https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Celiaphi 2026-04-14T23:45:00Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.43.0 https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Periodical_Cicadas&diff=7177 2021-05-07T17:07:50Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> ==Periodical Cicadas==<br /> [[File:cicada.jpg|280px|thumb|right|Periodical Cicada [18]]]<br /> Periodical [[cicadas]] of eastern Northern America fall within the genus Magicicada. This 13-year and 17-year species are often referred to as “locusts” which is incorrect. Cicadas fall into the order Hemiptera while locusts fall into the order Orthoptera like grasshoppers [1].<br /> <br /> The 13 and 17-year life cycles of cicadas are spent primarily underground where they consume the xylem from the roots of eastern U.S. deciduous trees [2]. Mature cicada nymphs crawl up to the surface and emerge in the springtime after 13 or 17 years simultaneously in massive numbers. These mature adults are only active for about 4 to 6 weeks after emergence [3]. To attract mates, males conglomerate and vocalize, creating a noisy chorus. This lifecycle is finished after about 2 months from the initial emergence, where at this point the adult cicadas are absent for another 13 or 17-year period and the eggs have been laid.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Description==<br /> The periodical cicada has a black dorsal thorax, red eyes, and translucent wings with orange veins. Depending on the species, the abdomen underside can be black, orange, or striped with orange and black [4].<br /> <br /> Adults are usually 2.4 to 3.3 cm, which is a little smaller than most annual cicada species found within the same habitats in the United States. Females are larger than males at maturity [5]. <br /> <br /> Males of the Magicicada attract females by forming large aggregations that “sing” in a chorus. This chorus typically sounds like loud buzzing, ticking, or both. The characteristics of these chorus “songs” vary depending on the species [6].<br /> <br /> Cicadas are not known for biting or stinging. They have mouthparts that are used to pierce plants and suck their sap like other Auchenorrhyncha bugs. The only way a cicada can be harmful is that when being handled their proboscis can painfully pierce human skin. There is no evidence that they transmit disease and are venomous. Mature vegetation experience little threat from periodical cicadas, but planting new trees and shrubs is better to be pushed off until after their expected emergence. Twig die-off or flagging can result from egg-laying [7]. To prevent damage to young trees or shrubs during the egg-laying period, which starts a week after emergence of the first adult and lasts until females have died, they can be covered with cheesecloth or another similar material.<br /> <br /> ==Lifecycle==<br /> [[File:cycle.png|150px|thumb|right|Transformation of the periodical cicada from the mature nymph to the adult [19]]]<br /> [[File:molting.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Molting Cicada [20]]]<br /> [[File:finalmolt.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Cicada in final molting stage [21]]]<br /> [[File:eggslits.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Cicada egg slits [22]]]<br /> Every cicada spends many years as a juvenile underground, but then emerges aboveground for a small adult period that can last several weeks to a few months. All the adults of the 7 periodical cicada species emerge in any one location all at once in the same year, in a synchronized fashion. Annual cicadas are not synchronized; some adults mature every summer while the rest of the population develops underground.<br /> <br /> During the juvenile stage periodical cicada nymphs live underground within 2 ft of the surface and feed on plant root juices [8]. These nymphs in their underground development undergo 5 instar stages ([[arthropod]] developmental stages). The difference in the 13 and 17-year lifecycle is the time taken for the maturity of the second instar. As the nymphs feed they move deeper below ground to get to larger roots during their time underground [9].<br /> <br /> Nymphs emerge when the [[soil]] temperature at about 20 cm deep is above 17.9 °C in the spring. The time of the emergence varies depending on location. In the far south the emergence occurs in late April or early May. In the far north they emerge late May to early June. When they emerge, nymphs move to complete their transformation into adults by climbing to a suitable place on nearby vegetation. After their final molt, they spend 6 days in the trees waiting for the hardening of their exoskeletons to complete. <br /> <br /> As adults, periodical cicadas only live for a few weeks; having disappeared by mid-July. Their adult lives are short lived, with the singular purpose of reproduction. Using their tymbals, males “sing” a species-specific mating song. When males vocalize they usually aggregate together which is sexually attractive to females. These males alternate singing and short flights from tree to tree to find females [10].<br /> <br /> Receptive females respond to these males with timed wing-flicks that attract them for mating [11]. The sound created by a chorus can reach a deafening 100 decibels. Other than their calling song, when approaching an individual female males produce a courtship song that is distinctive [4].<br /> Mating can happen multiple times for both males and females, but females mostly mate just once. After mating, the female cuts V-shaped slits in bark of young twigs and lays around 20 eggs in each slit. The overall total each year is around 600 or more eggs. The eggs hatch into newborn nymphs that drop to the ground after about 6 to 10 weeks, where they then burrow into the ground to start another 13 or 17-year cycle.<br /> <br /> ==Survival Strategy==<br /> ===Predator Satiation=== <br /> Cicada nymphs emerge synchronously in large numbers, more than 1.5 million individuals per acre sometimes [12]. This large emergence is a survival trait called predator satiation. Early after their emergence, the periodical cicadas are easy prey for birds, reptiles, cats, and other small and large mammals [3]. The overall survival mechanism of the cicadas is just to simply overwhelm predators with their large numbers, allowing for most individuals to survive. Their large population sizes before emergence is most likely a predator avoidance strategy. This is adopted to eliminate the possibility of predators having periodic population boosts that would be synchronized with the cicada emergence [13]. Another view of why their developmental period is so long is to prevent hybridization between broods of differing cycles. This adaptation most likely resulted from cycles during a period of heavy selection pressure that were brought on by lowered and isolated populations [14].<br /> <br /> Cicada population cycles are momentous enough to affect other [[animals]] and plants. Tree growth has been observed to decrease the year before the emergence of a cicada brood, due to the increased eating by nymphs on roots [15]. The mole uses them as a food source and has shown to do well the year before an emergence, but do poorly the following year due to the reduced source of food [16]. The carcasses that are uneaten decompose on the ground providing nutrients to the soil [15]. <br /> <br /> ==Distribution==<br /> The 17-year cicadas are found across the eastern, upper Midwestern, and Great Plains states of the U.S.. With some overlap, the 13-year cicadas are found in the southern and Mississippi Valley States. Efforts are currently underway to generate new distribution maps of all periodical cicada broods. This effort makes use of crowdsourced records and records collected by entomologists [17].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> [1]&quot;Periodical Cicada&quot;. magicicada.org.<br /> <br /> [2] Lloyd, M. &amp; H.S. Dybas (1966). &quot;The periodical cicada problem. I. Population [[ecology]]&quot;. Evolution. 20 (2): 133–149. doi:10.2307/2406568. JSTOR 2406568.<br /> <br /> [3] Williams, K.S. &amp; C. Simon (1995). &quot;The ecology, behavior, and evolution of periodical cicadas&quot; (PDF). Annual Review of Entomology. 40: 269–295. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.40.010195.001413.<br /> <br /> [4] Alexander, Richard D.; Moore, Thomas E. (1962). &quot;The Evolutionary Relationships of 17-Year and 13-Year Cicadas, and Three New Species (Homoptera, Cicadidae,Magicicada)&quot; (PDF). University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 9 June 2011.<br /> <br /> [5] Capinera, John L. (2008). Encyclopedia of Entomology. Springer. pp. 2785–2794. ISBN 1-4020-6242-7.<br /> <br /> [6] Stranahan, Nancy. &quot;Nature Notes from the Eastern Forest&quot;. Arc of Appalachia. Archived from the originalon 5 October 2011. Retrieved 10 June 2011.<br /> <br /> [7] Cook, William M.; Robert D. Holt (2002). &quot;Periodical cicada (Magicicada cassini) oviposition damage: visually impressive yet dynamically irrelevant&quot; (PDF). American Midland Naturalist. 147 (2): 214–224. doi:10.1674/0003-0031(2002)147[0214:PCMCOD]2.0.CO;2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 August 2011.<br /> <br /> [8] Marlatt, C. L. (1907). The Periodical Cicada (Bulletin No. 71 - U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology). Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. pp. 123–125.<br /> <br /> [9] White, J; Lloyd, M. (1979). &quot;Seventeen year cicadas emerging after eighteen years-a new brood?&quot;. Evolution. 33: 1193–1199. doi:10.2307/2407477.<br /> <br /> [10] &quot;Magicicada Broods III and XXII will emerge in 2014&quot;. www.magicicada.org.<br /> <br /> [11] &quot;Sexual Signals in Periodical Cicadas&quot; (PDF). Behaviour.<br /> <br /> [12] Dybas, H. S.; Davis, D. D. (1962). &quot;A populations census of seventeen-year periodical cicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae: Magicicada)&quot;. Ecology. 43 (3): 432–444. doi:10.2307/1933372. JSTOR 1933372.<br /> <br /> [13] Goles, E.; Schulz, O.; Markus, M. (2001). &quot;Prime number selection of cycles in a predator-prey model&quot;. Complexity. 6 (4): 33–38. doi:10.1002/cplx.1040.<br /> <br /> [14] Cox, R. T. &amp; C. E. Carlton (1988). &quot;Paleoclimatic influences in the evolution of periodical cicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae: Magicicada spp.)&quot;. American Midland Naturalist. 120 (1): 183–193. doi:10.2307/2425898. JSTOR 2425898.<br /> <br /> [15] Yang, Louie H. (2004). &quot;Periodical cicadas as resource pulses in North American forests&quot;. Science. 306(5701): 1565–1567. Bibcode:2004Sci...306.1565Y. doi:10.1126/science.1103114. PMID 15567865.<br /> <br /> [16] National Geographic: Cicada Outbreaks Linked to Other Animals' Booms, Busts.<br /> <br /> [17] http://www.magicicada.org<br /> <br /> [18] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EWr8fzUz-Yw<br /> <br /> [19] ''[[Insects]], their way and means of living'', R. E. Snodgrass. http://www.archive.org/details/39088001578236<br /> <br /> [20] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cicada_Molting.jpg<br /> <br /> [21] http://bugoftheweek.com/blog/2013/6/10/egg-laying-in-the-treetops-imagicicadai-brood-ii<br /> <br /> [22] http://plotfiftyfive.blogspot.com/2016/05/magicicada.html</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Cicadas&diff=7174 2021-05-07T16:58:40Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: cicada.jpg|thumb|Periodical Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brood-x-cicadas-could-cause-a-bird-baby-boom/]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> Cicadas are members of the family Cicadidae and the order Homoptera [2]. They have two pairs of membranous wings, two compound eyes as well as three simple eyes, and range from 2 to 5 cm in length [2]. Color can vary from bright orange and red patterns to iridescent greens and blues. Cicadas are easily identifiable by their recognizable vocalizations in mid and late summer months. Male cicadas are responsible for these vocalizations which are produced by vibrating membranes located at the base of the abdomen [2]. The natural song frequency of a cicada is determined by the dimensions of the abdominal cavity and the tympana, which functions as an eardrum membrane in the abdomen [1]. North American species produce a series of rhythmical buzzes or whines, while exotic species produce more musical vocalizations [2]. Vocalizations are made for three reasons; for mating, as a sign of disturbance, or as a result of daily weather fluctuations and the songs produced by other nearby males [2].<br /> <br /> == Annual vs. Periodical Cicadas ==<br /> [[File: dogday.jpg|thumb|Dog-day Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]]<br /> <br /> Cicada species can be divided into two sub-categories based on the timing of their life cycles. Annual cicadas have a life cycle of two to five years and broods overlap, resulting in new adults every year [3]. An example of an annual cicada is the Dog-Day Cicada [3]. [[Periodical Cicadas]] do not appear every year and have life cycles of 13 to 17 years [3]. There is a total of seven cicada species that are considered periodical, and all belong to the genus ''Magicicada''[3]. Of these seven species, four have a 17-year cycle and are generally found in the north, while the remaining three species have a 13-year cycle and are generally found in more southern regions [3]. Adult periodical cicadas typically emerge in May and June and are identifiable by their black bodies, striking red eyeballs and orange veined wings [3].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Over 3,000 species of cicadas are known to exist, ranging in habitat from deserts, to grasslands and forests with most being situated in tropical environments [2]. Within these environments, cicadas inhabit regions with deciduous, woody trees and plants that can support their reproductive and nutritional needs [6]. Nymphs require environments with [[soil]] fertile enough to support complex root systems which they can feed upon as they grow [6]. Adults require woody plants with tender, thin twigs in which they can lay their eggs and also extract fluid from for food [5]. Annual cicadas can be found worldwide, while periodicals are restricted solely to the central and eastern regions of the United States [4]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> The life cycle of a cicada begins with the laying of eggs in woody plant tissues that will later drop from the plant during or after egg hatching [2]. Female cicadas can lay up to 400 eggs spread over dozens of sites [4]. After 6 to 10 weeks, nymphs emerge from these eggs and burrow into the ground where they will sustain themselves on juices from roots of perennial plants [2]. The nymph phase of the cicada is spent entirely in underground burrows until they emerge to the surface and molt their shells to become adults [4]. [[File: molt.jpg|thumb|Molting Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]] This event occurs in synchrony for all nymphs becoming adults as it is dependent on the year and soil temperature [4]. Once an adult, the sole purpose of the cicada is to mate and lay eggs as they will only be alive for four to six weeks [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Cicadas play a beneficial role in the environment as they aerate the soil as nymphs, prune trees and shrubs as adults, and serve as a source of nitrogen for plants once they die [5]. They are also an important link in the food chain as almost all insectivorous species will eat them once they emerge in the summer. Because cicadas emerge in the millions, they are fairly resilient to predation, making them an abundant and reliable food source [5]. However, cicadas can be considered a vulnerable group of [[insects]] as nymphs are heavily affected by the application of pesticides and other lawn and garden chemicals [5]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Bennet-Clark, H. C., and D. Young. (1992). A MODEL OF THE MECHANISM OF SOUND PRODUCTION IN CICADAS:32.<br /> <br /> [2] cicada | Description, Life Cycle, &amp; Facts. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada.<br /> <br /> [3] Cicada - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). . https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html.<br /> <br /> [4] Cicadas, facts and photos. 2011, May 10. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas.<br /> <br /> [5] [[Periodical Cicadas]]. (n.d.). . https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas.<br /> <br /> [6] Where Do Cicadas Live? Facts About Cicada Habitats. 2018, April 11. . https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Cicadas&diff=7173 2021-05-07T16:58:16Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: cicada.jpg|thumb|Periodical Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brood-x-cicadas-could-cause-a-bird-baby-boom/]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> Cicadas are members of the family Cicadidae and the order Homoptera [2]. They have two pairs of membranous wings, two compound eyes as well as three simple eyes, and range from 2 to 5 cm in length [2]. Color can vary from bright orange and red patterns to iridescent greens and blues. Cicadas are easily identifiable by their recognizable vocalizations in mid and late summer months. Male cicadas are responsible for these vocalizations which are produced by vibrating membranes located at the base of the abdomen [2]. The natural song frequency of a cicada is determined by the dimensions of the abdominal cavity and the tympana, which functions as an eardrum membrane in the abdomen [1]. North American species produce a series of rhythmical buzzes or whines, while exotic species produce more musical vocalizations [2]. Vocalizations are made for three reasons; for mating, as a sign of disturbance, or as a result of daily weather fluctuations and the songs produced by other nearby males [2].<br /> <br /> == Annual vs. Periodical Cicadas ==<br /> [[File: dogday.jpg|thumb|Dog-day Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]]<br /> <br /> Cicada species can be divided into two sub-categories based on the timing of their life cycles. Annual cicadas have a life cycle of two to five years and broods overlap, resulting in new adults every year [3]. An example of an annual cicada is the Dog-Day Cicada [3]. [[Periodical cicadas]] do not appear every year and have life cycles of 13 to 17 years [3]. There is a total of seven cicada species that are considered periodical, and all belong to the genus ''Magicicada''[3]. Of these seven species, four have a 17-year cycle and are generally found in the north, while the remaining three species have a 13-year cycle and are generally found in more southern regions [3]. Adult periodical cicadas typically emerge in May and June and are identifiable by their black bodies, striking red eyeballs and orange veined wings [3].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Over 3,000 species of cicadas are known to exist, ranging in habitat from deserts, to grasslands and forests with most being situated in tropical environments [2]. Within these environments, cicadas inhabit regions with deciduous, woody trees and plants that can support their reproductive and nutritional needs [6]. Nymphs require environments with [[soil]] fertile enough to support complex root systems which they can feed upon as they grow [6]. Adults require woody plants with tender, thin twigs in which they can lay their eggs and also extract fluid from for food [5]. Annual cicadas can be found worldwide, while periodicals are restricted solely to the central and eastern regions of the United States [4]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> The life cycle of a cicada begins with the laying of eggs in woody plant tissues that will later drop from the plant during or after egg hatching [2]. Female cicadas can lay up to 400 eggs spread over dozens of sites [4]. After 6 to 10 weeks, nymphs emerge from these eggs and burrow into the ground where they will sustain themselves on juices from roots of perennial plants [2]. The nymph phase of the cicada is spent entirely in underground burrows until they emerge to the surface and molt their shells to become adults [4]. [[File: molt.jpg|thumb|Molting Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]] This event occurs in synchrony for all nymphs becoming adults as it is dependent on the year and soil temperature [4]. Once an adult, the sole purpose of the cicada is to mate and lay eggs as they will only be alive for four to six weeks [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Cicadas play a beneficial role in the environment as they aerate the soil as nymphs, prune trees and shrubs as adults, and serve as a source of nitrogen for plants once they die [5]. They are also an important link in the food chain as almost all insectivorous species will eat them once they emerge in the summer. Because cicadas emerge in the millions, they are fairly resilient to predation, making them an abundant and reliable food source [5]. However, cicadas can be considered a vulnerable group of [[insects]] as nymphs are heavily affected by the application of pesticides and other lawn and garden chemicals [5]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Bennet-Clark, H. C., and D. Young. (1992). A MODEL OF THE MECHANISM OF SOUND PRODUCTION IN CICADAS:32.<br /> <br /> [2] cicada | Description, Life Cycle, &amp; Facts. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada.<br /> <br /> [3] Cicada - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). . https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html.<br /> <br /> [4] Cicadas, facts and photos. 2011, May 10. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas.<br /> <br /> [5] [[Periodical Cicadas]]. (n.d.). . https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas.<br /> <br /> [6] Where Do Cicadas Live? Facts About Cicada Habitats. 2018, April 11. . https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Slugs&diff=7150 2021-05-07T15:42:14Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: Slug.jpeg | thumb | Slug - ''Retrieved from '' https://baynature.org/article/not-just-a-pretty-face-the-banana-slug-is-one-of-the-weirdest-animals-on-earth/ ]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> [[File: Slug_on_Mushroom.jpg | thumb | Slug on Mushroom - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are easily recognizable gastropods that belong to the phyla Mollusca [5]. While at first look like appear as slimy, simply-built creatures, they are actually composed of a variety of specific parts. At the head of a slug are two pairs of tentacles that have the ability to retract into the body. The upper pair of tentacles is used to sense light as there are eye spots on their ends [5]. The lower pair of tentacles is used by the slug to smell [5]. Directly behind a slug's head is a saddle-shaped structure known as the mantle [5]. The mantle covers the slug's genitals and anus along with a respiratory opening called the pneumostome, which is typically located on the right side of the mantle [5]. Behind the mantle is the slug's tail which, depending on the species of slug, will have a ridge down the middle known as a keel [5]. The underside of a slug is classified as the foot. The foot is capable of a series of rhythmic, muscular contractions which allow the slug to move freely [5]. To protect the foot tissue from being damaged during movement, the foot simultaneously secretes a layer of mucus which can be seen trailing behind a moving slug [5]. The rest of the slug's body will also produce mucus to protect soft tissues exposed by a lack of a shell from desiccation [5]. Lastly, some slug species possess an internalized remnant of a shell, known as the vestigial shell which acts as an organ to store calcium salts [5]. <br /> <br /> == Habitat ==<br /> Slugs need a moist environment in order to survive due to their soft, moist body tissue which is prone to desiccation [6]. Because of this, most slugs live underground in cool, damp soils or can be found under mulch or the underside of decaying logs during dry spells. [6]. If a dry period persists for too long, slugs will encase themselves in a paper-like cocoon until it is over, which is a process known as aestivation [6]. Because of these requirements, slugs are most often found in temperate or tropical forests where there is plenty of moisture and moist areas to retreat to during dry spells.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Diet and Behavior ==<br /> Slugs grind up their food using their jaw and a radula, which is a flexible band comprised of thousands of microscopic teeth [1]. The jaw cuts of large pieces of food that the radula will then scrape food particles from [1]. Most species of slugs are generalists, meaning they will eat a wide array of organic materials in order to sustain themselves [5]. Food sources range from mushrooms, living plants such as garden vegetables or flowers, [[lichen]], and sometimes even carrion [5]. [[File:Slug_Teeth.png | thumb | Slug Teeth - ''Retrieved from '' https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws#:~:text=Snails%20and%20slugs%20eat%20with,be%20rasped%20by%20the%20radula. ]]<br /> <br /> Slugs are typically nocturnal creatures, but can occasionally be seen during daytime if there are damp weather conditions [2]. They are also highly susceptible to changing temperatures in the environment [2]. Slugs will become more active as temperatures fall at nighttime, however; they rarely withstand freezing temperatures [2]. <br /> Some slug species will hibernate during the winter instead of dying off, but usually winter marks the end of their life cycle [5]. The optimal temperature range for maximum slug activity falls between 17 and 18°C [2]. Slugs display unique behaviors, especially when being threatened. If a threat is sensed, a slug will retract its body into a compact, circular shape to minimize damage [5]. While doing this, slugs will also firmly bind themselves to the surface they are on using their mucus in an attempt to prevent removal from the environment [5]. The excess mucus produced during this process also makes slugs more difficult to grasp by potential predators while also producing an unpleasant taste [5]. In some cases, slugs are even able to incapacitate certain predators ([[insects]] in this case) by using their mucus to create a sticky trap to immobilize the predator [5]. Some slug species will even go as far as to self-amputate portions of their body such as the tail in order to escape a predator [5]. Apart from being threatened, slugs will also display highly aggressive behaviors when competing with other slugs for resources, especially if they are scarce due to seasonality [5]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> [[File: Immature_Slug.jpg | thumb | Immature Slug - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are hermaphrodites which means one individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs [4]. Despite this, slugs will still mate with one another, resulting in both individuals producing fertile offspring. Slugs lay batches of eggs at a time in moist crevices underground or in decaying wood, with batches ranging in size from 10 to 50 eggs [4]. Slug eggs are spherical, gelatinous, and colored white or golden in appearance [4]. If the weather is warm enough, eggs can hatch as early as 10 days after they were laid, but can take up to 100 days if the weather is not favorable [4]. From a hatched egg will emerge an immature slug which is similar to adult slugs in color, but is much smaller and more vulnerable to environmental conditions and predators [4]. After hatching, it will take roughly one year or less for a slug to reach maturity [4]. Once a slug reaches adulthood, its lifespan can last up to two years if conditions are favorable [4]. Most slug deaths occur due to cold weather, dry conditions, the presence of salt as slugs are comprised of mostly water, or predators [4]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Slugs play a pivotal role in the environments which they are present in. They provide an abundant, protein rich food source for a variety of predators, from toads to shrews, foxes, and an array of different bird species [3]. Slugs are mainly important because they provide a food source for predators which are key control methods for other pests in the environment [3]. For example, if toads are attracted to an area due to high slug populations they can feed on, they will also consume pests such as mosquitos that are present, helping to maintain a more balanced ecosystem [3]. Slugs are also important because they can act as decomposers. For example, slugs will eat a variety of rotting plants, animal droppings, or even carrion, resulting in the breakdown of organic material and a release of nutrients back into the [[soil]] [3].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] A Microscopic Look at Snail Jaws | Natural History Museum. (n.d.). . https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws.<br /> <br /> [2] Dainton, H. 1954. The activity of slugs. I. The induction of activity by changing temperatures. J. Exp. Biol:165.<br /> <br /> [3] Ecological Benefits of Slugs. (n.d.). . https://budgeting.thenest.com/ecological-benefits-slugs-31334.html.<br /> <br /> [4] Life Cycle of Slugs. (2017). https://www.gardenguides.com/13406265-life-cycle-of-slugs.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Slug. (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug#Feeding_habits.<br /> <br /> [6] Slug and Snail Biology. (2021). http://www.allaboutslugs.com/slug-and-snail-science/slug-biology-2/.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=7146 2021-05-07T15:37:32Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Starfish_Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Starfish Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/aseroe-rubra.php]]<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> [[File:Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Bridal Veil Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-11-08/Bridal-veil-stinkhorn-A-girlish-mushroom-that-loves-to-wear-skirt--Ls1IQolIE8/index.html]]<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell [2]. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name [5]. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance [2]. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung [5]. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges [2]. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and [[slugs]] [5].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions [4]. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [5]. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction [5]. [[File:phallaceae.jpg|thumb|Phallaceae - Stinkhorns - ''Retrieved from'' http://hoosiermushrooms.org/index.php?/gallery/album/26-phallaceae-stinkhorns/]]Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country [4]. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source [6]. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils [2]<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch [5]. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue [5]. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards [3]. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba [3]. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere [5]. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment [5]. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions [5]. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity [5]. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species [5]. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates [5]. In some cases, stinkhorns have even provided alternate breeding substrates for fly species such as ''Drosophila'' when normal breeding habitat is not available, allowing them to prolong population survival [1]. However, interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Jadhav, R., S. Tiwari, R. Avchar, M. Groenewald, and A. 2020 Baghela. (n.d.). Suhomyces drosophilae sp. nov., isolated from Drosophila flies feeding on a stinkhorn mushroom. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 70:4908–4913.<br /> <br /> [2] P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> [3] Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> [4] Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> [5] Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> [6] Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=7143 2021-05-07T15:34:35Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Starfish_Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Starfish Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/aseroe-rubra.php]]<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> [[File:Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Bridal Veil Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-11-08/Bridal-veil-stinkhorn-A-girlish-mushroom-that-loves-to-wear-skirt--Ls1IQolIE8/index.html]]<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell [1]. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name [4]. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance [1]. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung [4]. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges [1]. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and [[slugs]] [4].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions [3]. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [4]. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction [4]. [[File:phallaceae.jpg|thumb|Phallaceae - Stinkhorns - ''Retrieved from'' http://hoosiermushrooms.org/index.php?/gallery/album/26-phallaceae-stinkhorns/]]Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country [3]. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source [5]. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils [1]<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch [4]. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue [4]. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards [2]. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba [2]. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere [4]. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment [4]. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions [4]. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species [4]. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates [4]. In some cases, stinkhorns have even provided alternate breeding substrates for fly species such as ''Drosophila'' when normal breeding habitat is not available, allowing them to prolong population survival [6]. However, interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> [2] Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> [3] Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> [4] Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> [5] Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Jadhav, R., S. Tiwari, R. Avchar, M. Groenewald, and A. 2020 Baghela. (n.d.). Suhomyces drosophilae sp. nov., isolated from Drosophila flies feeding on a stinkhorn mushroom. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 70:4908–4913.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Slugs&diff=7142 2021-05-07T15:33:57Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: Slug.jpeg | thumb | Slug - ''Retrieved from '' https://baynature.org/article/not-just-a-pretty-face-the-banana-slug-is-one-of-the-weirdest-animals-on-earth/ ]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> [[File: Slug_on_Mushroom.jpg | thumb | Slug on Mushroom - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are easily recognizable gastropods that belong to the phyla Mollusca [4]. While at first look like appear as slimy, simply-built creatures, they are actually composed of a variety of specific parts. At the head of a slug are two pairs of tentacles that have the ability to retract into the body. The upper pair of tentacles is used to sense light as there are eye spots on their ends [4]. The lower pair of tentacles is used by the slug to smell [4]. Directly behind a slug's head is a saddle-shaped structure known as the mantle [4]. The mantle covers the slug's genitals and anus along with a respiratory opening called the pneumostome, which is typically located on the right side of the mantle [4]. Behind the mantle is the slug's tail which, depending on the species of slug, will have a ridge down the middle known as a keel [4]. The underside of a slug is classified as the foot. The foot is capable of a series of rhythmic, muscular contractions which allow the slug to move freely [4]. To protect the foot tissue from being damaged during movement, the foot simultaneously secretes a layer of mucus which can be seen trailing behind a moving slug [4]. The rest of the slug's body will also produce mucus to protect soft tissues exposed by a lack of a shell from desiccation [4]. Lastly, some slug species possess an internalized remnant of a shell, known as the vestigial shell which acts as an organ to store calcium salts [4]. <br /> <br /> == Habitat ==<br /> Slugs need a moist environment in order to survive due to their soft, moist body tissue which is prone to desiccation [5]. Because of this, most slugs live underground in cool, damp soils or can be found under mulch or the underside of decaying logs during dry spells. [5]. If a dry period persists for too long, slugs will encase themselves in a paper-like cocoon until it is over, which is a process known as aestivation [5]. Because of these requirements, slugs are most often found in temperate or tropical forests where there is plenty of moisture and moist areas to retreat to during dry spells.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Diet and Behavior ==<br /> Slugs grind up their food using their jaw and a radula, which is a flexible band comprised of thousands of microscopic teeth [1]. The jaw cuts of large pieces of food that the radula will then scrape food particles from [1]. Most species of slugs are generalists, meaning they will eat a wide array of organic materials in order to sustain themselves [4]. Food sources range from mushrooms, living plants such as garden vegetables or flowers, [[lichen]], and sometimes even carrion [4]. [[File:Slug_Teeth.png | thumb | Slug Teeth - ''Retrieved from '' https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws#:~:text=Snails%20and%20slugs%20eat%20with,be%20rasped%20by%20the%20radula. ]]<br /> <br /> Slugs are typically nocturnal creatures, but can occasionally be seen during daytime if there are damp weather conditions [6]. They are also highly susceptible to changing temperatures in the environment [6]. Slugs will become more active as temperatures fall at nighttime, however; they rarely withstand freezing temperatures [6]. <br /> Some slug species will hibernate during the winter instead of dying off, but usually winter marks the end of their life cycle [4]. The optimal temperature range for maximum slug activity falls between 17 and 18°C [6]. Slugs display unique behaviors, especially when being threatened. If a threat is sensed, a slug will retract its body into a compact, circular shape to minimize damage [4]. While doing this, slugs will also firmly bind themselves to the surface they are on using their mucus in an attempt to prevent removal from the environment [4]. The excess mucus produced during this process also makes slugs more difficult to grasp by potential predators while also producing an unpleasant taste [4]. In some cases, slugs are even able to incapacitate certain predators ([[insects]] in this case) by using their mucus to create a sticky trap to immobilize the predator [4]. Some slug species will even go as far as to self-amputate portions of their body such as the tail in order to escape a predator [4]. Apart from being threatened, slugs will also display highly aggressive behaviors when competing with other slugs for resources, especially if they are scarce due to seasonality [4]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> [[File: Immature_Slug.jpg | thumb | Immature Slug - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are hermaphrodites which means one individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs [3]. Despite this, slugs will still mate with one another, resulting in both individuals producing fertile offspring. Slugs lay batches of eggs at a time in moist crevices underground or in decaying wood, with batches ranging in size from 10 to 50 eggs [3]. Slug eggs are spherical, gelatinous, and colored white or golden in appearance [3]. If the weather is warm enough, eggs can hatch as early as 10 days after they were laid, but can take up to 100 days if the weather is not favorable [3]. From a hatched egg will emerge an immature slug which is similar to adult slugs in color, but is much smaller and more vulnerable to environmental conditions and predators [3]. After hatching, it will take roughly one year or less for a slug to reach maturity [3]. Once a slug reaches adulthood, its lifespan can last up to two years if conditions are favorable [3]. Most slug deaths occur due to cold weather, dry conditions, the presence of salt as slugs are comprised of mostly water, or predators [3]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Slugs play a pivotal role in the environments which they are present in. They provide an abundant, protein rich food source for a variety of predators, from toads to shrews, foxes, and an array of different bird species [2]. Slugs are mainly important because they provide a food source for predators which are key control methods for other pests in the environment [2]. For example, if toads are attracted to an area due to high slug populations they can feed on, they will also consume pests such as mosquitos that are present, helping to maintain a more balanced ecosystem [2]. Slugs are also important because they can act as decomposers. For example, slugs will eat a variety of rotting plants, animal droppings, or even carrion, resulting in the breakdown of organic material and a release of nutrients back into the [[soil]] [2].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] A Microscopic Look at Snail Jaws | Natural History Museum. (n.d.). . https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws.<br /> <br /> [2] Ecological Benefits of Slugs. (n.d.). . https://budgeting.thenest.com/ecological-benefits-slugs-31334.html.<br /> <br /> [3] Life Cycle of Slugs. (2017). https://www.gardenguides.com/13406265-life-cycle-of-slugs.html.<br /> <br /> [4] Slug. (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug#Feeding_habits.<br /> <br /> [5] Slug and Snail Biology. (2021). http://www.allaboutslugs.com/slug-and-snail-science/slug-biology-2/.<br /> <br /> [6] Dainton, H. 1954. The activity of slugs. I. The induction of activity by changing temperatures. J. Exp. Biol:165.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Slugs&diff=7141 2021-05-07T15:33:12Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: Slug.jpeg | thumb | Slug - ''Retrieved from '' https://baynature.org/article/not-just-a-pretty-face-the-banana-slug-is-one-of-the-weirdest-animals-on-earth/ ]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> [[File: Slug_on_Mushroom.jpg | thumb | Slug on Mushroom - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are easily recognizable gastropods that belong to the phyla Mollusca [4]. While at first look like appear as slimy, simply-built creatures, they are actually composed of a variety of specific parts. At the head of a slug are two pairs of tentacles that have the ability to retract into the body. The upper pair of tentacles is used to sense light as there are eye spots on their ends [4]. The lower pair of tentacles is used by the slug to smell [4]. Directly behind a slug's head is a saddle-shaped structure known as the mantle [4]. The mantle covers the slug's genitals and anus along with a respiratory opening called the pneumostome, which is typically located on the right side of the mantle [4]. Behind the mantle is the slug's tail which, depending on the species of slug, will have a ridge down the middle known as a keel [4]. The underside of a slug is classified as the foot. The foot is capable of a series of rhythmic, muscular contractions which allow the slug to move freely [4]. To protect the foot tissue from being damaged during movement, the foot simultaneously secretes a layer of mucus which can be seen trailing behind a moving slug [4]. The rest of the slug's body will also produce mucus to protect soft tissues exposed by a lack of a shell from desiccation [4]. Lastly, some slug species possess an internalized remnant of a shell, known as the vestigial shell which acts as an organ to store calcium salts [4]. <br /> <br /> == Habitat ==<br /> Slugs need a moist environment in order to survive due to their soft, moist body tissue which is prone to desiccation [5]. Because of this, most slugs live underground in cool, damp soils or can be found under mulch or the underside of decaying logs during dry spells. [5]. If a dry period persists for too long, slugs will encase themselves in a paper-like cocoon until it is over, which is a process known as aestivation [5]. Because of these requirements, slugs are most often found in temperate or tropical forests where there is plenty of moisture and moist areas to retreat to during dry spells.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Diet and Behavior ==<br /> Slugs grind up their food using their jaw and a radula, which is a flexible band comprised of thousands of microscopic teeth [1]. The jaw cuts of large pieces of food that the radula will then scrape food particles from [1]. Most species of slugs are generalists, meaning they will eat a wide array of organic materials in order to sustain themselves [4]. Food sources range from mushrooms, living plants such as garden vegetables or flowers, [[lichen]], and sometimes even carrion [4].<br /> <br /> Slugs are typically nocturnal creatures, but can occasionally be seen during daytime if there are damp weather conditions [6]. They are also highly susceptible to changing temperatures in the environment [6]. Slugs will become more active as temperatures fall at nighttime, however; they rarely withstand freezing temperatures [6]. <br /> Some slug species will hibernate during the winter instead of dying off, but usually winter marks the end of their life cycle [4]. The optimal temperature range for maximum slug activity falls between 17 and 18°C [6]. Slugs display unique behaviors, especially when being threatened. If a threat is sensed, a slug will retract its body into a compact, circular shape to minimize damage [4]. While doing this, slugs will also firmly bind themselves to the surface they are on using their mucus in an attempt to prevent removal from the environment [4]. The excess mucus produced during this process also makes slugs more difficult to grasp by potential predators while also producing an unpleasant taste [4]. In some cases, slugs are even able to incapacitate certain predators ([[insects]] in this case) by using their mucus to create a sticky trap to immobilize the predator [4]. Some slug species will even go as far as to self-amputate portions of their body such as the tail in order to escape a predator [4]. Apart from being threatened, slugs will also display highly aggressive behaviors when competing with other slugs for resources, especially if they are scarce due to seasonality [4]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> [[File: Immature_Slug.jpg | thumb | Immature Slug - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are hermaphrodites which means one individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs [3]. Despite this, slugs will still mate with one another, resulting in both individuals producing fertile offspring. Slugs lay batches of eggs at a time in moist crevices underground or in decaying wood, with batches ranging in size from 10 to 50 eggs [3]. Slug eggs are spherical, gelatinous, and colored white or golden in appearance [3]. If the weather is warm enough, eggs can hatch as early as 10 days after they were laid, but can take up to 100 days if the weather is not favorable [3]. From a hatched egg will emerge an immature slug which is similar to adult slugs in color, but is much smaller and more vulnerable to environmental conditions and predators [3]. After hatching, it will take roughly one year or less for a slug to reach maturity [3]. Once a slug reaches adulthood, its lifespan can last up to two years if conditions are favorable [3]. Most slug deaths occur due to cold weather, dry conditions, the presence of salt as slugs are comprised of mostly water, or predators [3]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Slugs play a pivotal role in the environments which they are present in. They provide an abundant, protein rich food source for a variety of predators, from toads to shrews, foxes, and an array of different bird species [2]. Slugs are mainly important because they provide a food source for predators which are key control methods for other pests in the environment [2]. For example, if toads are attracted to an area due to high slug populations they can feed on, they will also consume pests such as mosquitos that are present, helping to maintain a more balanced ecosystem [2]. Slugs are also important because they can act as decomposers. For example, slugs will eat a variety of rotting plants, animal droppings, or even carrion, resulting in the breakdown of organic material and a release of nutrients back into the [[soil]] [2].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] A Microscopic Look at Snail Jaws | Natural History Museum. (n.d.). . https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws.<br /> <br /> [2] Ecological Benefits of Slugs. (n.d.). . https://budgeting.thenest.com/ecological-benefits-slugs-31334.html.<br /> <br /> [3] Life Cycle of Slugs. (2017). https://www.gardenguides.com/13406265-life-cycle-of-slugs.html.<br /> <br /> [4] Slug. (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug#Feeding_habits.<br /> <br /> [5] Slug and Snail Biology. (2021). http://www.allaboutslugs.com/slug-and-snail-science/slug-biology-2/.<br /> <br /> [6] Dainton, H. 1954. The activity of slugs. I. The induction of activity by changing temperatures. J. Exp. Biol:165.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Slugs&diff=7140 2021-05-07T15:32:33Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: Slug.jpeg | thumb | Slug - ''Retrieved from '' https://baynature.org/article/not-just-a-pretty-face-the-banana-slug-is-one-of-the-weirdest-animals-on-earth/ ]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> [[File: Slug_on_Mushroom.jpg | thumb | Slug on Mushroom - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are easily recognizable gastropods that belong to the phyla Mollusca [4]. While at first look like appear as slimy, simply-built creatures, they are actually composed of a variety of specific parts. At the head of a slug are two pairs of tentacles that have the ability to retract into the body. The upper pair of tentacles is used to sense light as there are eye spots on their ends [4]. The lower pair of tentacles is used by the slug to smell [4]. Directly behind a slug's head is a saddle-shaped structure known as the mantle [4]. The mantle covers the slug's genitals and anus along with a respiratory opening called the pneumostome, which is typically located on the right side of the mantle [4]. Behind the mantle is the slug's tail which, depending on the species of slug, will have a ridge down the middle known as a keel [4]. The underside of a slug is classified as the foot. The foot is capable of a series of rhythmic, muscular contractions which allow the slug to move freely [4]. To protect the foot tissue from being damaged during movement, the foot simultaneously secretes a layer of mucus which can be seen trailing behind a moving slug [4]. The rest of the slug's body will also produce mucus to protect soft tissues exposed by a lack of a shell from desiccation [4]. Lastly, some slug species possess an internalized remnant of a shell, known as the vestigial shell which acts as an organ to store calcium salts [4]. <br /> <br /> == Habitat ==<br /> Slugs need a moist environment in order to survive due to their soft, moist body tissue which is prone to desiccation [5]. Because of this, most slugs live underground in cool, damp soils or can be found under mulch or the underside of decaying logs during dry spells. [5]. If a dry period persists for too long, slugs will encase themselves in a paper-like cocoon until it is over, which is a process known as aestivation [5]. Because of these requirements, slugs are most often found in temperate or tropical forests where there is plenty of moisture and moist areas to retreat to during dry spells.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Diet and Behavior ==<br /> Slugs grind up their food using their jaw and a radula, which is a flexible band comprised of thousands of microscopic teeth [1]. The jaw cuts of large pieces of food that the radula will then scrape food particles from [1]. Most species of slugs are generalists, meaning they will eat a wide array of organic materials in order to sustain themselves [4]. Food sources range from mushrooms, living plants such as garden vegetables or flowers, [[lichen]], and sometimes even carrion [4].<br /> [[File:Slug_Teeth.png | thumb | Slug Teeth - ''Retrieved from '' https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws#:~:text=Snails%20and%20slugs%20eat%20with,be%20rasped%20by%20the%20radula. ]]<br /> Slugs are typically nocturnal creatures, but can occasionally be seen during daytime if there are damp weather conditions [6]. They are also highly susceptible to changing temperatures in the environment [6]. Slugs will become more active as temperatures fall at nighttime, however; they rarely withstand freezing temperatures [6]. <br /> Some slug species will hibernate during the winter instead of dying off, but usually winter marks the end of their life cycle [4]. The optimal temperature range for maximum slug activity falls between 17 and 18°C [6]. Slugs display unique behaviors, especially when being threatened. If a threat is sensed, a slug will retract its body into a compact, circular shape to minimize damage [4]. While doing this, slugs will also firmly bind themselves to the surface they are on using their mucus in an attempt to prevent removal from the environment [4]. The excess mucus produced during this process also makes slugs more difficult to grasp by potential predators while also producing an unpleasant taste [4]. In some cases, slugs are even able to incapacitate certain predators ([[insects]] in this case) by using their mucus to create a sticky trap to immobilize the predator [4]. Some slug species will even go as far as to self-amputate portions of their body such as the tail in order to escape a predator [4]. Apart from being threatened, slugs will also display highly aggressive behaviors when competing with other slugs for resources, especially if they are scarce due to seasonality [4]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> [[File: Immature_Slug.jpg | thumb | Immature Slug - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are hermaphrodites which means one individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs [3]. Despite this, slugs will still mate with one another, resulting in both individuals producing fertile offspring. Slugs lay batches of eggs at a time in moist crevices underground or in decaying wood, with batches ranging in size from 10 to 50 eggs [3]. Slug eggs are spherical, gelatinous, and colored white or golden in appearance [3]. If the weather is warm enough, eggs can hatch as early as 10 days after they were laid, but can take up to 100 days if the weather is not favorable [3]. From a hatched egg will emerge an immature slug which is similar to adult slugs in color, but is much smaller and more vulnerable to environmental conditions and predators [3]. After hatching, it will take roughly one year or less for a slug to reach maturity [3]. Once a slug reaches adulthood, its lifespan can last up to two years if conditions are favorable [3]. Most slug deaths occur due to cold weather, dry conditions, the presence of salt as slugs are comprised of mostly water, or predators [3]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Slugs play a pivotal role in the environments which they are present in. They provide an abundant, protein rich food source for a variety of predators, from toads to shrews, foxes, and an array of different bird species [2]. Slugs are mainly important because they provide a food source for predators which are key control methods for other pests in the environment [2]. For example, if toads are attracted to an area due to high slug populations they can feed on, they will also consume pests such as mosquitos that are present, helping to maintain a more balanced ecosystem [2]. Slugs are also important because they can act as decomposers. For example, slugs will eat a variety of rotting plants, animal droppings, or even carrion, resulting in the breakdown of organic material and a release of nutrients back into the [[soil]] [2].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> [1] A Microscopic Look at Snail Jaws | Natural History Museum. (n.d.). . https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws.<br /> <br /> [2] Ecological Benefits of Slugs. (n.d.). . https://budgeting.thenest.com/ecological-benefits-slugs-31334.html.<br /> <br /> [3] Life Cycle of Slugs. (2017). https://www.gardenguides.com/13406265-life-cycle-of-slugs.html.<br /> <br /> [4] Slug. (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug#Feeding_habits.<br /> <br /> [5] Slug and Snail Biology. (2021). http://www.allaboutslugs.com/slug-and-snail-science/slug-biology-2/.<br /> <br /> [6] Dainton, H. 1954. The activity of slugs. I. The induction of activity by changing temperatures. J. Exp. Biol:165.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=7139 2021-05-07T15:21:27Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Starfish_Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Starfish Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/aseroe-rubra.php]]<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> [[File:Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Bridal Veil Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-11-08/Bridal-veil-stinkhorn-A-girlish-mushroom-that-loves-to-wear-skirt--Ls1IQolIE8/index.html]]<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell [1]. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name [4]. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance [1]. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung [4]. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges [1]. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and [[slugs]] [4].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions [3]. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [4]. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction [4]. [[File:phallaceae.jpg|thumb|Phallaceae - Stinkhorns - ''Retrieved from'' http://hoosiermushrooms.org/index.php?/gallery/album/26-phallaceae-stinkhorns/]]Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country [3]. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source [5]. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils [1]<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch [4]. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue [4]. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards [2]. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba [2]. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere [4]. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment [4]. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions [4]. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species [4]. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates [4]. In some cases, stinkhorns have even provided alternate breeding substrates for fly species such as ''Drosophila'' when normal breeding habitat is not available, allowing them to prolong population survival [6]. However, interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> 2. Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> 3. Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> 5. Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.<br /> <br /> [6] Jadhav, R., S. Tiwari, R. Avchar, M. Groenewald, and A. 2020 Baghela. (n.d.). Suhomyces drosophilae sp. nov., isolated from Drosophila flies feeding on a stinkhorn mushroom. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 70:4908–4913.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Cicadas&diff=7137 2021-05-07T15:06:22Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: cicada.jpg|thumb|Periodical Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brood-x-cicadas-could-cause-a-bird-baby-boom/]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> Cicadas are members of the family Cicadidae and the order Homoptera [2]. They have two pairs of membranous wings, two compound eyes as well as three simple eyes, and range from 2 to 5 cm in length [2]. Color can vary from bright orange and red patterns to iridescent greens and blues. Cicadas are easily identifiable by their recognizable vocalizations in mid and late summer months. Male cicadas are responsible for these vocalizations which are produced by vibrating membranes located at the base of the abdomen [2]. The natural song frequency of a cicada is determined by the dimensions of the abdominal cavity and the tympana, which functions as an eardrum membrane in the abdomen [1]. North American species produce a series of rhythmical buzzes or whines, while exotic species produce more musical vocalizations [2]. Vocalizations are made for three reasons; for mating, as a sign of disturbance, or as a result of daily weather fluctuations and the songs produced by other nearby males [2].<br /> <br /> == Annual vs. Periodical Cicadas ==<br /> [[File: dogday.jpg|thumb|Dog-day Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]]<br /> <br /> Cicada species can be divided into two sub-categories based on the timing of their life cycles. Annual cicadas have a life cycle of two to five years and broods overlap, resulting in new adults every year [3]. An example of an annual cicada is the Dog-Day Cicada [3]. Periodical cicadas do not appear every year and have life cycles of 13 to 17 years [3]. There is a total of seven cicada species that are considered periodical, and all belong to the genus ''Magicicada''[3]. Of these seven species, four have a 17-year cycle and are generally found in the north, while the remaining three species have a 13-year cycle and are generally found in more southern regions [3]. Adult periodical cicadas typically emerge in May and June and are identifiable by their black bodies, striking red eyeballs and orange veined wings [3].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Over 3,000 species of cicadas are known to exist, ranging in habitat from deserts, to grasslands and forests with most being situated in tropical environments [2]. Within these environments, cicadas inhabit regions with deciduous, woody trees and plants that can support their reproductive and nutritional needs [6]. Nymphs require environments with [[soil]] fertile enough to support complex root systems which they can feed upon as they grow [6]. Adults require woody plants with tender, thin twigs in which they can lay their eggs and also extract fluid from for food [5]. Annual cicadas can be found worldwide, while periodicals are restricted solely to the central and eastern regions of the United States [4]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> The life cycle of a cicada begins with the laying of eggs in woody plant tissues that will later drop from the plant during or after egg hatching [2]. Female cicadas can lay up to 400 eggs spread over dozens of sites [4]. After 6 to 10 weeks, nymphs emerge from these eggs and burrow into the ground where they will sustain themselves on juices from roots of perennial plants [2]. The nymph phase of the cicada is spent entirely in underground burrows until they emerge to the surface and molt their shells to become adults [4]. [[File: molt.jpg|thumb|Molting Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]] This event occurs in synchrony for all nymphs becoming adults as it is dependent on the year and soil temperature [4]. Once an adult, the sole purpose of the cicada is to mate and lay eggs as they will only be alive for four to six weeks [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Cicadas play a beneficial role in the environment as they aerate the soil as nymphs, prune trees and shrubs as adults, and serve as a source of nitrogen for plants once they die [5]. They are also an important link in the food chain as almost all insectivorous species will eat them once they emerge in the summer. Because cicadas emerge in the millions, they are fairly resilient to predation, making them an abundant and reliable food source [5]. However, cicadas can be considered a vulnerable group of [[insects]] as nymphs are heavily affected by the application of pesticides and other lawn and garden chemicals [5]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> [1] Bennet-Clark, H. C., and D. Young. (1992). A MODEL OF THE MECHANISM OF SOUND PRODUCTION IN CICADAS:32.<br /> <br /> [2] cicada | Description, Life Cycle, &amp; Facts. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada.<br /> <br /> [3] Cicada - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). . https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html.<br /> <br /> [4] Cicadas, facts and photos. 2011, May 10. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas.<br /> <br /> [5] [[Periodical Cicadas]]. (n.d.). . https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas.<br /> <br /> [6] Where Do Cicadas Live? Facts About Cicada Habitats. 2018, April 11. . https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Slugs&diff=6456 2021-05-04T20:04:39Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: Slug.jpeg | thumb | Slug - ''Retrieved from '' https://baynature.org/article/not-just-a-pretty-face-the-banana-slug-is-one-of-the-weirdest-animals-on-earth/ ]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> [[File: Slug_on_Mushroom.jpg | thumb | Slug on Mushroom - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are easily recognizable gastropods that belong to the phyla Mollusca [4]. While at first look like appear as slimy, simply-built creatures, they are actually composed of a variety of specific parts. At the head of a slug are two pairs of tentacles that have the ability to retract into the body. The upper pair of tentacles is used to sense light as there are eye spots on their ends [4]. The lower pair of tentacles is used by the slug to smell [4]. Directly behind a slug's head is a saddle-shaped structure known as the mantle [4]. The mantle covers the slug's genitals and anus along with a respiratory opening called the pneumostome, which is typically located on the right side of the mantle [4]. Behind the mantle is the slug's tail which, depending on the species of slug, will have a ridge down the middle known as a keel [4]. The underside of a slug is classified as the foot. The foot is capable of a series of rhythmic, muscular contractions which allow the slug to move freely [4]. To protect the foot tissue from being damaged during movement, the foot simultaneously secretes a layer of mucus which can be seen trailing behind a moving slug [4]. The rest of the slug's body will also produce mucus to protect soft tissues exposed by a lack of a shell from desiccation [4]. Lastly, some slug species possess an internalized remnant of a shell, known as the vestigial shell which acts as an organ to store calcium salts [4]. <br /> <br /> == Habitat ==<br /> Slugs need a moist environment in order to survive due to their soft, moist body tissue which is prone to desiccation [5]. Because of this, most slugs live underground in cool, damp soils or can be found under mulch or the underside of decaying logs during dry spells. [5]. If a dry period persists for too long, slugs will encase themselves in a paper-like cocoon until it is over, which is a process known as aestivation [5]. Because of these requirements, slugs are most often found in temperate or tropical forests where there is plenty of moisture and moist areas to retreat to during dry spells.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Diet and Behavior ==<br /> Slugs grind up their food using their jaw and a radula, which is a flexible band comprised of thousands of microscopic teeth [1]. The jaw cuts of large pieces of food that the radula will then scrape food particles from [1]. Most species of slugs are generalists, meaning they will eat a wide array of organic materials in order to sustain themselves [4]. Food sources range from mushrooms, living plants such as garden vegetables or flowers, [[lichen]], and sometimes even carrion [4].<br /> [[File:Slug_Teeth.png | thumb | Slug Teeth - ''Retrieved from '' https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws#:~:text=Snails%20and%20slugs%20eat%20with,be%20rasped%20by%20the%20radula. ]]<br /> Slugs display unique behaviors, especially when being threatened. If a threat is sensed, a slug will retract its body into a compact, circular shape to minimize damage [4]. While doing this, slugs will also firmly bind themselves to the surface they are on using their mucus in an attempt to prevent removal from the environment [4]. The excess mucus produced during this process also makes slugs more difficult to grasp by potential predators while also producing an unpleasant taste [4]. In some cases, slugs are even able to incapacitate certain predators ([[insects]] in this case) by using their mucus to create a sticky trap to immobilize the predator [4]. Some slug species will even go as far as to self-amputate portions of their body such as the tail in order to escape a predator [4]. Apart from being threatened, slugs will also display highly aggressive behaviors when competing with other slugs for resources, especially if they are scarce due to seasonality [4]. Some slug species are also known to hibernate during the winter instead of dying off [4].<br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> [[File: Immature_Slug.jpg | thumb | Immature Slug - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are hermaphrodites which means one individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs [3]. Despite this, slugs will still mate with one another, resulting in both individuals producing fertile offspring. Slugs lay batches of eggs at a time in moist crevices underground or in decaying wood, with batches ranging in size from 10 to 50 eggs [3]. Slug eggs are spherical, gelatinous, and colored white or golden in appearance [3]. If the weather is warm enough, eggs can hatch as early as 10 days after they were laid, but can take up to 100 days if the weather is not favorable [3]. From a hatched egg will emerge an immature slug which is similar to adult slugs in color, but is much smaller and more vulnerable to environmental conditions and predators [3]. After hatching, it will take roughly one year or less for a slug to reach maturity [3]. Once a slug reaches adulthood, its lifespan can last up to two years if conditions are favorable [3]. Most slug deaths occur due to cold weather, dry conditions, the presence of salt as slugs are comprised of mostly water, or predators [3]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Slugs play a pivotal role in the environments which they are present in. They provide an abundant, protein rich food source for a variety of predators, from toads to shrews, foxes, and an array of different bird species [2]. Slugs are mainly important because they provide a food source for predators which are key control methods for other pests in the environment [2]. For example, if toads are attracted to an area due to high slug populations they can feed on, they will also consume pests such as mosquitos that are present, helping to maintain a more balanced ecosystem [2]. Slugs are also important because they can act as decomposers. For example, slugs will eat a variety of rotting plants, animal droppings, or even carrion, resulting in the breakdown of organic material and a release of nutrients back into the [[soil]] [2].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> 1. A Microscopic Look at Snail Jaws | Natural History Museum. (n.d.). . https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws.<br /> <br /> 2. Ecological Benefits of Slugs. (n.d.). . https://budgeting.thenest.com/ecological-benefits-slugs-31334.html.<br /> <br /> 3. Life Cycle of Slugs. (2017). https://www.gardenguides.com/13406265-life-cycle-of-slugs.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Slug. (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug#Feeding_habits.<br /> <br /> 5. Slug and Snail Biology. (2021). http://www.allaboutslugs.com/slug-and-snail-science/slug-biology-2/.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Slug.jpeg&diff=6455 2021-05-04T20:03:48Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Slugs&diff=6454 2021-05-04T20:02:42Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == Description ==<br /> [[File: Slug_on_Mushroom.jpg | thumb | Slug on Mushroom - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are easily recognizable gastropods that belong to the phyla Mollusca [4]. While at first look like appear as slimy, simply-built creatures, they are actually composed of a variety of specific parts. At the head of a slug are two pairs of tentacles that have the ability to retract into the body. The upper pair of tentacles is used to sense light as there are eye spots on their ends [4]. The lower pair of tentacles is used by the slug to smell [4]. Directly behind a slug's head is a saddle-shaped structure known as the mantle [4]. The mantle covers the slug's genitals and anus along with a respiratory opening called the pneumostome, which is typically located on the right side of the mantle [4]. Behind the mantle is the slug's tail which, depending on the species of slug, will have a ridge down the middle known as a keel [4]. The underside of a slug is classified as the foot. The foot is capable of a series of rhythmic, muscular contractions which allow the slug to move freely [4]. To protect the foot tissue from being damaged during movement, the foot simultaneously secretes a layer of mucus which can be seen trailing behind a moving slug [4]. The rest of the slug's body will also produce mucus to protect soft tissues exposed by a lack of a shell from desiccation [4]. Lastly, some slug species possess an internalized remnant of a shell, known as the vestigial shell which acts as an organ to store calcium salts [4]. <br /> <br /> == Habitat ==<br /> Slugs need a moist environment in order to survive due to their soft, moist body tissue which is prone to desiccation [5]. Because of this, most slugs live underground in cool, damp soils or can be found under mulch or the underside of decaying logs during dry spells. [5]. If a dry period persists for too long, slugs will encase themselves in a paper-like cocoon until it is over, which is a process known as aestivation [5]. Because of these requirements, slugs are most often found in temperate or tropical forests where there is plenty of moisture and moist areas to retreat to during dry spells.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Diet and Behavior ==<br /> Slugs grind up their food using their jaw and a radula, which is a flexible band comprised of thousands of microscopic teeth [1]. The jaw cuts of large pieces of food that the radula will then scrape food particles from [1]. Most species of slugs are generalists, meaning they will eat a wide array of organic materials in order to sustain themselves [4]. Food sources range from mushrooms, living plants such as garden vegetables or flowers, [[lichen]], and sometimes even carrion [4].<br /> [[File:Slug_Teeth.png | thumb | Slug Teeth - ''Retrieved from '' https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws#:~:text=Snails%20and%20slugs%20eat%20with,be%20rasped%20by%20the%20radula. ]]<br /> Slugs display unique behaviors, especially when being threatened. If a threat is sensed, a slug will retract its body into a compact, circular shape to minimize damage [4]. While doing this, slugs will also firmly bind themselves to the surface they are on using their mucus in an attempt to prevent removal from the environment [4]. The excess mucus produced during this process also makes slugs more difficult to grasp by potential predators while also producing an unpleasant taste [4]. In some cases, slugs are even able to incapacitate certain predators ([[insects]] in this case) by using their mucus to create a sticky trap to immobilize the predator [4]. Some slug species will even go as far as to self-amputate portions of their body such as the tail in order to escape a predator [4]. Apart from being threatened, slugs will also display highly aggressive behaviors when competing with other slugs for resources, especially if they are scarce due to seasonality [4]. Some slug species are also known to hibernate during the winter instead of dying off [4].<br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> [[File: Immature_Slug.jpg | thumb | Immature Slug - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are hermaphrodites which means one individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs [3]. Despite this, slugs will still mate with one another, resulting in both individuals producing fertile offspring. Slugs lay batches of eggs at a time in moist crevices underground or in decaying wood, with batches ranging in size from 10 to 50 eggs [3]. Slug eggs are spherical, gelatinous, and colored white or golden in appearance [3]. If the weather is warm enough, eggs can hatch as early as 10 days after they were laid, but can take up to 100 days if the weather is not favorable [3]. From a hatched egg will emerge an immature slug which is similar to adult slugs in color, but is much smaller and more vulnerable to environmental conditions and predators [3]. After hatching, it will take roughly one year or less for a slug to reach maturity [3]. Once a slug reaches adulthood, its lifespan can last up to two years if conditions are favorable [3]. Most slug deaths occur due to cold weather, dry conditions, the presence of salt as slugs are comprised of mostly water, or predators [3]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Slugs play a pivotal role in the environments which they are present in. They provide an abundant, protein rich food source for a variety of predators, from toads to shrews, foxes, and an array of different bird species [2]. Slugs are mainly important because they provide a food source for predators which are key control methods for other pests in the environment [2]. For example, if toads are attracted to an area due to high slug populations they can feed on, they will also consume pests such as mosquitos that are present, helping to maintain a more balanced ecosystem [2]. Slugs are also important because they can act as decomposers. For example, slugs will eat a variety of rotting plants, animal droppings, or even carrion, resulting in the breakdown of organic material and a release of nutrients back into the [[soil]] [2].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> 1. A Microscopic Look at Snail Jaws | Natural History Museum. (n.d.). . https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws.<br /> <br /> 2. Ecological Benefits of Slugs. (n.d.). . https://budgeting.thenest.com/ecological-benefits-slugs-31334.html.<br /> <br /> 3. Life Cycle of Slugs. (2017). https://www.gardenguides.com/13406265-life-cycle-of-slugs.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Slug. (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug#Feeding_habits.<br /> <br /> 5. Slug and Snail Biology. (2021). http://www.allaboutslugs.com/slug-and-snail-science/slug-biology-2/.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Slug_Teeth.png&diff=6453 2021-05-04T20:01:42Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Slugs&diff=6452 2021-05-04T20:00:28Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == Description ==<br /> [[File: Slug_on_Mushroom.jpg | thumb | Slug on Mushroom - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are easily recognizable gastropods that belong to the phyla Mollusca [4]. While at first look like appear as slimy, simply-built creatures, they are actually composed of a variety of specific parts. At the head of a slug are two pairs of tentacles that have the ability to retract into the body. The upper pair of tentacles is used to sense light as there are eye spots on their ends [4]. The lower pair of tentacles is used by the slug to smell [4]. Directly behind a slug's head is a saddle-shaped structure known as the mantle [4]. The mantle covers the slug's genitals and anus along with a respiratory opening called the pneumostome, which is typically located on the right side of the mantle [4]. Behind the mantle is the slug's tail which, depending on the species of slug, will have a ridge down the middle known as a keel [4]. The underside of a slug is classified as the foot. The foot is capable of a series of rhythmic, muscular contractions which allow the slug to move freely [4]. To protect the foot tissue from being damaged during movement, the foot simultaneously secretes a layer of mucus which can be seen trailing behind a moving slug [4]. The rest of the slug's body will also produce mucus to protect soft tissues exposed by a lack of a shell from desiccation [4]. Lastly, some slug species possess an internalized remnant of a shell, known as the vestigial shell which acts as an organ to store calcium salts [4]. <br /> <br /> == Habitat ==<br /> Slugs need a moist environment in order to survive due to their soft, moist body tissue which is prone to desiccation [5]. Because of this, most slugs live underground in cool, damp soils or can be found under mulch or the underside of decaying logs during dry spells. [5]. If a dry period persists for too long, slugs will encase themselves in a paper-like cocoon until it is over, which is a process known as aestivation [5]. Because of these requirements, slugs are most often found in temperate or tropical forests where there is plenty of moisture and moist areas to retreat to during dry spells.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Diet and Behavior ==<br /> Slugs grind up their food using their jaw and a radula, which is a flexible band comprised of thousands of microscopic teeth [1]. The jaw cuts of large pieces of food that the radula will then scrape food particles from [1]. Most species of slugs are generalists, meaning they will eat a wide array of organic materials in order to sustain themselves [4]. Food sources range from mushrooms, living plants such as garden vegetables or flowers, [[lichen]], and sometimes even carrion [4].<br /> <br /> Slugs display unique behaviors, especially when being threatened. If a threat is sensed, a slug will retract its body into a compact, circular shape to minimize damage [4]. While doing this, slugs will also firmly bind themselves to the surface they are on using their mucus in an attempt to prevent removal from the environment [4]. The excess mucus produced during this process also makes slugs more difficult to grasp by potential predators while also producing an unpleasant taste [4]. In some cases, slugs are even able to incapacitate certain predators ([[insects]] in this case) by using their mucus to create a sticky trap to immobilize the predator [4]. Some slug species will even go as far as to self-amputate portions of their body such as the tail in order to escape a predator [4]. Apart from being threatened, slugs will also display highly aggressive behaviors when competing with other slugs for resources, especially if they are scarce due to seasonality [4]. Some slug species are also known to hibernate during the winter instead of dying off [4].<br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> [[File: Immature_Slug.jpg | thumb | Immature Slug - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are hermaphrodites which means one individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs [3]. Despite this, slugs will still mate with one another, resulting in both individuals producing fertile offspring. Slugs lay batches of eggs at a time in moist crevices underground or in decaying wood, with batches ranging in size from 10 to 50 eggs [3]. Slug eggs are spherical, gelatinous, and colored white or golden in appearance [3]. If the weather is warm enough, eggs can hatch as early as 10 days after they were laid, but can take up to 100 days if the weather is not favorable [3]. From a hatched egg will emerge an immature slug which is similar to adult slugs in color, but is much smaller and more vulnerable to environmental conditions and predators [3]. After hatching, it will take roughly one year or less for a slug to reach maturity [3]. Once a slug reaches adulthood, its lifespan can last up to two years if conditions are favorable [3]. Most slug deaths occur due to cold weather, dry conditions, the presence of salt as slugs are comprised of mostly water, or predators [3]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Slugs play a pivotal role in the environments which they are present in. They provide an abundant, protein rich food source for a variety of predators, from toads to shrews, foxes, and an array of different bird species [2]. Slugs are mainly important because they provide a food source for predators which are key control methods for other pests in the environment [2]. For example, if toads are attracted to an area due to high slug populations they can feed on, they will also consume pests such as mosquitos that are present, helping to maintain a more balanced ecosystem [2]. Slugs are also important because they can act as decomposers. For example, slugs will eat a variety of rotting plants, animal droppings, or even carrion, resulting in the breakdown of organic material and a release of nutrients back into the [[soil]] [2].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> 1. A Microscopic Look at Snail Jaws | Natural History Museum. (n.d.). . https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws.<br /> <br /> 2. Ecological Benefits of Slugs. (n.d.). . https://budgeting.thenest.com/ecological-benefits-slugs-31334.html.<br /> <br /> 3. Life Cycle of Slugs. (2017). https://www.gardenguides.com/13406265-life-cycle-of-slugs.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Slug. (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug#Feeding_habits.<br /> <br /> 5. Slug and Snail Biology. (2021). http://www.allaboutslugs.com/slug-and-snail-science/slug-biology-2/.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Slug_on_Mushroom.jpg&diff=6451 2021-05-04T19:59:31Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Slugs&diff=6449 2021-05-04T19:55:03Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == Description ==<br /> Slugs are easily recognizable gastropods that belong to the phyla Mollusca [4]. While at first look like appear as slimy, simply-built creatures, they are actually composed of a variety of specific parts. At the head of a slug are two pairs of tentacles that have the ability to retract into the body. The upper pair of tentacles is used to sense light as there are eye spots on their ends [4]. The lower pair of tentacles is used by the slug to smell [4]. Directly behind a slug's head is a saddle-shaped structure known as the mantle [4]. The mantle covers the slug's genitals and anus along with a respiratory opening called the pneumostome, which is typically located on the right side of the mantle [4]. Behind the mantle is the slug's tail which, depending on the species of slug, will have a ridge down the middle known as a keel [4]. The underside of a slug is classified as the foot. The foot is capable of a series of rhythmic, muscular contractions which allow the slug to move freely [4]. To protect the foot tissue from being damaged during movement, the foot simultaneously secretes a layer of mucus which can be seen trailing behind a moving slug [4]. The rest of the slug's body will also produce mucus to protect soft tissues exposed by a lack of a shell from desiccation [4]. Lastly, some slug species possess an internalized remnant of a shell, known as the vestigial shell which acts as an organ to store calcium salts [4]. <br /> <br /> == Habitat ==<br /> Slugs need a moist environment in order to survive due to their soft, moist body tissue which is prone to desiccation [5]. Because of this, most slugs live underground in cool, damp soils or can be found under mulch or the underside of decaying logs during dry spells. [5]. If a dry period persists for too long, slugs will encase themselves in a paper-like cocoon until it is over, which is a process known as aestivation [5]. Because of these requirements, slugs are most often found in temperate or tropical forests where there is plenty of moisture and moist areas to retreat to during dry spells.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Diet and Behavior ==<br /> Slugs grind up their food using their jaw and a radula, which is a flexible band comprised of thousands of microscopic teeth [1]. The jaw cuts of large pieces of food that the radula will then scrape food particles from [1]. Most species of slugs are generalists, meaning they will eat a wide array of organic materials in order to sustain themselves [4]. Food sources range from mushrooms, living plants such as garden vegetables or flowers, [[lichen]], and sometimes even carrion [4].<br /> <br /> Slugs display unique behaviors, especially when being threatened. If a threat is sensed, a slug will retract its body into a compact, circular shape to minimize damage [4]. While doing this, slugs will also firmly bind themselves to the surface they are on using their mucus in an attempt to prevent removal from the environment [4]. The excess mucus produced during this process also makes slugs more difficult to grasp by potential predators while also producing an unpleasant taste [4]. In some cases, slugs are even able to incapacitate certain predators ([[insects]] in this case) by using their mucus to create a sticky trap to immobilize the predator [4]. Some slug species will even go as far as to self-amputate portions of their body such as the tail in order to escape a predator [4]. Apart from being threatened, slugs will also display highly aggressive behaviors when competing with other slugs for resources, especially if they are scarce due to seasonality [4]. Some slug species are also known to hibernate during the winter instead of dying off [4].<br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> [[File: Immature_Slug.jpg | thumb | Immature Slug - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are hermaphrodites which means one individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs [3]. Despite this, slugs will still mate with one another, resulting in both individuals producing fertile offspring. Slugs lay batches of eggs at a time in moist crevices underground or in decaying wood, with batches ranging in size from 10 to 50 eggs [3]. Slug eggs are spherical, gelatinous, and colored white or golden in appearance [3]. If the weather is warm enough, eggs can hatch as early as 10 days after they were laid, but can take up to 100 days if the weather is not favorable [3]. From a hatched egg will emerge an immature slug which is similar to adult slugs in color, but is much smaller and more vulnerable to environmental conditions and predators [3]. After hatching, it will take roughly one year or less for a slug to reach maturity [3]. Once a slug reaches adulthood, its lifespan can last up to two years if conditions are favorable [3]. Most slug deaths occur due to cold weather, dry conditions, the presence of salt as slugs are comprised of mostly water, or predators [3]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Slugs play a pivotal role in the environments which they are present in. They provide an abundant, protein rich food source for a variety of predators, from toads to shrews, foxes, and an array of different bird species [2]. Slugs are mainly important because they provide a food source for predators which are key control methods for other pests in the environment [2]. For example, if toads are attracted to an area due to high slug populations they can feed on, they will also consume pests such as mosquitos that are present, helping to maintain a more balanced ecosystem [2]. Slugs are also important because they can act as decomposers. For example, slugs will eat a variety of rotting plants, animal droppings, or even carrion, resulting in the breakdown of organic material and a release of nutrients back into the [[soil]] [2].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> 1. A Microscopic Look at Snail Jaws | Natural History Museum. (n.d.). . https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws.<br /> <br /> 2. Ecological Benefits of Slugs. (n.d.). . https://budgeting.thenest.com/ecological-benefits-slugs-31334.html.<br /> <br /> 3. Life Cycle of Slugs. (2017). https://www.gardenguides.com/13406265-life-cycle-of-slugs.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Slug. (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug#Feeding_habits.<br /> <br /> 5. Slug and Snail Biology. (2021). http://www.allaboutslugs.com/slug-and-snail-science/slug-biology-2/.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Slugs&diff=6447 2021-05-04T19:54:46Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == Description ==<br /> Slugs are easily recognizable gastropods that belong to the phyla Mollusca [4]. While at first look like appear as slimy, simply-built creatures, they are actually composed of a variety of specific parts. At the head of a slug are two pairs of tentacles that have the ability to retract into the body. The upper pair of tentacles is used to sense light as there are eye spots on their ends [4]. The lower pair of tentacles is used by the slug to smell [4]. Directly behind a slug's head is a saddle-shaped structure known as the mantle [4]. The mantle covers the slug's genitals and anus along with a respiratory opening called the pneumostome, which is typically located on the right side of the mantle [4]. Behind the mantle is the slug's tail which, depending on the species of slug, will have a ridge down the middle known as a keel [4]. The underside of a slug is classified as the foot. The foot is capable of a series of rhythmic, muscular contractions which allow the slug to move freely [4]. To protect the foot tissue from being damaged during movement, the foot simultaneously secretes a layer of mucus which can be seen trailing behind a moving slug [4]. The rest of the slug's body will also produce mucus to protect soft tissues exposed by a lack of a shell from desiccation [4]. Lastly, some slug species possess an internalized remnant of a shell, known as the vestigial shell which acts as an organ to store calcium salts [4]. <br /> <br /> == Habitat ==<br /> Slugs need a moist environment in order to survive due to their soft, moist body tissue which is prone to desiccation [5]. Because of this, most slugs live underground in cool, damp soils or can be found under mulch or the underside of decaying logs during dry spells. [5]. If a dry period persists for too long, slugs will encase themselves in a paper-like cocoon until it is over, which is a process known as aestivation [5]. Because of these requirements, slugs are most often found in temperate or tropical forests where there is plenty of moisture and moist areas to retreat to during dry spells.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Diet and Behavior ==<br /> Slugs grind up their food using their jaw and a radula, which is a flexible band comprised of thousands of microscopic teeth [1]. The jaw cuts of large pieces of food that the radula will then scrape food particles from [1]. Most species of slugs are generalists, meaning they will eat a wide array of organic materials in order to sustain themselves [4]. Food sources range from mushrooms, living plants such as garden vegetables or flowers, [[lichen]], and sometimes even carrion [4].<br /> <br /> Slugs display unique behaviors, especially when being threatened. If a threat is sensed, a slug will retract its body into a compact, circular shape to minimize damage [4]. While doing this, slugs will also firmly bind themselves to the surface they are on using their mucus in an attempt to prevent removal from the environment [4]. The excess mucus produced during this process also makes slugs more difficult to grasp by potential predators while also producing an unpleasant taste [4]. In some cases, slugs are even able to incapacitate certain predators ([[insects]] in this case) by using their mucus to create a sticky trap to immobilize the predator [4]. Some slug species will even go as far as to self-amputate portions of their body such as the tail in order to escape a predator [4]. Apart from being threatened, slugs will also display highly aggressive behaviors when competing with other slugs for resources, especially if they are scarce due to seasonality [4]. Some slug species are also known to hibernate during the winter instead of dying off [4].<br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> [[File: Immature_Slug.jpeg | thumb | Immature Slug - Photo taken by Celia Phillips ]]<br /> Slugs are hermaphrodites which means one individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs [3]. Despite this, slugs will still mate with one another, resulting in both individuals producing fertile offspring. Slugs lay batches of eggs at a time in moist crevices underground or in decaying wood, with batches ranging in size from 10 to 50 eggs [3]. Slug eggs are spherical, gelatinous, and colored white or golden in appearance [3]. If the weather is warm enough, eggs can hatch as early as 10 days after they were laid, but can take up to 100 days if the weather is not favorable [3]. From a hatched egg will emerge an immature slug which is similar to adult slugs in color, but is much smaller and more vulnerable to environmental conditions and predators [3]. After hatching, it will take roughly one year or less for a slug to reach maturity [3]. Once a slug reaches adulthood, its lifespan can last up to two years if conditions are favorable [3]. Most slug deaths occur due to cold weather, dry conditions, the presence of salt as slugs are comprised of mostly water, or predators [3]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Slugs play a pivotal role in the environments which they are present in. They provide an abundant, protein rich food source for a variety of predators, from toads to shrews, foxes, and an array of different bird species [2]. Slugs are mainly important because they provide a food source for predators which are key control methods for other pests in the environment [2]. For example, if toads are attracted to an area due to high slug populations they can feed on, they will also consume pests such as mosquitos that are present, helping to maintain a more balanced ecosystem [2]. Slugs are also important because they can act as decomposers. For example, slugs will eat a variety of rotting plants, animal droppings, or even carrion, resulting in the breakdown of organic material and a release of nutrients back into the [[soil]] [2].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> 1. A Microscopic Look at Snail Jaws | Natural History Museum. (n.d.). . https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws.<br /> <br /> 2. Ecological Benefits of Slugs. (n.d.). . https://budgeting.thenest.com/ecological-benefits-slugs-31334.html.<br /> <br /> 3. Life Cycle of Slugs. (2017). https://www.gardenguides.com/13406265-life-cycle-of-slugs.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Slug. (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug#Feeding_habits.<br /> <br /> 5. Slug and Snail Biology. (2021). http://www.allaboutslugs.com/slug-and-snail-science/slug-biology-2/.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Immature_Slug.jpg&diff=6443 2021-05-04T19:53:20Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Slugs&diff=6437 2021-05-04T19:50:06Z

<p>Celiaphi: Created page with &quot; == Description == Slugs are easily recognizable gastropods that belong to the phyla Mollusca [4]. While at first look like appear as slimy, simply-built creatures, they are...&quot;</p> <hr /> <div><br /> == Description ==<br /> Slugs are easily recognizable gastropods that belong to the phyla Mollusca [4]. While at first look like appear as slimy, simply-built creatures, they are actually composed of a variety of specific parts. At the head of a slug are two pairs of tentacles that have the ability to retract into the body. The upper pair of tentacles is used to sense light as there are eye spots on their ends [4]. The lower pair of tentacles is used by the slug to smell [4]. Directly behind a slug's head is a saddle-shaped structure known as the mantle [4]. The mantle covers the slug's genitals and anus along with a respiratory opening called the pneumostome, which is typically located on the right side of the mantle [4]. Behind the mantle is the slug's tail which, depending on the species of slug, will have a ridge down the middle known as a keel [4]. The underside of a slug is classified as the foot. The foot is capable of a series of rhythmic, muscular contractions which allow the slug to move freely [4]. To protect the foot tissue from being damaged during movement, the foot simultaneously secretes a layer of mucus which can be seen trailing behind a moving slug [4]. The rest of the slug's body will also produce mucus to protect soft tissues exposed by a lack of a shell from desiccation [4]. Lastly, some slug species possess an internalized remnant of a shell, known as the vestigial shell which acts as an organ to store calcium salts [4]. <br /> <br /> == Habitat ==<br /> Slugs need a moist environment in order to survive due to their soft, moist body tissue which is prone to desiccation [5]. Because of this, most slugs live underground in cool, damp soils or can be found under mulch or the underside of decaying logs during dry spells. [5]. If a dry period persists for too long, slugs will encase themselves in a paper-like cocoon until it is over, which is a process known as aestivation [5]. Because of these requirements, slugs are most often found in temperate or tropical forests where there is plenty of moisture and moist areas to retreat to during dry spells.<br /> <br /> <br /> == Diet and Behavior ==<br /> Slugs grind up their food using their jaw and a radula, which is a flexible band comprised of thousands of microscopic teeth [1]. The jaw cuts of large pieces of food that the radula will then scrape food particles from [1]. Most species of slugs are generalists, meaning they will eat a wide array of organic materials in order to sustain themselves [4]. Food sources range from mushrooms, living plants such as garden vegetables or flowers, [[lichen]], and sometimes even carrion [4].<br /> <br /> Slugs display unique behaviors, especially when being threatened. If a threat is sensed, a slug will retract its body into a compact, circular shape to minimize damage [4]. While doing this, slugs will also firmly bind themselves to the surface they are on using their mucus in an attempt to prevent removal from the environment [4]. The excess mucus produced during this process also makes slugs more difficult to grasp by potential predators while also producing an unpleasant taste [4]. In some cases, slugs are even able to incapacitate certain predators ([[insects]] in this case) by using their mucus to create a sticky trap to immobilize the predator [4]. Some slug species will even go as far as to self-amputate portions of their body such as the tail in order to escape a predator [4]. Apart from being threatened, slugs will also display highly aggressive behaviors when competing with other slugs for resources, especially if they are scarce due to seasonality [4]. Some slug species are also known to hibernate during the winter instead of dying off [4].<br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> Slugs are hermaphrodites which means one individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs [3]. Despite this, slugs will still mate with one another, resulting in both individuals producing fertile offspring. Slugs lay batches of eggs at a time in moist crevices underground or in decaying wood, with batches ranging in size from 10 to 50 eggs [3]. Slug eggs are spherical, gelatinous, and colored white or golden in appearance [3]. If the weather is warm enough, eggs can hatch as early as 10 days after they were laid, but can take up to 100 days if the weather is not favorable [3]. From a hatched egg will emerge an immature slug which is similar to adult slugs in color, but is much smaller and more vulnerable to environmental conditions and predators [3]. After hatching, it will take roughly one year or less for a slug to reach maturity [3]. Once a slug reaches adulthood, its lifespan can last up to two years if conditions are favorable [3]. Most slug deaths occur due to cold weather, dry conditions, the presence of salt as slugs are comprised of mostly water, or predators [3]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Slugs play a pivotal role in the environments which they are present in. They provide an abundant, protein rich food source for a variety of predators, from toads to shrews, foxes, and an array of different bird species [2]. Slugs are mainly important because they provide a food source for predators which are key control methods for other pests in the environment [2]. For example, if toads are attracted to an area due to high slug populations they can feed on, they will also consume pests such as mosquitos that are present, helping to maintain a more balanced ecosystem [2]. Slugs are also important because they can act as decomposers. For example, slugs will eat a variety of rotting plants, animal droppings, or even carrion, resulting in the breakdown of organic material and a release of nutrients back into the [[soil]] [2].<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> 1. A Microscopic Look at Snail Jaws | Natural History Museum. (n.d.). . https://nhm.org/stories/microscopic-look-snail-jaws.<br /> <br /> 2. Ecological Benefits of Slugs. (n.d.). . https://budgeting.thenest.com/ecological-benefits-slugs-31334.html.<br /> <br /> 3. Life Cycle of Slugs. (2017). https://www.gardenguides.com/13406265-life-cycle-of-slugs.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Slug. (2021). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug#Feeding_habits.<br /> <br /> 5. Slug and Snail Biology. (2021). http://www.allaboutslugs.com/slug-and-snail-science/slug-biology-2/.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6113 2021-04-30T00:02:09Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Starfish_Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Starfish Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/aseroe-rubra.php]]<br /> <br /> == Description ==<br /> [[File:Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Bridal Veil Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-11-08/Bridal-veil-stinkhorn-A-girlish-mushroom-that-loves-to-wear-skirt--Ls1IQolIE8/index.html]]<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell [1]. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name [4]. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance [1]. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung [4]. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges [1]. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs [4].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions [3]. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [4]. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction [4]. [[File:phallaceae.jpg|thumb|Phallaceae - Stinkhorns - ''Retrieved from'' http://hoosiermushrooms.org/index.php?/gallery/album/26-phallaceae-stinkhorns/]]Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country [3]. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source [5]. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils [1]<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch [4]. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue [4]. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards [2]. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba [2]. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere [4]. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment [4]. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions [4]. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species [4]. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates [4]. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> 2. Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> 3. Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> 5. Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6094 2021-04-29T18:22:20Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:Starfish_Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Starfish Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/aseroe-rubra.php]]<br /> <br /> == About ==<br /> [[File:Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Bridal Veil Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-11-08/Bridal-veil-stinkhorn-A-girlish-mushroom-that-loves-to-wear-skirt--Ls1IQolIE8/index.html]]<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell [1]. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name [4]. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance [1]. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung [4]. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges [1]. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs [4].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions [3]. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [4]. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction [4]. [[File:phallaceae.jpg|thumb|Phallaceae - Stinkhorns - ''Retrieved from'' http://hoosiermushrooms.org/index.php?/gallery/album/26-phallaceae-stinkhorns/]]Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country [3]. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source [5]. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils [1]<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch [4]. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue [4]. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards [2]. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba [2]. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere [4]. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment [4]. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions [4]. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species [4]. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates [4]. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> 2. Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> 3. Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> 5. Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Cicadas&diff=6093 2021-04-29T18:21:16Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: cicada.jpg|thumb|Periodical Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brood-x-cicadas-could-cause-a-bird-baby-boom/]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> Cicadas are members of the family Cicadidae and the order Homoptera [1]. They have two pairs of membranous wings, two compound eyes as well as three simple eyes, and range from 2 to 5 cm in length [1]. Color can vary from bright orange and red patterns to iridescent greens and blues. Cicadas are easily identifiable by their recognizable vocalizations in mid and late summer months. Male cicadas are responsible for these vocalizations which are produced by vibrating membranes located at the base of the abdomen [1]. North American species produce a series of rhythmical buzzes or whines, while exotic species produce more musical vocalizations [1]. Vocalizations are made for three reasons; for mating, as a sign of disturbance, or as a result of daily weather fluctuations and the songs produced by other nearby males [1].<br /> <br /> == Annual vs. Periodical Cicadas ==<br /> [[File: dogday.jpg|thumb|Dog-day Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]]<br /> <br /> Cicada species can be divided into two sub-categories based on the timing of their life cycles. Annual cicadas have a life cycle of two to five years and broods overlap, resulting in new adults every year [2]. An example of an annual cicada is the Dog-Day Cicada [2]. Periodical cicadas do not appear every year and have life cycles of 13 to 17 years [2]. There is a total of seven cicada species that are considered periodical, and all belong to the genus ''Magicicada''[2]. Of these seven species, four have a 17-year cycle and are generally found in the north, while the remaining three species have a 13-year cycle and are generally found in more southern regions [2]. Adult periodical cicadas typically emerge in May and June and are identifiable by their black bodies, striking red eyeballs and orange veined wings [2].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Over 3,000 species of cicadas are known to exist, ranging in habitat from deserts, to grasslands and forests with most being situated in tropical environments [1]. Within these environments, cicadas inhabit regions with deciduous, woody trees and plants that can support their reproductive and nutritional needs [5]. Nymphs require environments with [[soil]] fertile enough to support complex root systems which they can feed upon as they grow [5]. Adults require woody plants with tender, thin twigs in which they can lay their eggs and also extract fluid from for food [4]. Annual cicadas can be found worldwide, while periodicals are restricted solely to the central and eastern regions of the United States [3]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> The life cycle of a cicada begins with the laying of eggs in woody plant tissues that will later drop from the plant during or after egg hatching [1]. Female cicadas can lay up to 400 eggs spread over dozens of sites [3]. After 6 to 10 weeks, nymphs emerge from these eggs and burrow into the ground where they will sustain themselves on juices from roots of perennial plants [1]. The nymph phase of the cicada is spent entirely in underground burrows until they emerge to the surface and molt their shells to become adults [3]. [[File: molt.jpg|thumb|Molting Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]] This event occurs in synchrony for all nymphs becoming adults as it is dependent on the year and soil temperature [3]. Once an adult, the sole purpose of the cicada is to mate and lay eggs as they will only be alive for four to six weeks [3]. <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Cicadas play a beneficial role in the environment as they aerate the soil as nymphs, prune trees and shrubs as adults, and serve as a source of nitrogen for plants once they die [4]. They are also an important link in the food chain as almost all insectivorous species will eat them once they emerge in the summer. Because cicadas emerge in the millions, they are fairly resilient to predation, making them an abundant and reliable food source [4]. However, cicadas can be considered a vulnerable group of [[insects]] as nymphs are heavily affected by the application of pesticides and other lawn and garden chemicals [4]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. cicada | Description, Life Cycle, &amp; Facts. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada.<br /> <br /> 2. Cicada - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). . https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html.<br /> <br /> 3. Cicadas, facts and photos. 2011, May 10. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas.<br /> <br /> 4. [[Periodical Cicadas]]. (n.d.). . https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas.<br /> <br /> 5. Where Do Cicadas Live? Facts About Cicada Habitats. 2018, April 11. . https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6092 2021-04-29T18:17:30Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> [[File:Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Bridal Veil Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-11-08/Bridal-veil-stinkhorn-A-girlish-mushroom-that-loves-to-wear-skirt--Ls1IQolIE8/index.html]]<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell [1]. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name [4]. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance [1]. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung [4]. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges [1]. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs [4].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions [3]. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [4]. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction [4]. [[File:phallaceae.jpg|thumb|Phallaceae - Stinkhorns - ''Retrieved from'' http://hoosiermushrooms.org/index.php?/gallery/album/26-phallaceae-stinkhorns/]]Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country [3]. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source [5]. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils [1]<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch [4]. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue [4]. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards [2]. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba [2]. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere [4]. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment [4]. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions [4]. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> [[File:Starfish_Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Starfish Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/aseroe-rubra.php]]<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species [4]. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates [4]. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> 2. Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> 3. Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> 5. Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6091 2021-04-29T18:17:10Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> [[File:Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Bridal Veil Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-11-08/Bridal-veil-stinkhorn-A-girlish-mushroom-that-loves-to-wear-skirt--Ls1IQolIE8/index.html]]<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell [1]. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name [4]. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance [1]. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung [4]. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges [1]. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs [4].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions [3]. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [4]. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction [4]. [[File:phallaceae.jpg|thumb|Phallaceae - Stinkhorns - ''Retrieved from'' http://hoosiermushrooms.org/index.php?/gallery/album/26-phallaceae-stinkhorns/]]Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country [3]. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source [5]. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils [1]<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch [4]. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue [4]. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards [2]. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba [2]. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere [4]. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment [4]. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions [4]. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species [4]. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates [4]. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> [[File:Starfish_Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Starfish Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/aseroe-rubra.php]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> 2. Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> 3. Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> 5. Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6090 2021-04-29T18:16:49Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> [[File:Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Bridal Veil Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-11-08/Bridal-veil-stinkhorn-A-girlish-mushroom-that-loves-to-wear-skirt--Ls1IQolIE8/index.html]]<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell [1]. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name [4]. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance [1]. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung [4]. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges [1]. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs [4].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions [3]. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [4]. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction [4]. [[File:phallaceae.jpg|thumb|Phallaceae - Stinkhorns - ''Retrieved from'' http://hoosiermushrooms.org/index.php?/gallery/album/26-phallaceae-stinkhorns/]]Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country [3]. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source [5]. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils [1]<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch [4]. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue [4]. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards [2]. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba [2]. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere [4]. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment [4]. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions [4]. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species [4]. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates [4]. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> [[File:Starfish_Stinkhorn.jpg|thumb|Starfish Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/aseroe-rubra.php]]<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> 2. Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> 3. Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> 5. Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Starfish_Stinkhorn.jpeg&diff=6089 2021-04-29T18:15:38Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6088 2021-04-29T18:14:31Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> [[File:Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Bridal Veil Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-11-08/Bridal-veil-stinkhorn-A-girlish-mushroom-that-loves-to-wear-skirt--Ls1IQolIE8/index.html]]<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell [1]. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name [4]. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance [1]. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung [4]. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges [1]. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs [4].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions [3]. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [4]. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction [4]. [[File:phallaceae.jpg|thumb|Phallaceae - Stinkhorns ''Retrieved from'' http://hoosiermushrooms.org/index.php?/gallery/album/26-phallaceae-stinkhorns/]]Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country [3]. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source [5]. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils [1]<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch [4]. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue [4]. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards [2]. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba [2]. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere [4]. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment [4]. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions [4]. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species [4]. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates [4]. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> 2. Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> 3. Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> 5. Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Phallaceae.jpg&diff=6087 2021-04-29T18:12:45Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6086 2021-04-29T18:10:40Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> [[File:Stinkhorn.jpeg|thumb|Bridal Veil Stinkhorn - ''Retrieved from'' https://news.cgtn.com/news/2019-11-08/Bridal-veil-stinkhorn-A-girlish-mushroom-that-loves-to-wear-skirt--Ls1IQolIE8/index.html]]<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell [1]. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name [4]. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance [1]. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung [4]. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges [1]. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs [4].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions [3]. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [4]. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction [4]. Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country [3]. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source [5]. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils [1]<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch [4]. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue [4]. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards [2]. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba [2]. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere [4]. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment [4]. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions [4]. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species [4]. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates [4]. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> 2. Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> 3. Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> 5. Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Stinkhorn.jpeg&diff=6085 2021-04-29T18:08:36Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6084 2021-04-29T18:01:04Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell [1]. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name [4]. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance [1]. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung [4]. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges [1]. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs [4].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions [3]. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [4]. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction [4]. Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country [3]. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source [5]. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils [1]<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch [4]. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue [4]. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards [2]. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba [2]. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere [4]. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment [4]. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions [4]. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity [4]. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species [4]. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates [4]. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> 2. Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> 3. Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> 4. Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> 5. Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6083 2021-04-29T17:54:19Z

<p>Celiaphi: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [&lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html |Title:Stinkhorns: 2005. |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6082 2021-04-29T17:52:50Z

<p>Celiaphi: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [&lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html |Title:Stinkhorns: 2005. |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> {{Reflist|refs=<br /> <br /> &lt;ref&gt;P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref&gt;Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref&gt;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011).&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> &lt;ref&gt;Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref&gt;Stinkhorns. (2005). http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> }}</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6081 2021-04-29T17:51:28Z

<p>Celiaphi: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [&lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html |Title:Stinkhorns: 2005. |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> {{Reflist|refs=<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011). . https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;Stinkhorns. (2005). . http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.<br /> <br /> }}</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkhorns&diff=6080 2021-04-29T17:50:44Z

<p>Celiaphi: Created page with &quot; == About == Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |u...&quot;</p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [&lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html |Title:Stinkhorns: 2005. |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> {{Reflist|refs=<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011). . https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;Stinkhorns. (2005). . http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> }}</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkwort_(Dittrichia_graveolens)&diff=6079 2021-04-29T17:50:28Z

<p>Celiaphi: Blanked the page</p> <hr /> <div></div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkwort_(Dittrichia_graveolens)&diff=6078 2021-04-29T17:49:43Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [&lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html |Title:Stinkhorns: 2005. |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> {{Reflist|refs=<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;P, V. and ian. (2016). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (2011). . https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;Stinkhorns. (2005). . http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> }}</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkwort_(Dittrichia_graveolens)&diff=6077 2021-04-29T17:47:08Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [&lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html |Title:Stinkhorns: 2005. |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> {{Reflist|refs=<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;P, V. and ian. (n.d.). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (n.d.). . https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;Stinkhorns. (n.d.). . http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> }}</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkwort_(Dittrichia_graveolens)&diff=6076 2021-04-29T17:46:21Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [&lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html |Title:Stinkhorns: 2005. |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> {{Reflist|refs=<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{P, V. and ian. (n.d.). Stinkhorns. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/.}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{Phallaceae. (n.d.). . https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/.}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns (MushroomExpert.Com). (n.d.). . https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html.}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{Phillips, E., J. L. Gillett-Kaufman, and M. E. Smith. 2018. Stinkhorn Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes: Phallales: Phallaceae). EDIS 2018.}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;{{Stinkhorns. (n.d.). . http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html.}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> }}</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Stinkwort_(Dittrichia_graveolens)&diff=6075 2021-04-29T17:43:19Z

<p>Celiaphi: Created page with &quot; == About == Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |u...&quot;</p> <hr /> <div><br /> == About ==<br /> Stinkhorns are members of the Phallaceae mushroom family and are easily recognizable by their unique shape and pungent smell &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are characterized by their phallic appearances, hence the reference to the term Phallus in their taxonomic group name &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Some species will grow appendages that give them an octopus-like or lacey skirt appearance &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is often stated that you will smell a stinkhorn before you actually identify them due to their odor which resembles rotting carrion or dung &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn stalks range in color from white, beige and olive to bright reds and oranges &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This species of fungus attracts numerous [[soil]] invertebrates, such as blowflies, beetles and slugs &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Stinkhorns grow naturally in North America and are most diverse in tropical or subtropical regions &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They grow particularly well in Florida and the Gulf Coast region of America, but it is relatively unknown which species of stinkhorn are native or introduced to the region, along with the rest of North America [&lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These fungi can become easily established in temperate regions such as Western New York after introduction &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorns are often introduced via human activity, such as the transportation of soil, sod, trees and other organic materials that contain microscopic hyphae from other regions of the country &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Stinkhorn fungi can exist in any environment that provides organic matter as this is their food source &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html |Title:Stinkhorns: 2005. |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can appear in forests, gardens, lawns and even on bare soils &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;.<br /> <br /> == Growth and Toxicology==<br /> Stinkhorns begin their life cycle as small egg-like structures that appear on the surface of the soil or mulch &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These eggs attach themselves to the fruiting substrate via rhizomorphs, which are delicate white strands of fungal tissue &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Within as little as a few minutes or hours, a stalk will emerge from the egg structure and stretch upwards &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The stinkhorn stalk is topped with a pungent, slimy spore mass known as the gleba &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The gleba attracts a series of invertebrates with its stinky odor that feed on the spore mass and then transport the spores elsewhere &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After the feeding invertebrate leaves the stinkhorn, its spores are spread through excrement or are transported by sticking to the invertebrate via the slime of the gleba until they stick elsewhere in the environment &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. From here, the spores will establish a new crop of stinkhorn fungus if the environment is suitable, continuing their short-lived life cycle. While stinkhorns have a somewhat unsettling appearance and odor, they are not poisonous with a few exceptions &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In fact, many stinkhorns are edible in the egg state and are used for culinary purposes, however correct identification of the spores is essential to avoid potential calamity &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. <br /> <br /> == Ecosystem Function ==<br /> Stinkhorns play an essential role in their ecosystems as they are decomposers, so they aid in the breakdown of organic litter that would otherwise sit on the soil surface and potentially stifle other species &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They are also an important food source for many soil invertebrates &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Interactions between stinkhorns and invertebrates are known to be beneficial, but are poorly studied so not much is known about their ecological role besides the basics. <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> {{Reflist|refs=<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://plantbiology.natsci.msu.edu/mushrooms/phallaceae/ |Title:Phallaceae. (n.d.). |publisher=Michigan State University}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallaceae.html |Title:Phallaceae: The Stinkhorns. (n.d). |publisher=MushroomExpert.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn Mushrooms&quot;&gt;{{cite article |vauthors=Phillips E, Gillett-Kaufman JL, Smith ME |title=Stinkhorn Mushrooms |url:https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf%5CPP%5CPP34500.pdf |publisher=EDIS University of Florida |year=2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorns&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/stinkhorns/ |Title:Stinkhorns. 2016. |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;ref name= &quot;Stinkhorn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url:http://hyg.ipm.illinois.edu/pastpest/200519b.html |Title:Stinkhorns: 2005. |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> }}</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Brood_Cell_Microcosm&diff=5484 2021-04-22T18:21:08Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File:BCM_1.jpeg|right|300px|&quot;Photo scanned from Danforth et al. &quot;The Solitary Bees&quot;]]<br /> <br /> The nests of solitary wasp species (including everybody's favorite pollen-collecting solitary wasps &quot;the bees&quot;) are known as brood cells. Depending on the species observed these cells can be found in underground chambers, hollow twigs, sculpted with mud, or even crammed inside abandoned snail shells. These cells that female wasps provision with a food source (prey or pollen) and lay an egg in, don't stop interacting with the environment once they are sealed. The microcosm formed when a mother wasp seals a finished brood cell is home to a plethora of co-evolved relationships that can beneficially or negatively affect the health of the egg/larvae found in the nest. Brood cell mutualists and parasites span across many taxa; from yeasts and bacteria that negatively affect the health of the occupant, all of the way to mutualistic prostigmatic mites that fend off/eat infectious fungi. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Solitary Wasp Life Cycle and Development: '''<br /> ----<br /> <br /> Solitary wasps are any of the Aculeate Hymenoptera that are not social, meaning they don't have a reproductive division of labor with queens laying eggs and workers working. Instead, female individuals create their own nests (broods) and provision these nests with a food source on their own. The food sources that each species of solitary wasps collect are highly variable. Some individual species or groups of closely related species can be extremely specialized to one type of food item. Examples of this are the clade Anthophila (the bees) which all provision their brood cells exclusively with pollen, or the family Pompilidae (the spider wasps) which only provision their nests with spiders, to extreme cases like in ''Bicyrtes quadrifasciatus'' or the &quot;Stink bug&quot; hunter that exclusively collects prey from the true bug family Pentatomidae. Once a brood cell is provisioned to perfection the solitary wasp mother will lay a single egg and seal the cell. She will build and provision brood cells until she dies. The eggs laid will hatch into larvae and begin to eat the food provision and grow. Larvae of many species undergo a period of diapause during the winter months before they pupate and exit as adults in the spring/summer. The focus of this page will take place in the part of the life cycle after the mother wasp seals her preciously provisioned cell and before her offspring emerges the following year. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Members of Brood Cell Microcosm:==<br /> <br /> This section is a brief window into the understudied diversity of the '''solitary bee''' brood cell. There are many non-bee solitary wasp brood cell associates but most research has been on the economically important bee species. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Bacteria:===<br /> <br /> <br /> Most studies of microbial associates living inside the food provision of wasp brood cells come from work done on the non-solitary bee species such as honey or bumblebees. Early research was done using culture-based techniques by Gilliam et al. in 1984 and 1989 that demonstrated spore-forming bacteria in the genus ''Baccilus'' are not only found in the pollen provisions of social honeybee and bumblebee colonies, but also in 3 species of '''solitary bees''' spanning across 2 different families (Apidae and Colletidae). This genus of bacteria is known to produce enzymes that are used by honey bees as microbial agents in their pollen and nectar provisions. Gilliam states: &quot;The production of both antibiotics and fatty acids by Bacillus spp. in larval provisions could limit the types of microbes that are able to survive, inhibit competition by other microbes for this food source, and protect the food from spoilage.&quot;<br /> <br /> Recent work using modern techniques such as metagenomic sequencing has revealed other bacterial species such as ''Burkolderia sp.'' ubiquitously inhabit the midgut of most bee families and some families of the closely related apoid wasps. This bacteria may be an important member of the digestive tract microbiota of solitary bee and wasp species and may be transferred into pollen provisions that are eaten by larvae. <br /> <br /> Other species of bacteria such as the American and European foulbrood ('' Paenicacillus larvae'' and ''Melissococcus plutonius'' respectively) cause serious disease in honeybees colonies. Bacterial-borne pathogens that affect wild solitary bees are largely unknown and need to be researched with more depth. <br /> <br /> More research is needed on all fronts to determine the microbial diversity associated with brood cells to determine what roles they play in solitary bee and wasp community ecology. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Fungi and Yeasts:===<br /> <br /> Studies have shown that there are a diversity of fungi and yeasts that play important beneficial, negative, and possibly commensal roles in the microcosm of solitary bee and wasp brood cells. Here we will review the potential mutualistic and pathogenic fungi and yeasts associated with bee and wasp brood cells. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====Mutualists====<br /> [[File:BCM_2.1.png|right|thumb|300px|&quot;Taken From Biology of the Crepuscular Bee Ptiloglossa guinnae N. Sp. with Notes on Associated Bees, Mites, and Yeasts by Roberts (1971)&quot;]]<br /> In Roberts' 1971 review of the crepuscular bee species, ''Ptiloglossa guinnae'' in the family Colletidae (notable for their liquid pollen provisions) stated that almost &quot;each of the more than one hundred brood cells examined was actively fermenting. The odor of fermentation was unmistakable and bubbles of gas could be seen rising from the ropey slime at the bottom of each cell&quot;. This ropey slime was later cultured and found to be two species of yeast, ''Saccharomyces sp.'' and ''Candida pulcherrima''. Roberts notes the cells contained so little pollen and so much yeast that it seemed that much of the nutrients for the developing larvae of ''P. guinnae'' were gained from the yeasts as opposed to the pollen collected. He therefore then postulates yeasts have gained a mutualistic relationship with ''Ptiloglossa sp.'' <br /> <br /> Other bees that provision their nests with a liquid provision such as members of the subfamilies Hylaeinae, Diphaglossinae, Oxaeinae, and the tribe Eucerini also have anecdotal evidence of yeast mutualists through researchers taking note of a fermenting smell when processing their brood cells. <br /> <br /> More research is needed to investigate the role that yeast mutualists play in the development of larvae in solitary bee lineages that provision their brood cells with liquid nectar and pollen. Evidence of species of bees that have switched from pollen-collecting to yeast-farming (or [[fungal farming]]) is not improbable and has yet to be discovered.<br /> <br /> ====Pathogens==== <br /> [[File:BCM_2.2.png|right|thumb|200px|&quot;Taken From THE MYCOFLORA OF DOMESTICATED AND WILD BEES (APOIDEA) by L. R. BATRA et al&quot;]]<br /> The same beneficial yeasts described above can also negatively affect other lineages of bees (mostly species with non-liquid provisions). Batra et al (1973) provide a detailed examination of larval mortality in ''Nomia melanderi'' caused by a microbial succession triggered by yeasts (such as ''Saccharomyces'', ''Pichia'', ''Hansenula'' etc.) and ending with secondary fungal invaders (such as ''Aspergillus'', ''Penicillium'', and ''Ascosphaera''). Figure 1 from this paper, pictured to the right, shows the process of the normal developmental track of ''N. melanderi'' v.s one that has been infected with the fungal progression of an ''Aspergillus sp.'' The ''Aspergillus'' fungi are also known to infect and cause mortality of larvae of other species of bee such as ''Diadasia biturberculata'' and ''Ptilothrix sp.''<br /> <br /> Another species of fungi known to significantly increase mortality of bee larvae are members of the genera ''Ascosphaera''. There are 29 known members of this genus that have obligate associations with solitary and social bee brood cells. Some species of this fungi are known to be pathogenic to their host bees. A disease known as &quot;chalkbrood&quot; is caused by members of ''Ascosphaera'' and leads to death in solitary bees that are infected. <br /> <br /> Other species of fungal associates of brood cells can be found complied in charts in Batra et al's 1973 &quot;Mycoflora of Domesticated and Wild Bee Species (Apoidea)&quot;. It is important to note that the total fungal diversity that inhabits brood cells is most likely much larger than just those recorded from the species of bee observed in this study. More work needs to be done in order to classify the extent of fungal diversity found in solitary bee and wasp brood cells.<br /> <br /> ===Nematodes:===<br /> [[File:BCM_3.jpg|right|thumb|300px|&quot;Photo scanned from Danforth et al. &quot;The Solitary Bees&quot;]]<br /> In-nest nematodes are an extremely understudied, and therefore, poorly understood group of solitary bee and wasp associates. These nematodes can be found inhabiting the reproductive tracts and brood cells of bees across all but one family (the Australian continent restricted Stenotritidae). Nematode genera known to live inside bees and their brood cells are: ''Arcostiphelenchus'', ''Aduncospiculum'', ''Bursaphelenchus'', ''Aphelenchoides'', and ''Koerneria''. There are likely others to be discovered. Surprisingly, studies like McFredrick et al. (2013) &quot;Evolution of conflict and cooperation of nematodes associated with solitary and social sweat bees&quot; show that many of these nematodes are commensal and have no effects on the reproduction/ survival of their solitary bee hosts.<br /> <br /> Most species of bee-inhabiting nematode follow a life history trajectory similar to species in the genera ''Acrostichus''. Species in this genus of nematode inhabit the reproductive tract of social and solitary bees in the family Halictidae. Transmission of nematodes between hosts is mostly done vertically. This means that nematodes are passed through individuals from mother to daughter or son. Transmission also happens less frequently through sexual reproduction, in this case, male bees transport the resting stage of the nematode called the &quot;dauer&quot; to the female through reproduction. Once the dauers are in females they congregate in the dufours gland, where they are secreted onto the walls a brood cell as the female is building her nest. They will then grow and reproduce as &quot;non-dauer&quot; adults in the brood cell (pictured to the right) and once the host bee completes its development and molts into adulthood, juvenile nematodes will enter the freshly hatched female bees dufour gland or males genitalia to start their life cycle over again.<br /> <br /> ===Mites:===<br /> <br /> A section on the in-nest mite associates of solitary bees and wasps is needed for this page.<br /> <br /> ===Citations===<br /> <br /> Batra, L. R., S. W. T. Batra, and G. E. Bohart. 1973. The mycoflora of domesticated and wild bees (Apoidea). Mycopathologia et Mycologia Applicata 49:13–44.<br /> <br /> Cane, J. H., S. Gerdin, and G. Wife. 1983. Mandibular Gland Secretions of Solitary Bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea): Potential for Nest Cell Disinfection. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 56:199–204.<br /> <br /> Danforth, B. N., R. L. Minckley, J. L. Neff, and F. Fawcett. 2019. The Solitary Bees: Biology, Evolution, Conservation. Princeton University Press.<br /> <br /> Gilliam, M., S. L. Buchmann, and B. J. Lorenz. 1984. MICROBIAL FLORA OF THE LARVAL PROVISIONS OF THE SOLITARY BEES, CENTRIS PALLIDA AND ANTHOPHORA SP. Apidologie 15:1–10.<br /> <br /> McFrederick, Q. S., and D. R. Taylor. 2013. Evolutionary history of nematodes associated with sweat bees. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 66:847–856.work(s):,<br /> <br /> R. B. R. R. 1971. Biology of the Crepuscular Bee Ptiloglossa guinnae N. Sp. with Notes on Associated Bees, Mites, and Yeasts. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 44:283–294.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Cicadas&diff=5129 2021-04-12T19:24:58Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: cicada.jpg|thumb|Periodical Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brood-x-cicadas-could-cause-a-bird-baby-boom/]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> Cicadas are members of the family Cicadidae and the order Homoptera [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. They have two pairs of membranous wings, two compound eyes as well as three simple eyes, and range from 2 to 5 cm in length [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Color can vary from bright orange and red patterns to iridescent greens and blues. Cicadas are easily identifiable by their recognizable vocalizations in mid and late summer months. Male cicadas are responsible for these vocalizations which are produced by vibrating membranes located at the base of the abdomen [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. North American species produce a series of rhythmical buzzes or whines, while exotic species produce more musical vocalizations [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Vocalizations are made for three reasons; for mating, as a sign of disturbance, or as a result of daily weather fluctuations and the songs produced by other nearby males [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada].<br /> <br /> == Annual vs. Periodical Cicadas ==<br /> [[File: dogday.jpg|thumb|Dog-day Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]]<br /> <br /> Cicada species can be divided into two sub-categories based on the timing of their life cycles. Annual cicadas have a life cycle of two to five years and broods overlap, resulting in new adults every year [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. An example of an annual cicada is the Dog-Day Cicada [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Periodical cicadas do not appear every year and have life cycles of 13 to 17 years [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. There is a total of seven cicada species that are considered periodical, and all belong to the genus ''Magicicada''[https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Of these seven species, four have a 17-year cycle and are generally found in the north, while the remaining three species have a 13-year cycle and are generally found in more southern regions [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Adult periodical cicadas typically emerge in May and June and are identifiable by their black bodies, striking red eyeballs and orange veined wings [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Over 3,000 species of cicadas are known to exist, ranging in habitat from deserts, to grasslands and forests with most being situated in tropical environments [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Within these environments, cicadas inhabit regions with deciduous, woody trees and plants that can support their reproductive and nutritional needs [https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat]. Nymphs require environments with soil fertile enough to support complex root systems which they can feed upon as they grow [https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat]. Adults require woody plants with tender, thin twigs in which they can lay their eggs and also extract fluid from for food [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. Annual cicadas can be found worldwide, while periodicals are restricted solely to the central and eastern regions of the United States [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> The life cycle of a cicada begins with the laying of eggs in woody plant tissues that will later drop from the plant during or after egg hatching [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Female cicadas can lay up to 400 eggs spread over dozens of sites [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. After 6 to 10 weeks, nymphs emerge from these eggs and burrow into the ground where they will sustain themselves on juices from roots of perennial plants [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. The nymph phase of the cicada is spent entirely in underground burrows until they emerge to the surface and molt their shells to become adults [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. [[File: molt.jpg|thumb|Molting Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]] This event occurs in synchrony for all nymphs becoming adults as it is dependent on the year and soil temperature [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. Once an adult, the sole purpose of the cicada is to mate and lay eggs as they will only be alive for four to six weeks [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Cicadas play a beneficial role in the environment as they aerate the soil as nymphs, prune trees and shrubs as adults, and serve as a source of nitrogen for plants once they die [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. They are also an important link in the food chain as almost all insectivorous species will eat them once they emerge in the summer. Because cicadas emerge in the millions, they are fairly resilient to predation, making them an abundant and reliable food source [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. However, cicadas can be considered a vulnerable group of insects as nymphs are heavily affected by the application of pesticides and other lawn and garden chemicals [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. cicada | Description, Life Cycle, &amp; Facts. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada.<br /> <br /> 2. Cicada - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). . https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html.<br /> <br /> 3. Cicadas, facts and photos. 2011, May 10. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas.<br /> <br /> 4. Periodical Cicadas. (n.d.). . https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas.<br /> <br /> 5. Where Do Cicadas Live? Facts About Cicada Habitats. 2018, April 11. . https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Molt.jpg&diff=5128 2021-04-12T19:24:39Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div></div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Cicadas&diff=5127 2021-04-12T19:22:51Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: cicada.jpg|thumb|Periodical Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brood-x-cicadas-could-cause-a-bird-baby-boom/]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> Cicadas are members of the family Cicadidae and the order Homoptera [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. They have two pairs of membranous wings, two compound eyes as well as three simple eyes, and range from 2 to 5 cm in length [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Color can vary from bright orange and red patterns to iridescent greens and blues. Cicadas are easily identifiable by their recognizable vocalizations in mid and late summer months. Male cicadas are responsible for these vocalizations which are produced by vibrating membranes located at the base of the abdomen [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. North American species produce a series of rhythmical buzzes or whines, while exotic species produce more musical vocalizations [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Vocalizations are made for three reasons; for mating, as a sign of disturbance, or as a result of daily weather fluctuations and the songs produced by other nearby males [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada].<br /> <br /> == Annual vs. Periodical Cicadas ==<br /> [[File: dogday.jpg|thumb|Dog-day Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]]<br /> <br /> Cicada species can be divided into two sub-categories based on the timing of their life cycles. Annual cicadas have a life cycle of two to five years and broods overlap, resulting in new adults every year [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. An example of an annual cicada is the Dog-Day Cicada [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Periodical cicadas do not appear every year and have life cycles of 13 to 17 years [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. There is a total of seven cicada species that are considered periodical, and all belong to the genus ''Magicicada''[https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Of these seven species, four have a 17-year cycle and are generally found in the north, while the remaining three species have a 13-year cycle and are generally found in more southern regions [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Adult periodical cicadas typically emerge in May and June and are identifiable by their black bodies, striking red eyeballs and orange veined wings [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Over 3,000 species of cicadas are known to exist, ranging in habitat from deserts, to grasslands and forests with most being situated in tropical environments [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Within these environments, cicadas inhabit regions with deciduous, woody trees and plants that can support their reproductive and nutritional needs [https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat]. Nymphs require environments with soil fertile enough to support complex root systems which they can feed upon as they grow [https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat]. Adults require woody plants with tender, thin twigs in which they can lay their eggs and also extract fluid from for food [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. Annual cicadas can be found worldwide, while periodicals are restricted solely to the central and eastern regions of the United States [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> The life cycle of a cicada begins with the laying of eggs in woody plant tissues that will later drop from the plant during or after egg hatching [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Female cicadas can lay up to 400 eggs spread over dozens of sites [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. After 6 to 10 weeks, nymphs emerge from these eggs and burrow into the ground where they will sustain themselves on juices from roots of perennial plants [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. The nymph phase of the cicada is spent entirely in underground burrows until they emerge to the surface and molt their shells to become adults [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. [[File: molting.jpg|thumb|Molting Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]] This event occurs in synchrony for all nymphs becoming adults as it is dependent on the year and soil temperature [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. Once an adult, the sole purpose of the cicada is to mate and lay eggs as they will only be alive for four to six weeks [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Cicadas play a beneficial role in the environment as they aerate the soil as nymphs, prune trees and shrubs as adults, and serve as a source of nitrogen for plants once they die [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. They are also an important link in the food chain as almost all insectivorous species will eat them once they emerge in the summer. Because cicadas emerge in the millions, they are fairly resilient to predation, making them an abundant and reliable food source [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. However, cicadas can be considered a vulnerable group of insects as nymphs are heavily affected by the application of pesticides and other lawn and garden chemicals [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. cicada | Description, Life Cycle, &amp; Facts. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada.<br /> <br /> 2. Cicada - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). . https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html.<br /> <br /> 3. Cicadas, facts and photos. 2011, May 10. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas.<br /> <br /> 4. Periodical Cicadas. (n.d.). . https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas.<br /> <br /> 5. Where Do Cicadas Live? Facts About Cicada Habitats. 2018, April 11. . https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Molting.jpg&diff=5126 2021-04-12T19:21:40Z

<p>Celiaphi: Celiaphi uploaded a new version of File:Molting.jpg</p> <hr /> <div></div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Cicadas&diff=5125 2021-04-12T19:21:18Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: cicada.jpg|thumb|Periodical Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brood-x-cicadas-could-cause-a-bird-baby-boom/]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> Cicadas are members of the family Cicadidae and the order Homoptera [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. They have two pairs of membranous wings, two compound eyes as well as three simple eyes, and range from 2 to 5 cm in length [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Color can vary from bright orange and red patterns to iridescent greens and blues. Cicadas are easily identifiable by their recognizable vocalizations in mid and late summer months. Male cicadas are responsible for these vocalizations which are produced by vibrating membranes located at the base of the abdomen [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. North American species produce a series of rhythmical buzzes or whines, while exotic species produce more musical vocalizations [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Vocalizations are made for three reasons; for mating, as a sign of disturbance, or as a result of daily weather fluctuations and the songs produced by other nearby males [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada].<br /> <br /> == Annual vs. Periodical Cicadas ==<br /> [[File: dogday.jpg|thumb|Dog-day Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]]<br /> <br /> Cicada species can be divided into two sub-categories based on the timing of their life cycles. Annual cicadas have a life cycle of two to five years and broods overlap, resulting in new adults every year [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. An example of an annual cicada is the Dog-Day Cicada [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Periodical cicadas do not appear every year and have life cycles of 13 to 17 years [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. There is a total of seven cicada species that are considered periodical, and all belong to the genus ''Magicicada''[https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Of these seven species, four have a 17-year cycle and are generally found in the north, while the remaining three species have a 13-year cycle and are generally found in more southern regions [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Adult periodical cicadas typically emerge in May and June and are identifiable by their black bodies, striking red eyeballs and orange veined wings [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Over 3,000 species of cicadas are known to exist, ranging in habitat from deserts, to grasslands and forests with most being situated in tropical environments [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Within these environments, cicadas inhabit regions with deciduous, woody trees and plants that can support their reproductive and nutritional needs [https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat]. Nymphs require environments with soil fertile enough to support complex root systems which they can feed upon as they grow [https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat]. Adults require woody plants with tender, thin twigs in which they can lay their eggs and also extract fluid from for food [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. Annual cicadas can be found worldwide, while periodicals are restricted solely to the central and eastern regions of the United States [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> The life cycle of a cicada begins with the laying of eggs in woody plant tissues that will later drop from the plant during or after egg hatching [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Female cicadas can lay up to 400 eggs spread over dozens of sites [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. After 6 to 10 weeks, nymphs emerge from these eggs and burrow into the ground where they will sustain themselves on juices from roots of perennial plants [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. The nymph phase of the cicada is spent entirely in underground burrows until they emerge to the surface and molt their shells to become adults [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. This event occurs in synchrony for all nymphs becoming adults as it is dependent on the year and soil temperature [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. Once an adult, the sole purpose of the cicada is to mate and lay eggs as they will only be alive for four to six weeks [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Cicadas play a beneficial role in the environment as they aerate the soil as nymphs, prune trees and shrubs as adults, and serve as a source of nitrogen for plants once they die [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. They are also an important link in the food chain as almost all insectivorous species will eat them once they emerge in the summer. Because cicadas emerge in the millions, they are fairly resilient to predation, making them an abundant and reliable food source [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. However, cicadas can be considered a vulnerable group of insects as nymphs are heavily affected by the application of pesticides and other lawn and garden chemicals [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. cicada | Description, Life Cycle, &amp; Facts. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada.<br /> <br /> 2. Cicada - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). . https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html.<br /> <br /> 3. Cicadas, facts and photos. 2011, May 10. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas.<br /> <br /> 4. Periodical Cicadas. (n.d.). . https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas.<br /> <br /> 5. Where Do Cicadas Live? Facts About Cicada Habitats. 2018, April 11. . https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat.</div>

Celiaphi https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Cicadas&diff=5124 2021-04-12T19:20:33Z

<p>Celiaphi: </p> <hr /> <div>[[File: cicada.jpg|thumb|Periodical Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brood-x-cicadas-could-cause-a-bird-baby-boom/]]<br /> == Description ==<br /> Cicadas are members of the family Cicadidae and the order Homoptera [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. They have two pairs of membranous wings, two compound eyes as well as three simple eyes, and range from 2 to 5 cm in length [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Color can vary from bright orange and red patterns to iridescent greens and blues. Cicadas are easily identifiable by their recognizable vocalizations in mid and late summer months. Male cicadas are responsible for these vocalizations which are produced by vibrating membranes located at the base of the abdomen [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. North American species produce a series of rhythmical buzzes or whines, while exotic species produce more musical vocalizations [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Vocalizations are made for three reasons; for mating, as a sign of disturbance, or as a result of daily weather fluctuations and the songs produced by other nearby males [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada].<br /> <br /> == Annual vs. Periodical Cicadas ==<br /> [[File: dogday.jpg|thumb|Dog-day Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]]<br /> <br /> Cicada species can be divided into two sub-categories based on the timing of their life cycles. Annual cicadas have a life cycle of two to five years and broods overlap, resulting in new adults every year [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. An example of an annual cicada is the Dog-Day Cicada [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Periodical cicadas do not appear every year and have life cycles of 13 to 17 years [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. There is a total of seven cicada species that are considered periodical, and all belong to the genus ''Magicicada''[https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Of these seven species, four have a 17-year cycle and are generally found in the north, while the remaining three species have a 13-year cycle and are generally found in more southern regions [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]. Adult periodical cicadas typically emerge in May and June and are identifiable by their black bodies, striking red eyeballs and orange veined wings [https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html].<br /> <br /> == Habitat and Range ==<br /> Over 3,000 species of cicadas are known to exist, ranging in habitat from deserts, to grasslands and forests with most being situated in tropical environments [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Within these environments, cicadas inhabit regions with deciduous, woody trees and plants that can support their reproductive and nutritional needs [https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat]. Nymphs require environments with soil fertile enough to support complex root systems which they can feed upon as they grow [https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat]. Adults require woody plants with tender, thin twigs in which they can lay their eggs and also extract fluid from for food [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. Annual cicadas can be found worldwide, while periodicals are restricted solely to the central and eastern regions of the United States [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. <br /> <br /> == Life Cycle ==<br /> The life cycle of a cicada begins with the laying of eggs in woody plant tissues that will later drop from the plant during or after egg hatching [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. Female cicadas can lay up to 400 eggs spread over dozens of sites [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. After 6 to 10 weeks, nymphs emerge from these eggs and burrow into the ground where they will sustain themselves on juices from roots of perennial plants [https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]. The nymph phase of the cicada is spent entirely in underground burrows until they emerge to the surface and molt their shells to become adults [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas].[[File: molting.jpg|thumb|Molting Cicada - ''Retrived from'' https://www.pinterest.com/pin/135882113732485384/?d=t&amp;mt=login]] This event occurs in synchrony for all nymphs becoming adults as it is dependent on the year and soil temperature [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. Once an adult, the sole purpose of the cicada is to mate and lay eggs as they will only be alive for four to six weeks [https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas]. <br /> <br /> == Ecological Role ==<br /> Cicadas play a beneficial role in the environment as they aerate the soil as nymphs, prune trees and shrubs as adults, and serve as a source of nitrogen for plants once they die [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. They are also an important link in the food chain as almost all insectivorous species will eat them once they emerge in the summer. Because cicadas emerge in the millions, they are fairly resilient to predation, making them an abundant and reliable food source [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. However, cicadas can be considered a vulnerable group of insects as nymphs are heavily affected by the application of pesticides and other lawn and garden chemicals [https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas]. <br /> <br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> 1. cicada | Description, Life Cycle, &amp; Facts. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada.<br /> <br /> 2. Cicada - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). . https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html.<br /> <br /> 3. Cicadas, facts and photos. 2011, May 10. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas.<br /> <br /> 4. Periodical Cicadas. (n.d.). . https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas.<br /> <br /> 5. Where Do Cicadas Live? Facts About Cicada Habitats. 2018, April 11. . https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat.</div>

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