wood margins, parks, gardens, lakes, ponds, and around stream edges where males can perch for multiple days. <br /> <br /> Spring marks the beginning of the mourning cloak mating season. Female mourning cloaks will find a host plant, usually a tree in the Salicaceae family, and lay their eggs [3].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Hall, Donald W, and Jerry F Butler. “Mourning Cloak Butterfly.” Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa (Linnaeus), https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN821 Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [2] “Mourning Cloak - Nymphalis Antiopa: Wildlife Journal Junior - Wildlife Journal Junior.” New Hampshire PBS, https://nhpbs.org/wild/mourningcloak.asp Accessed 10 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [3] “Mourning Cloak (NPS Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts Butterflies and Moths) · INATURALIST.” iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/365828#:~:text=The%20mourning%20cloak%20butterfly%20is,with%20ragged%20pale%2Dyellow%20edges.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11155 2023-05-12T16:21:31Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11154 2023-05-12T16:21:14Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11153 2023-05-12T16:19:42Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11152 2023-05-12T16:19:22Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm#det<br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11151 2023-05-12T16:18:24Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, https://canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf<br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11149 2023-05-12T16:17:13Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, https://www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498.<br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11148 2023-05-12T16:13:58Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498. <br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite<br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11147 2023-05-12T16:12:51Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498. <br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite. <br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/varroa-mites/<br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11145 2023-05-12T16:11:49Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498. <br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite. <br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/varroa-destructor. <br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11144 2023-05-12T16:11:02Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498. <br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite. <br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/varroa-destructor. <br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, https://pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Garden_snail&diff=11143 2023-05-12T16:09:58Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>''Cornu aspersum'', known as the garden snail, is one of the most widely known species of all terrestrial mollusks. As a member of the Helicidae family, ''Cornu aspersum'' is included with many other common land snails. Previously, ''Cornu aspersum'' was classified under ''Helix aspersa'', however, it is now classified under the genus ''Cornu''.<br /> <br /> Originally from the Mediterranean and parts of Europe, ''Cornu aspersum'' has been accidentally introduced in many parts of the world. Because of this, it is widely regarded as a garden and agricultural pest. However, in some places, the garden snail is a food delicacy. <br /> <br /> [[File:Garden Snail Pic.jpg|thumb| ''Cornu aspersum'' crawling on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia <br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' [[Mollusca]]<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' [[Gastropoda]]<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Stylommatophora <br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Helicidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Cornu<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' C. asperum<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults have a thin but hard calcareous shell that can be 1-1.5 inches in diameter and 1-1.375 inches high [1]. Their shells vary in color and shade but are typically a reticulated pattern of dark brown, brownish-golden, or chestnut with yellow stripes, flecks, or streaks. The body of the garden snail is soft, slimy, and brownish-gray in color. Its soft body can be fully retracted into its shell which it does whenever it is resting or feels threatened. Another mechanism the garden snail uses when threatened, injured, or irritated, is a defensive froth of mucus that might repel some enemies or overwhelm aggressive small ants and other [[insects]] [4].<br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Shell.jpg|thumb| The garden snail shell is typically brownish-golden in color with yellow and brown stripes, flecks, and streaks.]] <br /> <br /> Unlike other species within the class [[Gastropoda]], garden snails do not have an operculum or seal that certain mollusks use to keep in moisture and defend themselves against small predators. Instead, during dry or cold weather, garden snails seal the aperture of the shell with a thin membrane of dried mucus, called an epiphragm.<br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Anatomy.png]]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle and Reproduction ==<br /> <br /> Members of ''Cornu aspersum'' are hermaphrodites, meaning they produce both male and female gametes [2]. Because of this, reproduction is usually sexual, however, self-fertilization is possible. Mating sessions often occur over several hours in which sperm is shared between each snail; garden snails are also one of the only species that use &quot;love darts&quot; in mating. &quot;Love darts&quot; are sharp darts produced by the snail's body to aid in reproduction [7].<br /> <br /> Two weeks after fertilization, garden snails lay around 80 spherical white eggs in small spaces including topsoil and under rocks. Within a year, a garden snail can lay around six batches of eggs, with the eggs being about 4mm in diameter. Upon hatching, young garden snails take one to two years to reach maturity and begin the reproductive cycle again. <br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Eggs.jpg|thumb| Spherical white ''Cornu aspersum'' eggs are placed in topsoil to provide shelter from harm. ]] <br /> <br /> ==Habitat==<br /> <br /> ''Cornu aspersum'' is native to the Mediterranean region and its present range stretches from northwest Africa and Iberia, eastwards to Asia Minor and Egypt, and northwards to the British Isles. However, the garden snail can now be found in other regions of the world including Australia, North America, Costa Rica, and South America due to deliberate or accidental introduction [3]. Due to their deliberate or accidental introduction in various regions, the garden snail is now cosmopolitan in temperate zones and has become neutralized in regions with climates that differ from the Mediterranean climate in which it originated. <br /> <br /> Garden snails are usually seen at night in the spring, summer, or autumn, but are most active in warm, damp weather. Under these conditions, garden snails prefer to reside in [[compost]] heaps and grassy areas such as gardens, fields, and river banks [8].<br /> <br /> ==Feeding Habits==<br /> <br /> The common garden snail is primarily a herbivore that feeds on vegetable crops, garden flowers, leaves, algae, [[lichen]], and fungi. This species can be omnivorous as it will feed on other snails and empty snail shells [8].<br /> <br /> ==Human Importance==<br /> <br /> The common garden snail is a species most notably known to humans as an [[agriculture]] and garden pest, an edible delicacy, and also occasionally a household pet. When it comes to being used as a food delicacy, garden snails are used as the main ingredient when making escargot which is most commonly known for being a special French cuisine enjoyed worldwide. In regards to being considered an [[agriculture]] and garden pest, attempts to reduce damage to crops and other plants have been instilled. Pesticides and other control options such as caffeine and copper are used to prevent garden snails from reaching foliage and fruit to consume. Even other species of snail such as the [[Decollate Snail]] are used as predators to prevent garden snails from infesting areas [5]. <br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Garden Snail (cornu aspersum) n.d. iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/480298-Cornu-aspersum#Description <br /> <br /> [2] Brown garden snail - cornu asperum (Müller). https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/gastro/brown_garden_snail.htm <br /> <br /> [3] CABI, 2015. Cornu aspersum (common garden snail). https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/26821 <br /> <br /> [4] Ansart, A.; Vernon, P.; Daguzan, J. (2002). &quot;Elements of cold hardiness in a littoral population of the land snail Cornu aspersum (Gastropoda: Pulmonata)&quot;. Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 172 (7): 619–625.<br /> <br /> [5] Liu, Lucy; Sood, Anshum; Steinweg, Stephanie (2017). &quot;Snails and Skin Care—An Uncovered Combination&quot;. JAMA Dermatol. 153 (7): 650. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2017.1383. PMID 28700796.<br /> <br /> [6] Welter-Schultes, F. &quot;Genus taxon summary for Cornu. version 12-01-2014&quot;. AnimalBase.<br /> <br /> [7] Kaufman, Rachel. “Bizarre Valentine: Why Mating Snails Stab with 'Love Darts'.” LiveScience, Purch, 14 Feb. 2013, https://www.livescience.com/27132-snail-mating-love-darts.html.<br /> <br /> [8] Mollusks : Carnegie Museum of Natural History, https://www.carnegiemnh.org/science/mollusks/landsnailecology.html</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Garden_snail&diff=11142 2023-05-12T16:07:41Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>''Cornu aspersum'', known as the garden snail, is one of the most widely known species of all terrestrial mollusks. As a member of the Helicidae family, ''Cornu aspersum'' is included with many other common land snails. Previously, ''Cornu aspersum'' was classified under ''Helix aspersa'', however, it is now classified under the genus ''Cornu''.<br /> <br /> Originally from the Mediterranean and parts of Europe, ''Cornu aspersum'' has been accidentally introduced in many parts of the world. Because of this, it is widely regarded as a garden and agricultural pest. However, in some places, the garden snail is a food delicacy. <br /> <br /> [[File:Garden Snail Pic.jpg|thumb| ''Cornu aspersum'' crawling on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia <br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' [[Mollusca]]<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' [[Gastropoda]]<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Stylommatophora <br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Helicidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Cornu<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' C. asperum<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults have a thin but hard calcareous shell that can be 1-1.5 inches in diameter and 1-1.375 inches high [1]. Their shells vary in color and shade but are typically a reticulated pattern of dark brown, brownish-golden, or chestnut with yellow stripes, flecks, or streaks. The body of the garden snail is soft, slimy, and brownish-gray in color. Its soft body can be fully retracted into its shell which it does whenever it is resting or feels threatened. Another mechanism the garden snail uses when threatened, injured, or irritated, is a defensive froth of mucus that might repel some enemies or overwhelm aggressive small ants and other [[insects]] [4].<br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Shell.jpg|thumb| The garden snail shell is typically brownish-golden in color with yellow and brown stripes, flecks, and streaks.]] <br /> <br /> Unlike other species within the class [[Gastropoda]], garden snails do not have an operculum or seal that certain mollusks use to keep in moisture and defend themselves against small predators. Instead, during dry or cold weather, garden snails seal the aperture of the shell with a thin membrane of dried mucus, called an epiphragm.<br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Anatomy.png]]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle and Reproduction ==<br /> <br /> Members of ''Cornu aspersum'' are hermaphrodites, meaning they produce both male and female gametes [2]. Because of this, reproduction is usually sexual, however, self-fertilization is possible. Mating sessions often occur over several hours in which sperm is shared between each snail; garden snails are also one of the only species that use &quot;love darts&quot; in mating. &quot;Love darts&quot; are sharp darts produced by the snail's body to aid in reproduction [7].<br /> <br /> Two weeks after fertilization, garden snails lay around 80 spherical white eggs in small spaces including topsoil and under rocks. Within a year, a garden snail can lay around six batches of eggs, with the eggs being about 4mm in diameter. Upon hatching, young garden snails take one to two years to reach maturity and begin the reproductive cycle again. <br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Eggs.jpg|thumb| Spherical white ''Cornu aspersum'' eggs are placed in topsoil to provide shelter from harm. ]] <br /> <br /> ==Habitat==<br /> <br /> ''Cornu aspersum'' is native to the Mediterranean region and its present range stretches from northwest Africa and Iberia, eastwards to Asia Minor and Egypt, and northwards to the British Isles. However, the garden snail can now be found in other regions of the world including Australia, North America, Costa Rica, and South America due to deliberate or accidental introduction [3]. Due to their deliberate or accidental introduction in various regions, the garden snail is now cosmopolitan in temperate zones and has become neutralized in regions with climates that differ from the Mediterranean climate in which it originated. <br /> <br /> Garden snails are usually seen at night in the spring, summer, or autumn, but are most active in warm, damp weather. Under these conditions, garden snails prefer to reside in [[compost]] heaps and grassy areas such as gardens, fields, and river banks [8].<br /> <br /> ==Feeding Habits==<br /> <br /> The common garden snail is primarily a herbivore that feeds on vegetable crops, garden flowers, leaves, algae, [[lichen]], and fungi. This species can be omnivorous as it will feed on other snails and empty snail shells [8].<br /> <br /> ==Human Importance==<br /> <br /> The common garden snail is a species most notably known to humans as an [[agriculture]] and garden pest, an edible delicacy, and also occasionally a household pet. When it comes to being used as a food delicacy, garden snails are used as the main ingredient when making escargot which is most commonly known for being a special French cuisine enjoyed worldwide. In regards to being considered an [[agriculture]] and garden pest, attempts to reduce damage to crops and other plants have been instilled. Pesticides and other control options such as caffeine and copper are used to prevent garden snails from reaching foliage and fruit to consume. Even other species of snail such as the [[Decollate Snail]] are used as predators to prevent garden snails from infesting areas [5]. <br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Garden Snail (cornu aspersum) n.d. iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/480298-Cornu-aspersum#Description <br /> <br /> [2] Brown garden snail - cornu asperum (Müller). https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/gastro/brown_garden_snail.htm <br /> <br /> [3] CABI, 2015. Cornu aspersum (common garden snail). https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/26821 <br /> <br /> [4] Ansart, A.; Vernon, P.; Daguzan, J. (2002). &quot;Elements of cold hardiness in a littoral population of the land snail Cornu aspersum (Gastropoda: Pulmonata)&quot;. Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 172 (7): 619–625.<br /> <br /> [5] Liu, Lucy; Sood, Anshum; Steinweg, Stephanie (2017). &quot;Snails and Skin Care—An Uncovered Combination&quot;. JAMA Dermatol. 153 (7): 650. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2017.1383. PMID 28700796.<br /> <br /> [6] Welter-Schultes, F. &quot;Genus taxon summary for Cornu. version 12-01-2014&quot;. AnimalBase.<br /> <br /> [7] Kaufman, Rachel. “Bizarre Valentine: Why Mating Snails Stab with 'Love Darts'.” LiveScience, Purch, 14 Feb. 2013, https://www.livescience.com/27132-snail-mating-love-darts.html.<br /> <br /> [8] Mollusks : Carnegie Museum of Natural History, [[https://www.carnegiemnh.org/science/mollusks/landsnailecology.html.]]</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11025 2023-05-11T02:56:00Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many [[mites]] are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the [[mites]], which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the [[mites]] for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498. <br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite. <br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/varroa-destructor. <br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11024 2023-05-11T02:55:01Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of [[mites]] on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many mites are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the mites, which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the mites for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498. <br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite. <br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/varroa-destructor. <br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11023 2023-05-11T02:52:52Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mites]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of mites on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many mites are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the mites, which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the mites for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498. <br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite. <br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/varroa-destructor. <br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11022 2023-05-11T02:52:40Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the [[mite]] can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of mites on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many mites are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the mites, which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the mites for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498. <br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite. <br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/varroa-destructor. <br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11021 2023-05-11T02:52:11Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the mite can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' Arthropoda<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of mites on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many mites are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the mites, which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the mites for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498. <br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite. <br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/varroa-destructor. <br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11020 2023-05-11T02:52:01Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the mite can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' [[Arthropoda]]<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of mites on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many mites are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the mites, which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the mites for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498. <br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite. <br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/varroa-destructor. <br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Varroa_destructor&diff=11019 2023-05-11T02:51:51Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>The Varroa mite or ''Varroa destructor'' is the world’s most devastating pest of ''Apis mellifera'', the Western honey bee. As ectoparasites, ''Varroa destructors'' attack adult honey bees and their developing larvae, feeding on their fat body tissues. Varroa infestation results in deformation, mortality, and subsequent weakening of the colony which potentially leads to colony death. As the mite can spread quickly from colony to colony, the ''Varroa destructor'' is an imminent threat to honey bees. Formerly found only in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America, the mite has now infiltrated the United States where it is devastating the Western honey bee population.<br /> <br /> [[Image:Varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|A ''Varroa destructor'' attached to ''Apis mellifera'', a Western honey bee.]]<br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia<br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' [[Arthropoda]]<br /> '''Class:''' Arachnida<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' [[Mesostigmata]]<br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Varroidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Varroa<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' ''Varroa destructor''<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adult ''Varroa destructors'' measure 1 to 1.8 mm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in width. Females are reddish-brown in color and males are yellowish-white. The [[mites]] have flattened bodies, enabling them to fit between the body segments of honey bees, where they feed on the bee’s fat bodies and internal fluids. ''Varroa destructors'' can be observed with the naked eye and may even be observed attached to adult honey bees [1].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructor'' eggs are oval-shaped and white in color. They are approximately 0.30 mm long and 0.23 mm wide. In general, the eggs cannot be seen by the naked eye [2].<br /> <br /> [[Image:Female_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|left| A female ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> [[Image:Male_varroa_destructor.jpg|thumb|right| A male ''Varroa destructor''.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Habitat and Range==<br /> The ''Varroa destructor'' is an ectoparasite of honey bees, thus residing on them as a parasite. They are usually found on the thorax and abdomens of larvae, pupae, and adult honey bees. The mite affects Asian honey bees,'' Apis cerana'', and European honey bees, ''Apis mellifera'' [3].<br /> <br /> ''Varroa destructors'' can be found all throughout the United States in both wild and managed honey bee colonies [4]. Wherever bee colonies are found, the ''Varroa destructor'' is more than likely found as well. Currently, Australia is the only continent that is uninhabited by the mite [3].<br /> <br /> ==Life Cycle==<br /> <br /> When female ''Varroa destructors'' are ready to lay eggs, they insert themselves into brood cells containing young honey bee larvae, just before the cells are capped. The mite will immerse itself into the remaining brood food. After the cells are capped and the larvae have finished spinning cocoons, the ''Varroa destructor'' will begin laying eggs. A female mite may lay 4 to 6 eggs. The adult female mite and its offspring will feed and develop on the bee as it matures. <br /> <br /> The mite life cycle consists of four developmental stages. These stages are the egg stage, the protonymph stage, the deutonymph stage, and the adult stage. The period from egg to adult lasts about 6 to 7 days for the female and 5 to 6 days for the male. Mating occurs in the brood cells before the new adult female mites emerge. The adult males die after copulation as their mouths are modified for sperm transfer instead of feeding. The old female and the newly-fertilized female offspring remain in the brood cell until the young bee emerges. The adult bee survives as a host and a means of transportation for the female ''Varroa destructors''. <br /> <br /> Female ''Varroa destructors'' produced in the summer can live 2 to 3 months, whereas those produced in the fall live 5 to 8 months. Without bees and brood, the ''Varroa destructor'' can survive no more than 5 days. They can, however, live in a comb with sealed brood for up to 30 days [6].<br /> <br /> [[Image:The-Varroa-mite-infest-a-brood-cell-shortly-before-it-gets-capped..png|thumb|A diagram depicting the main stages of the ''Varroa destructor'' life cycle.]]<br /> <br /> ==Impacts on Western honey bees==<br /> <br /> Honey bees infested with one to two adult ''Varroa destructors'' do not have visible signs of damage and can appear to be normal and healthy. However, they may suffer from malnutrition, blood loss, and disease as ''Varroa destructors'' are known to transmit a number of pathogens including several viruses. Honey bees that are heavily infested with more than a few adult mites usually become visibly crippled or die in their cells without emerging. Additionally, adult bees heavily infested may become restless and fly with difficulty. Their life span is shorter and they perform tasks poorly. <br /> <br /> On a colony level, the symptoms of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation depend upon the degree of infestation. Low-level infestations are difficult to detect as it may not be apparent that the honey bees are infested. Medium-to high-level infestations may result in bees that are heavily impacted with the impacts listed above. Colonies become severely debilitated as mite populations reach extremely high levels at the end of the brood rearing season. This in turn severely affects honey production [6].<br /> <br /> ==Management==<br /> <br /> Early detection of a ''Varroa destructor'' infestation is essential. Many colonies will succumb to Varroa infestations in the late summer or fall. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a method of dealing with pests and parasites that is based on the notion that one cannot chemically eradicate pests or parasites but must continually manage their populations. IPM involves mixing different tactics (mechanical/physical methods, genetic/cultural methods, and chemical treatments) and knowing critical times in the life cycle of the target [[organisms]] that make them vulnerable to control methods. Chemicals are only applied when pest populations are above an action or economic threshold. The reduced use of chemicals to control Varroa mites limits possible contamination of hive products and delays resistance development to chemicals by the mites. <br /> <br /> A key component of IPM is that decisions to use chemicals for controlling mites is based on sampling (monitoring and identification) of the pest population and only treating when a critical threshold is met. The most convenient methods of sampling varroa mites involve estimating the prevalence of mites on adult honey bees. The prevalence is described as a percentage. The most commonly used non destructive sampling method is the powdered sugar shake. The destructive method involves washing samples of dead bees with alcohol or a soapy water mixture. This is a much more accurate method than the sugar shake. <br /> <br /> [[Image:Maxresdefault.jpg|thumb| right| The sugar shake method of removing ''Varroa destructors'' from honey bees is used as powdered sugar has small particle sizes that are able to dislodge the mites.]]<br /> <br /> The powdered sugar roll or sugar shake method provides a means for estimating how many mites are on the bees that are sampled. This method does not kill the bees and revolves around the ability of dust with small particle sizes to dislodge the mites from the adult bees bodies. The small sugar particles create a barrier between honey bee bodies and the mites, which are like small suction cups. When bees are rolled and coated in the sugar, the mites’ feet contact the sugar and they lose their grip. <br /> [[Image:Copyright-Camilius-Lay.jpg|thumb| The alcohol wash method kills adult honey bees along with ''Varroa destructors'' and allows for the mites to be counted.]]<br /> <br /> The alcohol wash method is similar to the sugar shake except the adult bees are killed before measuring the mite load. Honey bees are put in jars with 70 percent ethanol to completely cover them. The jar is then shaken vigorously for several minutes, killing the bees and dislodging the mites for counting. This method is most efficient if mechanical shakers are used for several hours [7].<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==References== <br /> <br /> [1] Fellows, C.J., et al. “Varroa Destructor, Varroa Mite (Mesostigmata: Varroidae).” LSU AgCenter, 28 Mar. 2023, www.lsuagcenter.com/profiles/bneely/articles/page1586983998498. <br /> <br /> [2] Ellis, James D, and C.M. Zettel Nalen. “Varroa Mite.” Varroa Mite - Varroa Destructor Anderson and Trueman, May 2016, entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/varroa_mite.htm. <br /> <br /> [3] “Varroa Mite.” Business Queensland, 7 Mar. 2023, www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/animals/invasive/prohibited/varroa-mite. <br /> <br /> [4] Varroa Mites, 2005, canr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2010/03/Diseases_of_Honey_Bees_PM.pdf. <br /> <br /> [5] Varroa Mite, 2014, www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/varroa-destructor. <br /> <br /> [6] “Varroa Mites.” Bee Aware, beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/varroa-mites/#ad-image-0. Accessed 9 May 2023. <br /> <br /> [7] Harris, Jeff, et al. Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies, 7 Apr. 2023, pollinators.msu.edu/sites/_pollinators/assets/File/Mississippi%20State%20Varroa.pdf.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Garden_snail&diff=11018 2023-05-11T02:47:48Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>''Cornu aspersum'', known as the garden snail, is one of the most widely known species of all terrestrial mollusks. As a member of the Helicidae family, ''Cornu aspersum'' is included with many other common land snails. Previously, ''Cornu aspersum'' was classified under ''Helix aspersa'', however, it is now classified under the genus ''Cornu''.<br /> <br /> Originally from the Mediterranean and parts of Europe, ''Cornu aspersum'' has been accidentally introduced in many parts of the world. Because of this, it is widely regarded as a garden and agricultural pest. However, in some places, the garden snail is a food delicacy. <br /> <br /> [[File:Garden Snail Pic.jpg|thumb| ''Cornu aspersum'' crawling on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia <br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' [[Mollusca]]<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' [[Gastropoda]]<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Stylommatophora <br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Helicidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Cornu<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' C. asperum<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults have a thin but hard calcareous shell that can be 1-1.5 inches in diameter and 1-1.375 inches high [1]. Their shells vary in color and shade but are typically a reticulated pattern of dark brown, brownish-golden, or chestnut with yellow stripes, flecks, or streaks. The body of the garden snail is soft, slimy, and brownish-gray in color. Its soft body can be fully retracted into its shell which it does whenever it is resting or feels threatened. Another mechanism the garden snail uses when threatened, injured, or irritated, is a defensive froth of mucus that might repel some enemies or overwhelm aggressive small ants and other [[insects]] [4].<br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Shell.jpg|thumb| The garden snail shell is typically brownish-golden in color with yellow and brown stripes, flecks, and streaks.]] <br /> <br /> Unlike other species within the class [[Gastropoda]], garden snails do not have an operculum or seal that certain mollusks use to keep in moisture and defend themselves against small predators. Instead, during dry or cold weather, garden snails seal the aperture of the shell with a thin membrane of dried mucus, called an epiphragm.<br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Anatomy.png]]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle and Reproduction ==<br /> <br /> Members of ''Cornu aspersum'' are hermaphrodites, meaning they produce both male and female gametes [2]. Because of this, reproduction is usually sexual, however, self-fertilization is possible. Mating sessions often occur over several hours in which sperm is shared between each snail; garden snails are also one of the only species that use &quot;love darts&quot; in mating. &quot;Love darts&quot; are sharp darts produced by the snail's body to aid in reproduction [7].<br /> <br /> Two weeks after fertilization, garden snails lay around 80 spherical white eggs in small spaces including topsoil and under rocks. Within a year, a garden snail can lay around six batches of eggs, with the eggs being about 4mm in diameter. Upon hatching, young garden snails take one to two years to reach maturity and begin the reproductive cycle again. <br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Eggs.jpg|thumb| Spherical white ''Cornu aspersum'' eggs are placed in topsoil to provide shelter from harm. ]] <br /> <br /> ==Habitat==<br /> <br /> ''Cornu aspersum'' is native to the Mediterranean region and its present range stretches from northwest Africa and Iberia, eastwards to Asia Minor and Egypt, and northwards to the British Isles. However, the garden snail can now be found in other regions of the world including Australia, North America, Costa Rica, and South America due to deliberate or accidental introduction [3]. Due to their deliberate or accidental introduction in various regions, the garden snail is now cosmopolitan in temperate zones and has become neutralized in regions with climates that differ from the Mediterranean climate in which it originated. <br /> <br /> Garden snails are usually seen at night in the spring, summer, or autumn, but are most active in warm, damp weather. Under these conditions, garden snails prefer to reside in [[compost]] heaps and grassy areas such as gardens, fields, and river banks [8].<br /> <br /> ==Feeding Habits==<br /> <br /> The common garden snail is primarily a herbivore that feeds on vegetable crops, garden flowers, leaves, algae, [[lichen]], and fungi. This species can be omnivorous as it will feed on other snails and empty snail shells [8].<br /> <br /> ==Human Importance==<br /> <br /> The common garden snail is a species most notably known to humans as an [[agriculture]] and garden pest, an edible delicacy, and also occasionally a household pet. When it comes to being used as a food delicacy, garden snails are used as the main ingredient when making escargot which is most commonly known for being a special French cuisine enjoyed worldwide. In regards to being considered an [[agriculture]] and garden pest, attempts to reduce damage to crops and other plants have been instilled. Pesticides and other control options such as caffeine and copper are used to prevent garden snails from reaching foliage and fruit to consume. Even other species of snail such as the [[Decollate Snail]] are used as predators to prevent garden snails from infesting areas [5]. <br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Garden Snail (cornu aspersum) n.d. iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/480298-Cornu-aspersum#Description <br /> <br /> [2] Brown garden snail - cornu asperum (Müller). https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/gastro/brown_garden_snail.htm <br /> <br /> [3] CABI, 2015. Cornu aspersum (common garden snail). https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/26821 <br /> <br /> [4] Ansart, A.; Vernon, P.; Daguzan, J. (2002). &quot;Elements of cold hardiness in a littoral population of the land snail Cornu aspersum (Gastropoda: Pulmonata)&quot;. Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 172 (7): 619–625.<br /> <br /> [5] Liu, Lucy; Sood, Anshum; Steinweg, Stephanie (2017). &quot;Snails and Skin Care—An Uncovered Combination&quot;. JAMA Dermatol. 153 (7): 650. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2017.1383. PMID 28700796.<br /> <br /> [6] Welter-Schultes, F. &quot;Genus taxon summary for Cornu. version 12-01-2014&quot;. AnimalBase.<br /> <br /> [7] Kaufman, Rachel. “Bizarre Valentine: Why Mating Snails Stab with 'Love Darts'.” LiveScience, Purch, 14 Feb. 2013, https://www.livescience.com/27132-snail-mating-love-darts.html.<br /> <br /> [8] Mollusks : Carnegie Museum of Natural History, https://www.carnegiemnh.org/science/mollusks/landsnailecology.html.</div>

Chcamero https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Garden_snail&diff=11017 2023-05-11T02:47:23Z

<p>Chcamero: </p> <hr /> <div>''Cornu aspersum'', known as the garden snail, is one of the most widely known species of all terrestrial mollusks. As a member of the Helicidae family, ''Cornu aspersum'' is included with many other common land snails. Previously, ''Cornu aspersum'' was classified under ''Helix aspersa'', however, it is now classified under the genus ''Cornu''.<br /> <br /> Originally from the Mediterranean and parts of Europe, ''Cornu aspersum'' has been accidentally introduced in many parts of the world. Because of this, it is widely regarded as a garden and agricultural pest. However, in some places, the garden snail is a food delicacy. <br /> <br /> [[File:Garden Snail Pic.jpg|thumb| ''Cornu aspersum'' crawling on vegetation.]]<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Taxonomy==<br /> <br /> '''Kingdom:''' Animalia <br /> <br /> '''Phylum:''' [[Mollusca]]<br /> <br /> '''Class:''' [[Gastropoda]]<br /> <br /> '''Order:''' Stylommatophora <br /> <br /> '''Family:''' Helicidae<br /> <br /> '''Genus:''' Cornu<br /> <br /> '''Species:''' C. asperum<br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> <br /> Adults have a thin but hard calcareous shell that can be 1-1.5 inches in diameter and 1-1.375 inches high [1]. Their shells vary in color and shade but are typically a reticulated pattern of dark brown, brownish-golden, or chestnut with yellow stripes, flecks, or streaks. The body of the garden snail is soft, slimy, and brownish-gray in color. Its soft body can be fully retracted into its shell which it does whenever it is resting or feels threatened. Another mechanism the garden snail uses when threatened, injured, or irritated, is a defensive froth of mucus that might repel some enemies or overwhelm aggressive small ants and other [[insects]] [4].<br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Shell.jpg|thumb| The garden snail shell is typically brownish-golden in color with yellow and brown stripes, flecks, and streaks.]] <br /> <br /> Unlike other species within the class [[Gastropoda]], garden snails do not have an operculum or seal that certain mollusks use to keep in moisture and defend themselves against small predators. Instead, during dry or cold weather, garden snails seal the aperture of the shell with a thin membrane of dried mucus, called an epiphragm.<br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Anatomy.png]]<br /> <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle and Reproduction ==<br /> <br /> Members of ''Cornu aspersum'' are hermaphrodites, meaning they produce both male and female gametes [2]. Because of this, reproduction is usually sexual, however, self-fertilization is possible. Mating sessions often occur over several hours in which sperm is shared between each snail; garden snails are also one of the only species that use &quot;love darts&quot; in mating. &quot;Love darts&quot; are sharp darts produced by the snail's body to aid in reproduction [7].<br /> <br /> Two weeks after fertilization, garden snails lay around 80 spherical white eggs in small spaces including topsoil and under rocks. Within a year, a garden snail can lay around six batches of eggs, with the eggs being about 4mm in diameter. Upon hatching, young garden snails take one to two years to reach maturity and begin the reproductive cycle again. <br /> <br /> [[File: Garden Snail Eggs.jpg|thumb| Spherical white ''Cornu aspersum'' eggs are placed in topsoil to provide shelter from harm. ]] <br /> <br /> ==Habitat==<br /> <br /> ''Cornu aspersum'' is native to the Mediterranean region and its present range stretches from northwest Africa and Iberia, eastwards to Asia Minor and Egypt, and northwards to the British Isles. However, the garden snail can now be found in other regions of the world including Australia, North America, Costa Rica, and South America due to deliberate or accidental introduction [3]. Due to their deliberate or accidental introduction in various regions, the garden snail is now cosmopolitan in temperate zones and has become neutralized in regions with climates that differ from the Mediterranean climate in which it originated. <br /> <br /> Garden snails are usually seen at night in the spring, summer, or autumn, but are most active in warm, damp weather. Under these conditions, garden snails prefer to reside in [[compost]] heaps and grassy areas such as gardens, fields, and river banks [8].<br /> <br /> ==Feeding Habits==<br /> <br /> The common garden snail is primarily a herbivore that feeds on vegetable crops, garden flowers, leaves, algae, [[lichen]], and fungi. This species can be omnivorous as it will feed on other snails and empty snail shells [8].<br /> <br /> ==Human Importance==<br /> <br /> The common garden snail is a species most notably known to humans as an [[agriculture]] and garden pest, an edible delicacy, and also occasionally a household pet. When it comes to being used as a food delicacy, garden snails are used as the main ingredient when making escargot which is most commonly known for being a special French cuisine enjoyed worldwide. In regards to being considered an [[agriculture]] and garden pest, attempts to reduce damage to crops and other plants have been instilled. Pesticides and other control options such as caffeine and copper are used to prevent garden snails from reaching foliage and fruit to consume. Even other species of snail such as the [[decollate snail]] are used as predators to prevent garden snails from infesting areas [5]. <br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> [1] Garden Snail (cornu aspersum) n.d. iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/480298-Cornu-aspersum#Description <br /> <br /> [2] Brown garden snail - cornu asperum (Müller). https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/gastro/brown_garden_snail.htm <br /> <br /> [3] CABI, 2015. Cornu aspersum (common garden snail). https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/26821 <br /> <br /> [4] Ansart, A.; Vernon, P.; Daguzan, J. (2002). &quot;Elements of cold hardiness in a littoral population of the land snail Cornu aspersum (Gastropoda: Pulmonata)&quot;. Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 172 (7): 619–625.<br /> <br /> [5] Liu, Lucy; Sood, Anshum; Steinweg, Stephanie (2017). &quot;Snails and Skin Care—An Uncovered Combination&quot;. JAMA Dermatol. 153 (7): 650. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2017.1383. PMID 28700796.<br /> <br /> [6] Welter-Schultes, F. &quot;Genus taxon summary for Cornu. version 12-01-2014&quot;. AnimalBase.<br /> <br /> [7] Kaufman, Rachel. “Bizarre Valentine: Why Mating Snails Stab with 'Love Darts'.” LiveScience, Purch, 14 Feb. 2013, https://www.livescience.com/27132-snail-mating-love-darts.html.<br /> <br /> [8] Mollusks : Carnegie Museum of Natural History, https://www.carnegiemnh.org/science/mollusks/landsnailecology.html.</div>

Chcamero