Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Rhamnus cathartica (Common Buckthorn)

2022-05-17T02:30:56Z

Cchorose:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:R_Cathartica_1.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Plantae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Magnoliophyta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Magnoliopsida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rosales
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rhamnaceae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Rhamnus L''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''R. cathartica L.''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: United States Department of Agriculture<ref name="USDA">[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=RHCA3 "Rhamnus Cathartica Plant Profile"], ''USDA'' "USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service", ''USDA'', n.d.. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>
|}

''Rhamnus cathartica'' also known as Common Buckthorn, Purging buckthorn, European buckthorn, or buckthorn is a plant native to calcareous soils throughout England, into Scandaninavia and across Russia into western Asia, as well as being found as far south as Morocco and Algeria.<ref name="Archie">O. W. Archibold, D. Brooks, L. Delanoy, "An Investigation of the Invasive Shrub European Buckthorn ''Rhamnus cathartica'' L., near Saskatoon, Saskatchewan", ''The Canadian Field-Naturalist''. October 1997. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref> Buckthorn was introduced to the United States as early as the 1800s as an ornamental shrub by, and is now common across many of the lower 48 states as an invasive species.<ref name="Knight">Kathleen S. Knight, Jessica S. Kurylo, Anton G. Endress, J. Ryan Stewart, Peter B. Reich, "[[Ecology]] and ecosystem impacts of common buckthorn (''Rhamnus cathartica''): a review", ''Biological Invasions (2007) 9:925-937''. 13 February 2007. doi: 10.1007/s10530-007-9091-3. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

== Description ==
[[File:r_cathartica_2.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Buckthorn gradually forming a dense thicket in the understory of a forest.]]''Rhamnus cathartica'' is a medium to large sized woody plant..<ref name="Book">George A. Petrides, "The Peterson Field Guide Series: A Field Guide to Trees and Shrubs", ''Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company'', 1986. ISBN: 0-395-17579 "</ref> Twigs end in sharp spines, and are usually dark and unlined.<ref name="Book"></ref> Leaves are elliptic, hairless, and finetoothed, usually 1 1/2" to 2".<ref name="Book"></ref> Plant usually flowers from May to June, small, greenish, clustered blooms. Fruits are produced in numerous drupes, with berries which turn from green to black as they ripen.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Although leaves usually exhibit opposite growth form, older growth may display alternate.<ref name="Book"></ref>

== Ecology ==
Buckthorn is a relatively fast-growing species, able to grow both in shady and open conditions.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Germination occurs in the autumn and spring in Great Britain, and mid- to late summer in some areas of the US, such as Minnesota.<ref name="Knight"></ref> ''R. cathartica'' produces fruit, at a rate which is often called aggressive, aiding in a high reproduction rate.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Buckthorn can grow in a range of [[soil]] types, from wetlands to drier oak forests.<ref name="Knight"></ref> It is a perennial plant and persists for many growing seasons, and it has extremely vigorous vegetative regeneration, able to regrow from very little material.<ref name="Seltzner">Scott Seltzner, Thomas L. Eddy. "[[Allelopathy]] in ''Rhamnus cathartica'', European Buckthorn". ''The Michigan Botanist''. 2003. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

''R. cathartica'' is also a possible host for oat crown rust, a disease which affects oat seed farming, making it of interest for United States agriculture.<ref name="Archie"></ref>

Extremely similar to the relationship between monarch butterflies and plants of the Asclepiadaceae (milkweed) family, common buckthorn acts as an important host plant to the brimstone butterfly (''Gonepteryx rhamni'') in its native ranges in Europe.<ref name="Brimstone">David Gutiérrez, Chris D. Thomas, "Marginal range expansion in a host-limited butterfly species Gonepteryx rhamni" ''Ecological Entomology (2000) 25, 165-170''. 25 December 2001. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

=== Allelopathy ===
''R. cathartica'' contains a number of secondary compounds, present in both the fruit, leaves, root exudates, and other tissue of the plant<ref name="Seltzner"></ref> A specifically noted compound is that of emodin, which can impact germination of other plant seeds.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Emodin is present both in the root exudate of ''R. cathartica'' and in the fruit; due to the fact that the drupes often fall beneath the parent tree, both have a significant impact on germination. The presence of emodin also may contribute to the purgative effects of ''R. cathartica'' fruit, meaning that those unripe fruits which any animal may ingest will cause either regurgitation or very quick passing of the fruit.<ref name="Knight"></ref> This is significant as birds readily eat the fruit available.

=== Impact as an Invasive Species ===

[[File:R_Cathartica_EDDS_Map.png|right|500px|thumb|A map of where ''R. cathartica'' has been found in the United States.<ref name="Map>EDDMapS. 2022. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System. The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Available online at http://www.eddmaps.org/; last accessed May 16, 2022.</ref>]]
Since its introduction to the United States in the 1800s, ''R. cathartica'' has established itself in much of the lower 48 states.<ref name="Map"></ref> It has significant impact as an invasive species due to its allelopathic compounds, as discussed. In addition to this, buckthorn has an advantage when it comes phenology: extended leaf phenology. Buckthorn tends to flush out much earlier than native plants in its introduced range, allowing it to have photosynthetic advantage and to shade out native understory plants in the process, encouraging the establishment of a monoculture.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Additionally, the drupes on the shrub remain long past other native berries, providing a singular food source for birds which disperse the seeds as a result.<ref name="Knight"></ref>

Another advantage is the preference that [[insects]] and mammalian herbivores have for native plants over ''R. cathartica'' in North America.<ref name="Knight"></ref> White-tailed deer, a significant herbivorous population, preferentially eat native plants due to the fact that ''R. cathartica'' causes them some illness, resulting in increased herbivorous pressure on those native plants. This also applies to small mammals which forage in the relevant environments. The presence of thick monospecific thickets which ''R. cathartica'' form tends to encourage small mammal [[foraging]], due to an increase in available refuge; this limits the germination of native trees or other highly foraged plants.<ref name="Utz">Ryan M. Utz, Alysha Slater, Hannah R. Rosche, Walter P. Carson. "Do dense layers of invasive plants elevate the foragingintensity of small mammals in temperate deciduous forests? A case study from Pennsylvania, USA". ''NeoBiota 56: 73–88 (2020)'' doi: 10.3897/neobiota.56.4958. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

The result of the success of ''R. cathartica'' as a competitor means that when introduced in an area, buckthorn tends to form dense monospecific thickets which exclude any native competitors and often reducing understory plants to a minimum.<ref name="Knight"></ref> With monospecific thickets such as these, there is also the alteration of [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]], as the leaves of buckthorn are extremely high in Nitrogen. The change in litter types has significant impact on the [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]] as it will rapidly increase high-N litter pools and then rapidly decrease them as longer lasting leaf litter is eradicated.<ref name="Knight"></ref> When this is combined with invasive earthworms such as ''L. terrestris'' the alteration of soil ecology in an area is notable, where quickly [[decomposing]] leaves and the high loss of detritus in the presence of invasive earthworms intersect and create rapidly cycling nutrient pools.

The allelopathic nature of ''R. cathartica'' also falls under the hypothesis of the ''novel weapons hypothesis''; the hypothesis that non-native plants have competitive traits which native plants in the introduced range do not have a defense against.<ref name="Pinzone">Pinzone, P., Potts, D., Pettibone, G. et al. "Do novel weapons that degrade mycorrhizal mutualisms promote species invasion?". ''Plant Ecol 219, 539–548 (2018)''. https://doi-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/10.1007/s11258-018-0816-4. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref> The root exudates and secondary compounds of ''R. cathartica'' are hypothesized to inhibit not only the growth and germination of competitor plants, but also possibly the mutualist fungi which other plants form symbiosis with. As has been established, buckthorn contains emodin, a powerful allelochemical; in some cases this has been found to impact the mutualisms of other plants. The root exudates of ''R. cathartica'' were found to reduce arbuscular and vesicular colinization in ''Ulmus'' sp. despite both plants employing [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi|arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi]] in their mutualist relationships.<ref name="Pinzone"></ref> It is possible that there are other native competitors with fungal mutualisms which ''R. cathartica'' may indirectly degrade due to its allelopathy.

== References ==

File:R cathartica 2.jpg

2022-05-17T02:28:58Z

Cchorose:

Rhamnus cathartica (Common Buckthorn)

2022-05-17T02:26:18Z

Cchorose:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:R_Cathartica_1.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Plantae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Magnoliophyta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Magnoliopsida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rosales
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rhamnaceae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Rhamnus L''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''R. cathartica L.''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: United States Department of Agriculture<ref name="USDA">[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=RHCA3 "Rhamnus Cathartica Plant Profile"], ''USDA'' "USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service", ''USDA'', n.d.. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>
|}

''Rhamnus cathartica'' also known as Common Buckthorn, Purging buckthorn, European buckthorn, or buckthorn is a plant native to calcareous soils throughout England, into Scandaninavia and across Russia into western Asia, as well as being found as far south as Morocco and Algeria.<ref name="Archie">O. W. Archibold, D. Brooks, L. Delanoy, "An Investigation of the Invasive Shrub European Buckthorn ''Rhamnus cathartica'' L., near Saskatoon, Saskatchewan", ''The Canadian Field-Naturalist''. October 1997. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref> Buckthorn was introduced to the United States as early as the 1800s as an ornamental shrub by, and is now common across many of the lower 48 states as an invasive species.<ref name="Knight">Kathleen S. Knight, Jessica S. Kurylo, Anton G. Endress, J. Ryan Stewart, Peter B. Reich, "[[Ecology]] and ecosystem impacts of common buckthorn (''Rhamnus cathartica''): a review", ''Biological Invasions (2007) 9:925-937''. 13 February 2007. doi: 10.1007/s10530-007-9091-3. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

== Description ==
''Rhamnus cathartica'' is a medium to large sized woody plant..<ref name="Book">George A. Petrides, "The Peterson Field Guide Series: A Field Guide to Trees and Shrubs", ''Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company'', 1986. ISBN: 0-395-17579 "</ref> Twigs end in sharp spines, and are usually dark and unlined.<ref name="Book"></ref> Leaves are elliptic, hairless, and finetoothed, usually 1 1/2" to 2".<ref name="Book"></ref> Plant usually flowers from May to June, small, greenish, clustered blooms. Fruits are produced in numerous drupes, with berries which turn from green to black as they ripen.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Although leaves usually exhibit opposite growth form, older growth may display alternate.<ref name="Book"></ref>

== Ecology ==
Buckthorn is a relatively fast-growing species, able to grow both in shady and open conditions.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Germination occurs in the autumn and spring in Great Britain, and mid- to late summer in some areas of the US, such as Minnesota.<ref name="Knight"></ref> ''R. cathartica'' produces fruit, at a rate which is often called aggressive, aiding in a high reproduction rate.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Buckthorn can grow in a range of [[soil]] types, from wetlands to drier oak forests.<ref name="Knight"></ref> It is a perennial plant and persists for many growing seasons, and it has extremely vigorous vegetative regeneration, able to regrow from very little material.<ref name="Seltzner">Scott Seltzner, Thomas L. Eddy. "[[Allelopathy]] in ''Rhamnus cathartica'', European Buckthorn". ''The Michigan Botanist''. 2003. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

''R. cathartica'' is also a possible host for oat crown rust, a disease which affects oat seed farming, making it of interest for United States agriculture.<ref name="Archie"></ref>

Extremely similar to the relationship between monarch butterflies and plants of the Asclepiadaceae (milkweed) family, common buckthorn acts as an important host plant to the brimstone butterfly (''Gonepteryx rhamni'') in its native ranges in Europe.<ref name="Brimstone">David Gutiérrez, Chris D. Thomas, "Marginal range expansion in a host-limited butterfly species Gonepteryx rhamni" ''Ecological Entomology (2000) 25, 165-170''. 25 December 2001. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

=== Allelopathy ===
''R. cathartica'' contains a number of secondary compounds, present in both the fruit, leaves, root exudates, and other tissue of the plant<ref name="Seltzner"></ref> A specifically noted compound is that of emodin, which can impact germination of other plant seeds.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Emodin is present both in the root exudate of ''R. cathartica'' and in the fruit; due to the fact that the drupes often fall beneath the parent tree, both have a significant impact on germination. The presence of emodin also may contribute to the purgative effects of ''R. cathartica'' fruit, meaning that those unripe fruits which any animal may ingest will cause either regurgitation or very quick passing of the fruit.<ref name="Knight"></ref> This is significant as birds readily eat the fruit available.

=== Impact as an Invasive Species ===

[[File:R_Cathartica_EDDS_Map.png|left|500px|thumb|A map of where ''R. cathartica'' has been found in the United States.<ref name="Map>EDDMapS. 2022. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System. The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Available online at http://www.eddmaps.org/; last accessed May 16, 2022.</ref>]]
Since its introduction to the United States in the 1800s, ''R. cathartica'' has established itself in much of the lower 48 states.<ref name="Map"></ref> It has significant impact as an invasive species due to its allelopathic compounds, as discussed. In addition to this, buckthorn has an advantage when it comes phenology: extended leaf phenology. Buckthorn tends to flush out much earlier than native plants in its introduced range, allowing it to have photosynthetic advantage and to shade out native understory plants in the process, encouraging the establishment of a monoculture.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Additionally, the drupes on the shrub remain long past other native berries, providing a singular food source for birds which disperse the seeds as a result.<ref name="Knight"></ref>

Another advantage is the preference that [[insects]] and mammalian herbivores have for native plants over ''R. cathartica'' in North America.<ref name="Knight"></ref> White-tailed deer, a significant herbivorous population, preferentially eat native plants due to the fact that ''R. cathartica'' causes them some illness, resulting in increased herbivorous pressure on those native plants. This also applies to small mammals which forage in the relevant environments. The presence of thick monospecific thickets which ''R. cathartica'' form tends to encourage small mammal [[foraging]], due to an increase in available refuge; this limits the germination of native trees or other highly foraged plants.<ref name="Utz">Ryan M. Utz, Alysha Slater, Hannah R. Rosche, Walter P. Carson. "Do dense layers of invasive plants elevate the foragingintensity of small mammals in temperate deciduous forests? A case study from Pennsylvania, USA". ''NeoBiota 56: 73–88 (2020)'' doi: 10.3897/neobiota.56.4958. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

The result of the success of ''R. cathartica'' as a competitor means that when introduced in an area, buckthorn tends to form dense monospecific thickets which exclude any native competitors and often reducing understory plants to a minimum.<ref name="Knight"></ref> With monospecific thickets such as these, there is also the alteration of nutrient cycling, as the leaves of buckthorn are extremely high in Nitrogen. The change in litter types has significant impact on the soil ecology as it will rapidly increase high-N litter pools and then rapidly decrease them as longer lasting leaf litter is eradicated.<ref name="Knight"></ref> When this is combined with invasive earthworms such as ''L. terrestris'' the alteration of soil ecology in an area is notable, where quickly [[decomposing]] leaves and the high loss of detritus in the presence of invasive earthworms intersect and create rapidly cycling nutrient pools.

The allelopathic nature of ''R. cathartica'' also falls under the hypothesis of the ''novel weapons hypothesis''; the hypothesis that non-native plants have competitive traits which native plants in the introduced range do not have a defense against.<ref name="Pinzone">Pinzone, P., Potts, D., Pettibone, G. et al. "Do novel weapons that degrade mycorrhizal mutualisms promote species invasion?". ''Plant Ecol 219, 539–548 (2018)''. https://doi-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/10.1007/s11258-018-0816-4. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref> The root exudates and secondary compounds of ''R. cathartica'' are hypothesized to inhibit not only the growth and germination of competitor plants, but also possibly the mutualist fungi which other plants form symbiosis with. As has been established, buckthorn contains emodin, a powerful allelochemical; in some cases this has been found to impact the mutualisms of other plants. The root exudates of ''R. cathartica'' were found to reduce arbuscular and vesicular colinization in ''Ulmus'' sp. despite both plants employing arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in their mutualist relationships.<ref name="Pinzone"></ref> It is possible that there are other native competitors with fungal mutualisms which ''R. cathartica'' may indirectly degrade due to its allelopathy.

== References ==

Rhamnus cathartica (Common Buckthorn)

2022-05-17T01:25:04Z

Cchorose:

''Rhamnus cathartica'' also known as Common Buckthorn, Purging buckthorn, European buckthorn, or buckthorn is a plant native to calcareous soils throughout England, into Scandaninavia and across Russia into western Asia, as well as being found as far south as Morocco and Algeria.<ref name="Archie">O. W. Archibold, D. Brooks, L. Delanoy, "An Investigation of the Invasive Shrub European Buckthorn ''Rhamnus cathartica'' L., near Saskatoon, Saskatchewan", ''The Canadian Field-Naturalist''. October 1997. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref> Buckthorn was introduced to the United States as early as the 1800s as an ornamental shrub by, and is now common across many of the lower 48 states as an invasive species.<ref name="Knight">Kathleen S. Knight, Jessica S. Kurylo, Anton G. Endress, J. Ryan Stewart, Peter B. Reich, "[[Ecology]] and ecosystem impacts of common buckthorn (''Rhamnus cathartica''): a review", ''Biological Invasions (2007) 9:925-937''. 13 February 2007. doi: 10.1007/s10530-007-9091-3. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:R_Cathartica_1.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Plantae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Magnoliophyta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Magnoliopsida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rosales
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Rhamnaceae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Rhamnus L''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''R. cathartica L.''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: United States Department of Agriculture<ref name="USDA">[https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=RHCA3 "Rhamnus Cathartica Plant Profile"], ''USDA'' "USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service", ''USDA'', n.d.. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>
|}

== Description ==
''Rhamnus cathartica'' is a medium to large sized woody plant..<ref name="Book">George A. Petrides, "The Peterson Field Guide Series: A Field Guide to Trees and Shrubs", ''Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company'', 1986. ISBN: 0-395-17579 "</ref> Twigs end in sharp spines, and are usually dark and unlined.<ref name="Book"></ref> Leaves are elliptic, hairless, and finetoothed, usually 1 1/2" to 2".<ref name="Book"></ref> Plant usually flowers from May to June, small, greenish, clustered blooms. Fruits are produced in numerous drupes, with berries which turn from green to black as they ripen.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Although leaves usually exhibit opposite growth form, older growth may display alternate.<ref name="Book"></ref>

== Ecology ==
Buckthorn is a relatively fast-growing species, able to grow both in shady and open conditions.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Germination occurs in the autumn and spring in Great Britain, and mid- to late summer in some areas of the US, such as Minnesota.<ref name="Knight"></ref> ''R. cathartica'' produces fruit, at a rate which is often called aggressive, aiding in a high reproduction rate.<ref name="Knight"></ref> Buckthorn can grow in a range of [[soil]] types, from wetlands to drier oak forests.<ref name="Knight"></ref>

''R. cathartica'' is also a possible host for oat crown rust, a disease which affects oat seed farming, making it of interest for United States agriculture.<ref name="Archie"></ref>

Extremely similar to the relationship between monarch butterflies and plants of the Asclepiadaceae (milkweed) family, common buckthorn acts as an important host plant to the brimstone butterfly (''Gonepteryx rhamni'') in its native ranges in Europe.<ref name="Brimstone">David Gutiérrez, Chris D. Thomas, "Marginal range expansion in a host-limited butterfly species Gonepteryx rhamni" ''Ecological Entomology (2000) 25, 165-170''. 25 December 2001. Retrieved 5/16/2022.</ref>

=== Allelopathy ===
''R. cathartica'' contains a number of secondary compounds, the primary one of concern being emodin.<ref name="Knight"></ref>

=== Impact as an Invasive Species ===

[[File:R_Cathartica_EDDS_Map.png|left|500px|thumb|A map of where ''R. cathartica'' has been found in the United States.]]

== Uses ==

''R. cathartica'' is a purgative, meaning that it may cause stomach cramps through toxins, especially emodin, present in its berries and shoots.

== References ==

Rhamnus cathartica (Common Buckthorn)

2022-05-16T21:26:33Z

Cchorose:

Rhamnus cathartica (Common Buckthorn)

2022-05-16T21:24:37Z

Cchorose:

File:R Cathartica EDDS Map.png

2022-05-16T21:06:34Z

Cchorose: Cchorose uploaded a new version of File:R Cathartica EDDS Map.png

File:R Cathartica EDDS Map.png

2022-05-16T21:03:37Z

Cchorose:

Rhamnus cathartica (Common Buckthorn)

2022-05-16T20:55:46Z

Cchorose:

File:R Cathartica 1.jpg

2022-05-16T20:47:42Z

Cchorose: Picture of R Cathartica Individual

== Summary ==
Picture of R Cathartica Individual

Rhamnus cathartica (Common Buckthorn)

2022-05-11T17:11:49Z

Cchorose: Created page with "Common Buckthorn Facts Incoming"

Common Buckthorn Facts Incoming

Lumbricus terrestris

2022-05-03T03:13:28Z

Cchorose:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:l_terrestris_2.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Annelida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Clitellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Opisthopora
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Lumbricidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Lumbricus''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''L. terrestris''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Integrated Taxonomic Information System<ref name="ITIS">[https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=977384#null "Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Report"], ''ITIS'' USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature", ''USGS'', n.d.. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>
|}

''Lumbricus terrestris'' is a species of [[earthworm]] which has been distributed across a majority of the globe due to farming practices and commercial industries<ref name="Bohlen">Patrick J Bohlen, Stefan Scheu, Cindy M Hale, Mary Ann McLean, Sonja Migge, Peter M Groffman, and Dennis Parkinson, "Non-native invasive earthworms as agents
of change in northern temperate forests", ''Front Ecol Environ 2004; 2(8): 427–435'', 2004. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref> Due to its wide distribution, the worm has a variety of common names, including nightcrawler, Canadian nightcrawler, and dewworm<ref name="ITIS"></ref>.
As an earthworm, its habits are critical to observe because of its effect on the [[soil]] structure around it. ''L. terrestris'' is thought to have originated from Europe, because its introduction occurs with European settlement; there has been some suggestions that the nightcrawler came first with the landing of the Mayflower in North America<ref name="[[henshue]]">Nicholas Henshue, "Earthworm [[Diversity]]", ''Soil [[Ecology]]: University at Buffalo'', 4/6/2022. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>. The environmental effect of this earthworm as an exotic species in North American temperate forests especially has only just started to be more intensely studied in the last three decades<ref name="Bohlen"></ref>.

== Description ==
[[File:L_terrestris_1.JPG|left|150px|thumb|An individual of the species ''L. terrestris.'']]
Like all earthworms, ''L. terrestris'' is a soft-bodied, cylindrical, segmented animal<ref name="Coleman">Coleman, D. C., and D. A. Crossley, "Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]]. Third edition.", ''Elsevier/Academic Press, London ; San Diego, CA.'', 2018. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>. The nightcrawler is a relatively larger earthworm: length averages between 110-200 mm, with a diameter of 7-10 mm. They're usually a dark brown color, with a reddish hue which fades towards the end, which is slightly flattened; the coloration pattern is referred to as being dorsally pigmented<ref name="CABI">S James, [https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/109385 "Data Sheet: Lumbricus Terrestris"], ''CABI'', Invasive Species Compendium, 22/12/10. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>. The puffy looking 'pad' in the middle of the worm is known as the clitellum; this is the source of secretion of mucous used during mating between ''L. terrestris'' individuals, as well as where the cocoon containing one or more embryos is secreted from<ref name="Coleman"></ref>.
 
''L. terrestris'' also has setae, small and stiff hair-like bristles which are used to help anchor and control the worm's movement through the soil. On ''L. terrestris'' the setae is closely paired, with some variation across the body.<ref name="CABI"></ref>

== Ecology ==
''L. terrestris'' is an anecic earthworm, one which creates deep burrows far down into the soil<ref name="Coleman"></ref>. Earthworms in general are engineers of the surrounding environment in soil due to their close relationship with soil, and anecic earthworms are very impactful of the soil environment because of their characteristic deep burrows, which tend to be permanent<ref name="Coleman"></ref>. The burrows not only bring leaf litter down further into the soil profile, but also the earthworms deposit middens above ground, creating small areas where there are increased nutrients and soil from further below in the soil profile.<ref name="Coleman"></ref>
 
The soil mixing which anecic earthworms perform means that the soil horizons in which they live and interact with are known as "mull" soil horizons, which is when organic matter is extremely well mixed into the upper mineral soil. This has an extreme end to the spectrum, where the horizon is extremely granular, and characterized by organic mineral complexes which consist of earthworm casts; this is known as "vermimull"<ref name="Coleman"></ref> This is extremely common in areas where ''L. terrestris'' is abundant and an exotic species, such as Western New York. If you see small granular piles on the ground outside, this is the result of many earthworms in the area.

=== Diet ===
''L. terrestris'' tends to eat the surface litter on the soil in which they live, as well as whatever they happen to eat while moving through the soil which, of course, includes the soil itself<ref name="mulci">A. Milcu, J. Schumacher, S. Scheu, "Earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) affect plant seedling recruitment and microhabitat heterogeneity", ''Functional Ecology , Apr., 2006, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Apr., 2006), pp. 261-268''. April 2006. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>.

=== Reproduction ===
The nightcrawler is a hermaphroditic species, reproducing as most members of the Opisthopora order do. The key mechanism to remember where it concerns earthworm reproduction is simply: mucus. The earthworms arrange themselves in opposite directions, lining up their spermataphores with the other worm's spermathecal pore where the sperm will be stored in a sperm sack until it is released in a cocoon along with fertilized eggs likely to be deposited near the soil surface<ref name="worm sex">Jefferey, "Earthworm Reproduction – How Do Worms Reproduce?", ''TheWormPeople''. 24 April 2021. Retrieved 5/2/2022.</ref>.
[[File:L_terrestris_diagram.png|right|thumb|400px|A: A diagram illustrating the different parts of ''L. terrestris.'' B: A diagram illustrating two individuals of ''L. terrestris'' mating]]

=== Effect as an Invasive Species ===
Despite being introduced over 100 years ago, ''L. terrestris'' still is not a native earthworm to the northern portion of the United States. The well-supported theory is that native earthworm species are effectively non-existent in the northern forests of North America because the last glacial period prevented earthworms from living in the area through its duration; in addition, due to the small size of earthworms, it is difficult for them to swiftly colonize on their own<ref name="Bohlen2">Patrick J. Bohlen, Peter M. Groffman, Timothy J. Fahey, Melany C. Fisk, Esteban Suarez, Derek M. Pelletier, and Robert T. Fahey, "Ecosystem Consequences of Exotic Earthworm Invasion of North Temperate Forests", ''Ecosystems (2004) 7: 1–12'', 12 January 2004. Retrieved 5/2/2022 </ref>. The effect of an anecic earthworm in particular, which eats litter layer, has serious impacts on Northern temperate deciduous forests. The annual loss of leaves and [[decomposition]] of these leaves on the forest floor is what leads to nutrient cycling on the forest floor and creates fertile soil in these forests. The addition of ''L. terrestris'' in great numbers can reduce this leaf litter and so disrupt nutrient cycling and encourage nutrient loss in these areas which have no history of earthworm activity<ref name="Bohlen2"></ref>. This disruption of nutrient cycling and mixing of soil horizons may also affect processes which occur within the [[rhizosphere]], and other microfauna which interacts with [[plant roots]] belowground.

== References ==
<references />

Lumbricus terrestris

2022-05-03T03:12:44Z

Cchorose:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:l_terrestris_2.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Annelida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Clitellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Opisthopora
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Lumbricidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Lumbricus''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''L. terrestris''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Integrated Taxonomic Information System<ref name="ITIS">[https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=977384#null "Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Report"], ''ITIS'' USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature", ''USGS'', n.d.. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>
|}

''Lumbricus terrestris'' is a species of [[earthworm]] which has been distributed across a majority of the globe due to farming practices and commercial industries<ref name="Bohlen">Patrick J Bohlen, Stefan Scheu, Cindy M Hale, Mary Ann McLean, Sonja Migge, Peter M Groffman, and Dennis Parkinson, "Non-native invasive earthworms as agents
of change in northern temperate forests", ''Front Ecol Environ 2004; 2(8): 427–435'', 2004. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref> Due to its wide distribution, the worm has a variety of common names, including nightcrawler, Canadian nightcrawler, and dewworm<ref name="ITIS"></ref>.
As an earthworm, its habits are critical to observe because of its effect on the [[soil]] structure around it. ''L. terrestris'' is thought to have originated from Europe, because its introduction occurs with European settlement; there has been some suggestions that the nightcrawler came first with the landing of the Mayflower in North America<ref name="[[henshue]]">Nicholas Henshue, "Earthworm [[Diversity]]", ''Soil [[Ecology]]: University at Buffalo'', 4/6/2022. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>. The environmental effect of this earthworm as an exotic species in North American temperate forests especially has only just started to be more intensely studied in the last three decades<ref name="Bohlen"></ref>.

== Description ==
[[File:L_terrestris_1.JPG|left|150px|thumb|An individual of the species ''L. terrestris.'']]
Like all earthworms, ''L. terrestris'' is a soft-bodied, cylindrical, segmented animal<ref name="Coleman">Coleman, D. C., and D. A. Crossley, "Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]]. Third edition.", ''Elsevier/Academic Press, London ; San Diego, CA.'', 2018. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>. The nightcrawler is a relatively larger earthworm: length averages between 110-200 mm, with a diameter of 7-10 mm. They're usually a dark brown color, with a reddish hue which fades towards the end, which is slightly flattened; the coloration pattern is referred to as being dorsally pigmented<ref name="CABI">S James, [https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/109385 "Data Sheet: Lumbricus Terrestris"], ''CABI'', Invasive Species Compendium, 22/12/10. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>. The puffy looking 'pad' in the middle of the worm is known as the clitellum; this is the source of secretion of mucous used during mating between ''L. terrestris'' individuals, as well as where the cocoon containing one or more embryos is secreted from<ref name="Coleman"></ref>.
 
''L. terrestris'' also has setae, small and stiff hair-like bristles which are used to help anchor and control the worm's movement through the soil. On ''L. terrestris'' the setae is closely paired, with some variation across the body.<ref name="CABI"></ref>

== Ecology ==
''L. terrestris'' is an anecic earthworm, one which creates deep burrows far down into the soil<ref name="Coleman"></ref>. Earthworms in general are engineers of the surrounding environment in soil due to their close relationship with soil, and anecic earthworms are very impactful of the soil environment because of their characteristic deep burrows, which tend to be permanent<ref name="Coleman"></ref>. The burrows not only bring leaf litter down further into the soil profile, but also the earthworms deposit middens above ground, creating small areas where there are increased nutrients and soil from further below in the soil profile.<ref name="Coleman"></ref>
 
The soil mixing which anecic earthworms perform means that the soil horizons in which they live and interact with are known as "mull" soil horizons, which is when organic matter is extremely well mixed into the upper mineral soil. This has an extreme end to the spectrum, where the horizon is extremely granular, and characterized by organic mineral complexes which consist of earthworm casts; this is known as "vermimull"<ref name="Coleman"></ref> This is extremely common in areas where ''L. terrestris'' is abundant and an exotic species, such as Western New York. If you see small granular piles on the ground outside, this is the result of many earthworms in the area.

=== Diet ===
''L. terrestris'' tends to eat the surface litter on the soil in which they live, as well as whatever they happen to eat while moving through the soil; which of course, includes the soil itself<ref name="mulci">A. Milcu, J. Schumacher, S. Scheu, "Earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) affect plant seedling recruitment and microhabitat heterogeneity", ''Functional Ecology , Apr., 2006, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Apr., 2006), pp. 261-268''. April 2006. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>.

=== Reproduction ===
The nightcrawler is a hermaphroditic species, reproducing as most members of the Opisthopora order do. The key mechanism to remember where it concerns earthworm reproduction is simply: mucus. The earthworms arrange themselves in opposite directions, lining up their spermataphores with the other worm's spermathecal pore where the sperm will be stored in a sperm sack until it is released in a cocoon along with fertilized eggs likely to be deposited near the soil surface<ref name="worm sex">Jefferey, "Earthworm Reproduction – How Do Worms Reproduce?", ''TheWormPeople''. 24 April 2021. Retrieved 5/2/2022.</ref>.
[[File:L_terrestris_diagram.png|right|thumb|400px|A: A diagram illustrating the different parts of ''L. terrestris.'' B: A diagram illustrating two individuals of ''L. terrestris'' mating]]

=== Effect as an Invasive Species ===
Despite being introduced over 100 years ago, ''L. terrestris'' still is not a native earthworm to the northern portion of the United States. The well-supported theory is that native earthworm species are effectively non-existent in the northern forests of North America because the last glacial period prevented earthworms from living in the area through its duration; in addition, due to the small size of earthworms, it is difficult for them to swiftly colonize on their own<ref name="Bohlen2">Patrick J. Bohlen, Peter M. Groffman, Timothy J. Fahey, Melany C. Fisk, Esteban Suarez, Derek M. Pelletier, and Robert T. Fahey, "Ecosystem Consequences of Exotic Earthworm Invasion of North Temperate Forests", ''Ecosystems (2004) 7: 1–12'', 12 January 2004. Retrieved 5/2/2022 </ref>. The effect of an anecic earthworm in particular, which eats litter layer, has serious impacts on Northern temperate deciduous forests. The annual loss of leaves and [[decomposition]] of these leaves on the forest floor is what leads to nutrient cycling on the forest floor and creates fertile soil in these forests. The addition of ''L. terrestris'' in great numbers can reduce this leaf litter and so disrupt nutrient cycling and encourage nutrient loss in these areas which have no history of earthworm activity<ref name="Bohlen2"></ref>. This disruption of nutrient cycling and mixing of soil horizons may also affect processes which occur within the [[rhizosphere]], and other microfauna which interacts with [[plant roots]] belowground.

== References ==
<references />

Organic Matter

2022-05-03T03:10:03Z

Cchorose:

[[Soil]] organic matter is the fraction of the soil that consists of plant or animal tissue in various stages of [[decomposition|breakdown]]<ref>Department of Crop and Soil Sciences,Soil Organic Matter, Agronomy Fact Sheet Series - Fact Sheet 41, Cornell University Cooporative Exentensive.</ref>. Soil organic matter makes up only a small percent of most soils, but it has a great deal of influence on soil [[properties]] and agricultural productivity<ref> Grubinger, V. Soil Organic Matter: The Living, the Dead, and the Very Dead https://www.uvm.edu/vtvegandberry/factsheets/soilorganicmatter.html. </ref>. In the production of a fertile soil, organic substances play a direct part as they are the sources of plant nutrients which are liberated in available forms during mineralization. <ref> Senn, T. L. and Alta R. Kingman, 1973, A review of [[Humus]] and Humic Acids. Research Series No. 145, S. C. Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson, South Carolina.</ref>

[[File:Organicmatter.jpg|thumb|Close-up of a wetland,showing multiple sources of dissolved organic matter (DOM) <ref> USGS, What is organic matter?, https://www.usgs.gov/labs/organic-matter-research-laboratory/what-organic-matter-0.</ref>]]

== Formation Sources ==

=== Plant residues and microbial biomass ===
[[File:Microbiomass.png|thumb|The main soil properties affecting the microbial biomass and factors influenced by it. <ref> Soil Quality Fact Sheet. https://soilquality.org.au/factsheets/microbial-biomass#:~:text=Microbial%20biomass%20(bacteria%20and%20fungi,dioxide%20and%20plant%20available%20nutrients.</ref>]]
Microbial biomass (bacteria and fungi) is a measure of the mass of the living component of soil organic matter. The microbial component - microorganisms - decompose plant and animal residues and soil organic matter to release carbon dioxide and nutrients available to plants. Farming strategies that return plant residues (e.g. no-tillage) tend to increase the microbial biomass. Soil properties such as [[Soil pH|pH]], [[clay]], and the availability of organic carbon all influence the size of the microbial biomass. <ref> Soil Quality Fact Sheet. https://soilquality.org.au/factsheets/microbial-biomass#:~:text=Microbial%20biomass%20(bacteria%20and%20fungi,dioxide%20and%20plant%20available%20nutrients.</ref>

=== Detritus ===
[[File:Detritus.jpg|thumb|Detritus]]
Detritus is living organic matter composed of leaves and other plant parts, animal remains, waste products, and other organic debris that falls onto the soil or into bodies of water from surrounding terrestrial communities. [[Microorganisms]] (such as bacteria or fungi) break down detritus, and this microorganism-rich material is eaten by [[invertebrates]], which are in turn eaten by vertebrates. Many freshwater streams have detritus rather than living plants as their energy base<ref> Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/detritus</ref>.

=== Humus ===
It has been established that soil organic matter is formed from decomposed plant and animal tissue. Humus is considered to be the stable portion of the soil organic matter; it is the final product of [[decomposition]], forming in a process referred to as "humification." It generally exists as a complex aggregate of brown to dark colored amorphous substances, which have originated during decomposition, under aerobic and anaerobic conditions; this usually occurs in soils, composts, peat bogs, and water basins. Different humus types can be represented in an advanced state of decomposition, produced from various plant residues at different periods during prehistoric times, and later stratified and compressed by superimposed layers of mineral matter<ref> Senn, T. L. and Alta R. Kingman, 1973, A review of Humus and Humic Acids. Research Series No. 145, S. C. Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson, South Carolina.</ref>.

== Importance of Organic Matter ==

=== Physical Benefits ===
* Improves soil structure, which further helps to control [[soil erosion]], improves water infiltration and water holding capacity.
* Reduces surface crusting, facilitating seedbed preparation.
* Provides better living conditions to [[plant roots]] and soil [[organisms]].

=== Chemical Benefits ===
* Improves the capacity of a soil to store and supply essential nutrients (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium).
* Improves the ability of a soil to resist [[Soil pH|pH]] change (buffering capacity).
* Improves the capacity of a soil to retain toxic elements.
* Allows the soil to cope with changes in soil acidity.
* Helps accerelate soil minerals to decomposition, making the nutrients in the minerals available for plant uptake.

=== Biological Benefits ===
* Supports soil functionality as a primary source of carbon which gives energy and nutrients to [[soil organisms]].
* Improves the activity of microorganisms in the soil and enhances biodiversity, which can help in the suppression of diseases and pests.
* Drcrease the emssions of CO2 to the atmostphere by capturing carbon in the soil, and hence mitigates climate change. <ref> European Commission, 2016, Soil Organic Matter Matters: Investing in Soil Quality for Long-term Benefits.</ref>

== Organic Matter Management ==
Proper farm practices can help to maintain or increase soil organic matter levels.
* Use of conservation tillage practices (e.g. zone tillage or no-till); tillage exposes the organic matter and results in the decrease of the amount of stable organic matter due to increased mineralization rates and erosion losses.
* Rotation of annual row crops with perennial grass or legume sods: this reduces erosion and builds up organic matter as a result of the decomposition of the root mass.
* Establish legume cover crops: this enhances organic matter accumulation by providing the nitrogen needed for decomposition of freshly added organic materials, especially those with a high C to N ratio (e.g. corn stover, cereal, straw, heavily bedded manure).
* Avoid soil compaction: this increases water-logging.
* Maintain proper [[Soil pH|pH]]: this enhances microbial activity and decomposition of freshly added materials. <ref> Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Soil Organic Matter, Agronomy Fact Sheet Series, Fact Sheet 41.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

Organic Matter

2022-05-03T03:09:01Z

Cchorose: Some grammar edits and rewording for improved understanding

[[Soil]] organic matter is the fraction of the soil that consists of plant or animal tissue in various stages of [[decomposition|breakdown]]<ref>Department of Crop and Soil Sciences,Soil Organic Matter, Agronomy Fact Sheet Series - Fact Sheet 41, Cornell University Cooporative Exentensive.</ref>. Soil organic matter makes up only a small percent of most soils, but it has a great deal of influence on soil [[properties]] and agricultural productivity<ref> Grubinger, V. Soil Organic Matter: The Living, the Dead, and the Very Dead https://www.uvm.edu/vtvegandberry/factsheets/soilorganicmatter.html. </ref>. In the production of a fertile soil, organic substances play a direct part as they are the sources of plant nutrients which are liberated in available forms during mineralization. <ref> Senn, T. L. and Alta R. Kingman, 1973, A review of [[Humus]] and Humic Acids. Research Series No. 145, S. C. Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson, South Carolina.</ref>

[[File:Organicmatter.jpg|thumb|Close-up of a wetland,showing multiple sources of dissolved organic matter (DOM) <ref> USGS, What is organic matter?, https://www.usgs.gov/labs/organic-matter-research-laboratory/what-organic-matter-0.</ref>]]

== Formation Sources ==

=== Plant residues and microbial biomass ===
[[File:Microbiomass.png|thumb|The main soil properties affecting the microbial biomass and factors influenced by it. <ref> Soil Quality Fact Sheet. https://soilquality.org.au/factsheets/microbial-biomass#:~:text=Microbial%20biomass%20(bacteria%20and%20fungi,dioxide%20and%20plant%20available%20nutrients.</ref>]]
Microbial biomass (bacteria and fungi) is a measure of the mass of the living component of soil organic matter. The microbial component - microorganisms - decompose plant and animal residues and soil organic matter to release carbon dioxide and nutrients available to plants. Farming strategies that return plant residues (e.g. no-tillage) tend to increase the microbial biomass. Soil properties such as [[Soil pH|pH]], [[clay]], and the availability of organic carbon all influence the size of the microbial biomass. <ref> Soil Quality Fact Sheet. https://soilquality.org.au/factsheets/microbial-biomass#:~:text=Microbial%20biomass%20(bacteria%20and%20fungi,dioxide%20and%20plant%20available%20nutrients.</ref>

=== Detritus ===
[[File:Detritus.jpg|thumb|Detritus]]
Detritus is living organic matter composed of leaves and other plant parts, animal remains, waste products, and other organic debris that falls onto the soil or into bodies of water from surrounding terrestrial communities. [[Microorganisms]] (such as bacteria or fungi) break down detritus, and this microorganism-rich material is eaten by [[invertebrates]], which are in turn eaten by vertebrates. Many freshwater streams have detritus rather than living plants as their energy base<ref> Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/detritus</ref>.

=== Humus ===
Humus is the
stable fraction of the soil organic matter that is
formed from decomposed plant and animal
tissue. It is the final product of [[decomposition]].
It has been established that soil organic matter is formed from decomposed plant and animal tissue. Humus is considered to be the stable portion of the soil organic matter; it is the final product of decomposition, forming in a process referred to as "humification." It generally exists as a complex aggregate of brown to dark colored amorphous substances, which have originated during decomposition, under aerobic and anaerobic conditions; this usually occurs in soils, composts, peat bogs, and water basins. Different humus types can be represented in an advanced state of decomposition, produced from various plant residues at different periods during prehistoric times, and later stratified and compressed by superimposed layers of mineral matter<ref> Senn, T. L. and Alta R. Kingman, 1973, A review of Humus and Humic Acids. Research Series No. 145, S. C. Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson, South Carolina.</ref>.

== Importance of Organic Matter ==

=== Physical Benefits ===
* Improves soil structure, which further helps to control [[soil erosion]], improves water infiltration and water holding capacity.
* Reduces surface crusting, facilitating seedbed preparation.
* Provides better living conditions to [[plant roots]] and soil [[organisms]].

=== Chemical Benefits ===
* Improves the capacity of a soil to store and supply essential nutrients (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium).
* Improves the ability of a soil to resist [[Soil pH|pH]] change (buffering capacity).
* Improves the capacity of a soil to retain toxic elements.
* Allows the soil to cope with changes in soil acidity.
* Helps accerelate soil minerals to decomposition, making the nutrients in the minerals available for plant uptake.

=== Biological Benefits ===
* Supports soil functionality as a primary source of carbon which gives energy and nutrients to [[soil organisms]].
* Improves the activity of microorganisms in the soil and enhances biodiversity, which can help in the suppression of diseases and pests.
* Drcrease the emssions of CO2 to the atmostphere by capturing carbon in the soil, and hence mitigates climate change. <ref> European Commission, 2016, Soil Organic Matter Matters: Investing in Soil Quality for Long-term Benefits.</ref>

== Organic Matter Management ==
Proper farm practices can help to maintain or increase soil organic matter levels.
* Use of conservation tillage practices (e.g. zone tillage or no-till); tillage exposes the organic matter and results in the decrease of the amount of stable organic matter due to increased mineralization rates and erosion losses.
* Rotation of annual row crops with perennial grass or legume sods: this reduces erosion and builds up organic matter as a result of the decomposition of the root mass.
* Establish legume cover crops: this enhances organic matter accumulation by providing the nitrogen needed for decomposition of freshly added organic materials, especially those with a high C to N ratio (e.g. corn stover, cereal, straw, heavily bedded manure).
* Avoid soil compaction: this increases water-logging.
* Maintain proper [[Soil pH|pH]]: this enhances microbial activity and decomposition of freshly added materials. <ref> Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Soil Organic Matter, Agronomy Fact Sheet Series, Fact Sheet 41.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

Colorado Potato Beetle

2022-05-03T02:51:05Z

Cchorose:

[[File:potato_beetles01.jpg|thumb|Colorado Potato Beetles - ''Retrieved from'' https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/potato_beetles.htm]]
== Description ==
This species is under the classifications of the phylum ''Arthropoda'', the order ''Insecta'', and the class of [[Coleoptera]], more commonly known as beetles. The Colorado Potato Beetle (''Leptinotarsa decemlineata''), part of the genus ''Leptinotarsa'' or leaf beetles, can be distinguished by their yellow-orange and black striped shell, and spotted head. The name Colorado Potato Beetle, sometimes referred to as the "potato bug", is due to them being severe pests of the potato plant, but the insect can also damage others crops such as tomato, and pepper. Their red bodied larvae, typically with two rows of black spots on their side, also feed on crops in large groups, which can often be more damaging than the adult beetles [1]. Despite the name, they were originally discovered in central Mexico, but soon appeared in most areas of the United States (excluding Alaska, California, Hawaii, and Nevada), and also in southern Canada, parts of Asia, and Europe.

[[File:potato_beetle_larvae.jpg|thumb|Larvae of the Colorado Potato Beetle - ''Retrieved from'' https://fineartamerica.com/featured/1-colorado-potato-beetle-larva-pascal-goetgheluckscience-photo-library.html]]

== Habitat and Life Cycle ==
Generally, the Colorado Potato Beetle prefers warmer climates, and reveal themselves between the months of April to September in the United States [2]. Adult potato bugs will hibernate over the winter, digging themselves about a foot into the ground. In the spring, they will emerge to feed and begin to mate and lay eggs on their host plants [2]. The number of eggs each female produces can be in the upward range of 500, and can be found in large clusters [3]. While the beetle can live in a variety of climates, eggs will take between four to ten days to hatch depending on the temperature. A lower temperature will cause a longer egg stage, while a hotter temperature will make the process move along quicker. The climate will also affect the amount of potato bugs present throughout the year, as warmer climates can support about one to three generations per year, while cooler areas may result in less than two generations per season [3]. This stage of their life lasts only about three weeks, and then the pupa stage beings, which occurs in the [[soil]] and lasts anywhere from five to ten days [3]. The cycle continues once the beetles form into adults. Adult females can begin laying eggs in only a few days after leaving the pupa stage [1].

[[File:potato_beetles_damage.jpg|thumb|left|Damage Caused to a Potato Plant by the Colorado Potato Beetle - ''Retrieved from'' https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/colorado-potato-beetles]]

== Impact on the Environment ==
As mentioned, the Colorado Potato Beetles feed on crops, mainly the potato plant, from the beginning of their larvae stage up to their adult hood. The first discovery of this detriment was in 1859, when many crops were destroyed near Nebraska, and quickly spread to other areas in the United States [3]. The larvae feed on these plants for most of their cycle before entering the pupa stage, generally in groups, leading to a significant amount of damage on these plants, which can cause reduced yield and plant death [1]. The main reason why the Colorado Potato Beetle remains an issue is their extreme resistance to insecticides, making them harder to get rid of. To aid in their removal, it is recommended to use differing insecticides with each treatment rather than the exact same treatment to limit resistant beetles [1]. These [[insects]] can also be managed by their [[diversity]] of predators, including lady bug (or lady beetles), stink bugs, and parasitic wasps.

== References ==
[1] Bessin, R. 2019, November. Colorado potato beetle management. https://entomology.ca.uky.edu/ef312.

[2] Colorado potato beetle. 2019, July 22. . https://cropwatch.unl.edu/potato/colo_potato_beetle.

[3] Jacques, R. L. 2020, May. Colorado Potato Beetle. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/potato_beetles.htm.

Salamanders

2022-05-03T02:45:32Z

Cchorose:

[[File: EasternRedbackedSalamander2.jpg|thumb|Eastern Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon cinereus) - ''Retrieved from'' https://herpsofnc.org/red-backed-salamander/]]
== Description ==

Salamanders are a group of amphibians in the order Caudata [1], with over 740 species of salamander in 10 families, with the largest family being Cryptobranchidae [1]. Salamanders are characterized as amphibians which have tails as adults, which store fats and proteins and assists with movement [1]. Salamanders are typically small [[animals]], usually reaching no more than 4 to 6 inches when fully grown [1]. However, there are notable exceptions, with some species reaching much larger sizes. Most notably, the Japanese giant salamander can reach up to 5.6 feet in length [1]. Other well known examples of salamanders include axolotls, hellbenders, sirens, and newts [1]. Salamanders can be found in temperate and tropical climates worldwide, with most of their [[diversity]] occurring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere [1].

== Habitat and Range ==

Salamanders can be found throughout almost the entire northern hemisphere with the one exception being the Amazon basin in South America [3]. The greatest amount of salamander diversity can be found in the United States, with all but one of the families being found there, the Hynobiidae or Asiatic salamanders [2]. All species of salamanders require access to a nearby water source, as it is essential for them to keep their skin moist in order to survive [2]. Some groups, particularly newts, spend most of their time out of the water while others, such as hellbenders, are almost fully aquatic [2]. Some other species are cave specialists and spend most, if not all of their lives in total darkness [4]. Salamanders of all species tend to be secretive, and burrow in moist leaf litter to avoid being seen [5].

== Life Cycle ==
[[File: Salamander-Life-Cycle.jpg|thumb|Typical Salamander Life Cycle - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.animalspot.net/salamander]]
Salamanders are amphibians and like most amphibians they reproduce by laying eggs. In most species, reproduction is done via internal fertilization, although a few species use external fertilization [3]. After fertilization, eggs are typically laid in clusters in shallow water. Some species however, lay eggs in moist terrestrial locations, such as under logs or on leaves [3]. Once the eggs are laid, it is common for the female to stay with them until they hatch [3]. Most salamander species begin their lives as a fully aquatic larva which then undergoes a metamorphosis before transitioning to a more terrestrial adult [3]. Not all species do this though. A number of species never fully metamorphize and the adults retain several juvenile features, a process called paedomorphosis [3]. The most well known species to undergo paedomorphosis is the Axolotl [3].

[[File:salamander_feeding.jpg|thumb|left| A Blue Spotted Salamander Feeding on its Prey - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.flickr.com/photos/26500525@N08/4561488710]]

== Diet ==

All species of salamanders are carnivores with [[insects]] being the most common prey item [3]. Diet does vary widely across species, mostly depending on the size of a particular species. Small salamanders eat mostly insects and other small [[invertebrates]], while some of the largest species have diets that include larger prey items which can include fish, crustaceans, and small mammals [4]. Salamanders are mostly slow moving animals and this limits their ability to catch fast prey items [4]. This limitation is partially made up for in some, mostly tropical, species which have specialized tongues that can be rapidly protruded from the mouth to grab prey items [3].

== References ==

[1] salamander | Species, lifestyle, & facts. (n.d.).. https://www.britannica.com/animal/salamander

[2] Facts About Salamanders | Live Science. 2015, October 29.. https://www.livescience.com/52627-salamanders.html

[3] Caudata | Characteristics & Facts | Britannica. (n.d.).. https://www.britannica.com/animal/Caudata

[4] Salamander and Newt | San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants. (n.d.).. https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/salamander-and-newt#:~:text=HABITAT%20AND%20DIET,dug%20in%20the%20damp%20earth.

[5] Spotted salamander. (n.d.). . https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Wildlife/Fact-Sheets/Spotted-Salamander.

Pioneer species

2022-05-03T02:39:03Z

Cchorose:

==Definition==

'''Pioneer Species''' are a group of species that are the first to colonize a new habitat created by a previous disturbance. These disturbances could be a fire, flood, or volcanic activity that causes very fine or non-existent [[soil]], high heat, or lack of water.

[[File:moss.jpg|400px|left|thumb| [1] ]]

==Ecological Succession==
Ecological succession is the process that allows pioneer species to become apparent in disturbed habitats. This is a change in structure that occurs within a community or ecosystem and has multiple phases dependent on different patterns of regrowth within an ecosystem. Ecosystems advance until they reach a [[climax community]], where all of the resources are efficiently used and the total mass of vegetation reaches a peak. The concept of ecological succession has two types: [[primary succession]] and [[secondary succession]]. Primary succession is when soils are not yet formed in an area, preventing new vegetative establishment. Over time, small [[organisms]] and erosion break down these rocks into soils allowing for the introduction of pioneer species into the area. More often, pioneer species are brought about through secondary succession, a process that, as long as the soil is not destroyed within a natural disaster-affected ecosystem, can flourish with pioneer species. [2]

[[File:secondary.jpg|right|thumb| https://cdn-acgla.nitrocdn.com/bvIhcJyiWKFqlMsfAAXRLitDZjWdRlLX/assets/static/optimized/rev-5131b73/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Secondary-Succession-300x117.jpg [2]]]

==Pioneer Flora==
Flora are the first to become pioneer species across all types of natural disaster sites. Due to a lack of nutrients in the soil, most pioneer species have to be hardy plants with adaptations such as long roots and the ability to live in harsh conditions with a lack of water and sunlight. The seeds also have to be able to [[germinate]] easily, allowing species to propagate even after years of dormancy and be able to disperse via wind. This is due to the lack of other forms of dispersal like fauna distribution. The propagule size of the seeds must also be small due to the realization of succession goals and the ability to disperse seeds within small crevices surrounding the habitat. Their lifecycles must also be short as pioneer species cannot stay in one place with little to no nutrients for long. [3]

These species are needed in order to develop and reform ecosystems, allowing for development in a nutrient-poor environment.

Examples of Pioneering plant species:
*'''[[Lichen]]''': A fungus and an alga typically found on rocks and shady places
*'''[[Moss]]''': Non-vascular plants that form dense green clumps in damp and shady areas
*'''Grass''': Small-seeded blades of plant that grow in crevices

==Pioneer Fauna==
While pioneer fauna is harder to find and typically does not appear until the pioneer flora has first established an area, there are still some species that are more so present in the early stages of disaster-struck areas. Some examples of pioneer fauna are soil [[invertebrates]] like worms, ants, snails, and possibly even some toads. These species are important to the soil of the area, as they both help the pioneer flora to flourish but also bring nutrients back into the soil that it was once lacking. Once the introduction of pioneer fauna is present, the area will continue to advance at a rapid pace and more species will start to migrate towards the ecosystem.

==References==

[1] Sataksig. (2019, February 3). Pioneer plants: What is it, and what does it do? Earth Buddies. Retrieved April 20, 2022, from https://earthbuddies.net/pioneer-plants/

[2] Editors, B. D., (2019, October 5). Ecological succession - definition, examples and types. Biology Dictionary. Retrieved April 20, 2022, from https://biologydictionary.net/ecological-succession/

[3] Pioneer species - definition and examples - biology online dictionary. Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online. (2022, January 13). Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/pioneer-species

[4] Dalling, J. W. (2008, January 1). Pioneer species. University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://experts.illinois.edu/en/publications/pioneer-species

[5] Futura-Sciences. (n.d.). Pioneer species. Futura. Retrieved April 21, 2022, from http://www.futura-sciences.us/dico/d/botany-pioneer-species-50002180/

Lumbricus terrestris

2022-05-03T02:09:23Z

Cchorose:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:l_terrestris_2.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Annelida
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Clitellata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Opisthopora
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Lumbricidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Lumbricus''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''L. terrestris''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Integrated Taxonomic Information System<ref name="ITIS">[https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=977384#null "Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Report"], ''ITIS'' USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature", ''USGS'', n.d.. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>
|}

''Lumbricus terrestris'' is a species of [[earthworm]] which has been distributed across a majority of the globe due to farming practices and commercial industries<ref name="Bohlen">Patrick J Bohlen, Stefan Scheu, Cindy M Hale, Mary Ann McLean, Sonja Migge, Peter M Groffman, and Dennis Parkinson, "Non-native invasive earthworms as agents
of change in northern temperate forests", ''Front Ecol Environ 2004; 2(8): 427–435'', 2004. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref> Due to its wide distribution, the worm has a variety of common names, including nightcrawler, Canadian nightcrawler, and dewworm<ref name="ITIS"></ref>.
As an earthworm, its habits are critical to observe because of its effect on the [[soil]] structure around it. ''L. terrestris'' is thought to have originated from Europe, because its introduction occurs with European settlement; there has been some suggestions that the nightcrawler came first with the landing of the Mayflower in North America<ref name="[[henshue]]">Nicholas Henshue, "Earthworm [[Diversity]]", ''Soil [[Ecology]]: University at Buffalo'', 4/6/2022. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>. The environmental effect of this earthworm as an exotic species in North American temperate forests especially has only just started to be more intensely studied in the last three decades<ref name="Bohlen"></ref>.

== Description ==
[[File:L_terrestris_1.JPG|left|150px|thumb|An individual of the species ''L. terrestris.'']]
Like all earthworms, ''L. terrestris'' is a soft-bodied, cylindrical, segmented animal<ref name="Coleman">Coleman, D. C., and D. A. Crossley, "Fundamentals of [[Soil Ecology]]. Third edition.", ''Elsevier/Academic Press, London ; San Diego, CA.'', 2018. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>. The nightcrawler is a relatively larger earthworm: length averages between 110-200 mm, with a diameter of 7-10 mm. They're usually a dark brown color, with a reddish hue which fades towards the end, which is slightly flattened; the coloration pattern is referred to as being dorsally pigmented<ref name="CABI">S James, [https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/109385 "Data Sheet: Lumbricus Terrestris"], ''CABI'', Invasive Species Compendium, 22/12/10. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>. The puffy looking 'pad' in the middle of the worm is known as the clitellum; this is the source of secretion of mucous used during mating between ''L. terrestris'' individuals, as well as where the cocoon containing one or more embryos is secreted from<ref name="Coleman"></ref>.
 
''L. terrestris'' also has setae, small and stiff hair-like bristles which are used to help anchor and control the worm's movement through the soil. On ''L. terrestris'' the setae is closely paired, with some variation across the body.<ref name="CABI"></ref>

== Ecology ==
''L. terrestris'' is an anecic earthworm, one which creates deep burrows far down into the soil<ref name="Coleman"></ref>. Earthworms in general are engineers of the surrounding environment in soil due to their close relationship with soil, and anecic earthworms are very impactful of the soil environment because of their characteristic deep burrows, which tend to be permanent<ref name="Coleman"></ref>. The burrows not only bring leaf litter down further into the soil profile, but also the earthworms deposit middens above ground, creating small areas where there are increased nutrients and soil from further below in the soil profile.<ref name="Coleman"></ref>
 
The soil mixing which anecic earthworms perform means that the soil horizons in which they live and interact with are known as "mull" soil horizons, which is when organic matter is extremely well mixed into the upper mineral soil. This has an extreme end to the spectrum, where the horizon is extremely granular, and characterized by organic mineral complexes which consist of earthworm casts; this is known as "vermimull"<ref name="Coleman"></ref> This is extremely common in areas where ''L. terrestris'' is abundant and an exotic species, such as Western New York. If you see small granular piles on the ground outside, this is the result of many earthworms in the area.

=== Diet ===
''L. terrestris'' tends to eat the surface litter on the soil in which they live, as well as whatever they happen to eat while moving through the soil; which of course, includes the soil itself<ref name="mulci">A. Milcu, J. Schumacher, S. Scheu, "Earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) affect plant seedling recruitment and microhabitat heterogeneity", ''Functional Ecology , Apr., 2006, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Apr., 2006), pp. 261-268''. April 2006. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>.

=== Reproduction ===
The nightcrawler is a hermaphroditic species, reproducing as most members of the Opisthopora order do. The key mechanism to remember where it concerns earthworm reproduction is simply: mucus. The earthworms arrange themselves in opposite directions, lining up their spermataphores with the other worm's spermathecal pore where the sperm will be stored in a sperm sack until it is released in a cocoon along with fertilized eggs likely to be deposited near the soil surface<ref name="worm sex">Jefferey, "Earthworm Reproduction – How Do Worms Reproduce?", ''TheWormPeople''. 24 April 2021. Retrieved 5/2/2022.</ref>.
[[File:L_terrestris_diagram.png|right|thumb|400px|A diagram illustrating the different parts of ''L. terrestris.'']]

=== Effect as an Invasive Species ===
Despite being introduced over 100 years ago, ''L. terrestris'' still is not a native earthworm to the northern portion of the United States. The well-supported theory is that native earthworm species are effectively non-existent in the northern forests of North America because the last glacial period prevented earthworms from living in the area through its duration; in addition, due to the small size of earthworms, it is difficult for them to swiftly colonize on their own<ref name="Bohlen2">Patrick J. Bohlen, Peter M. Groffman, Timothy J. Fahey, Melany C. Fisk, Esteban Suarez, Derek M. Pelletier, and Robert T. Fahey, "Ecosystem Consequences of Exotic Earthworm Invasion of North Temperate Forests", ''Ecosystems (2004) 7: 1–12'', 12 January 2004. Retrieved 5/2/2022 </ref>. The effect of an anecic earthworm in particular, which eats litter layer, has serious impacts on Northern temperate deciduous forests. The annual loss of leaves and [[decomposition]] of these leaves on the forest floor is what leads to nutrient cycling on the forest floor and creates fertile soil in these forests. The addition of ''L. terrestris'' in great numbers can reduce this leaf litter and so disrupt nutrient cycling and encourage nutrient loss in these areas which have no history of earthworm activity<ref name="Bohlen2"></ref>. This disruption of nutrient cycling and mixing of soil horizons may also affect processes which occur within the [[rhizosphere]], and other microfauna which interacts with [[plant roots]] belowground.

== References ==
<references />

Lumbricus terrestris

2022-05-03T01:44:33Z

Cchorose:

File:L terrestris diagram.png

2022-05-02T19:21:34Z

Cchorose: Diagram of an L. terrestris adapted from Jepson, M. 1951. Biological Drawings. Part II. John Murray, London, p. 31. From: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Lumbricus-terrestris-Lumbricidae-A-External-features-of-worm-turned-slightly-to-one_fig41_305701540

== Summary ==
Diagram of an L. terrestris adapted from Jepson, M. 1951. Biological Drawings. Part II. John Murray, London, p. 31. From: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Lumbricus-terrestris-Lumbricidae-A-External-features-of-worm-turned-slightly-to-one_fig41_305701540

Lumbricus terrestris

2022-05-02T18:15:59Z

Cchorose:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:l_terrestris_2.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Annelida
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Class:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Clitellata
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Order:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Opisthopora
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Family:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Lumbricidae
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |''Lumbricus''
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Species:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |''L. terrestris''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Integrated Taxonomic Information System<ref name="ITIS">[https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=977384#null "Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Report"], ''ITIS'' USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature", ''USGS'', n.d.. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>
|}

''Lumbricus terrestris'' is a species of [[earthworm]] which has been distributed across a majority of the globe due to farming practices and commercial industries<ref name="Bohlen">Patrick J Bohlen, Stefan Scheu, Cindy M Hale, Mary Ann McLean, Sonja Migge, Peter M Groffman, and Dennis Parkinson, "Non-native invasive earthworms as agents
of change in northern temperate forests", ''Front Ecol Environ 2004; 2(8): 427–435'', 2004. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref> Due to its wide distribution, the worm has a variety of common names, including nightcrawler, Canadian nightcrawler, and dewworm<ref name="ITIS"></ref>.
As an earthworm, its habits are critical to observe because of its effect on the [[soil]] structure around it. ''L. terrestris'' is thought to have originated from Europe, because its introduction occurs with European settlement; there has been some suggestions that the nightcrawler came first with the landing of the Mayflower in North America<ref name="[[henshue]]">Nicholas Henshue, "Earthworm [[Diversity]]", ''Soil [[Ecology]]: University at Buffalo'', 4/6/2022. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>. The environmental effect of this earthworm as an exotic species in North American temperate forests especially has only just started to be more intensely studied in the last three decades<ref name="Bohlen"></ref>.

== Description ==
[[File:L_terrestris_1.JPG|right|150px|thumb|An individual of the species ''L. terrestris.'']]
The nightcrawler is a larger earthworm than some: length averages between 110-200 mm, with a diameter of 7-10 mm. The worm is a dark brown, with a reddish hue which fades towards the end, which is slightly flattened. <ref name="CABI">S James, [https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/109385 "Data Sheet: Lumbricus Terrestris"], ''CABI'', Invasive Species Compendium, 22/12/10. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>

== Ecology ==
''L. terrestris'' is an anecic earthworm, one which burrows far down into the soil and tends to eat the surface litter on the soil in which they live<ref name="mulci">A. Milcu, J. Schumacher, S. Scheu, "Earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) affect plant seedling recruitment and microhabitat heterogeneity", ''Functional Ecology , Apr., 2006, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Apr., 2006), pp. 261-268''. April 2006. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>.

=== Diet ===

=== Reproduction ===

=== Effect as an Invasive Species ===

== References ==
<references />

Lumbricus terrestris

2022-05-02T18:04:19Z

Cchorose:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:l_terrestris_2.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Annelida
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Class:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Clitellata
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Order:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Opisthopora
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Family:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Lumbricidae
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |''Lumbricus''
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Species:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |''L. terrestris''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Integrated Taxonomic Information System<ref name="ITIS">[https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=977384#null "Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Report"], ''ITIS'' USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature", ''USGS'', n.d.. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>
|}

''Lumbricus terrestris'' is a species of [[earthworm]] which has been distributed across a majority of the globe due to farming practices and commercial industries<ref name="Bohlen">Patrick J Bohlen, Stefan Scheu, Cindy M Hale, Mary Ann McLean, Sonja Migge, Peter M Groffman, and Dennis Parkinson, "Non-native invasive earthworms as agents
of change in northern temperate forests", ''Front Ecol Environ 2004; 2(8): 427–435'', 2004. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref> Due to its wide distribution, the worm has a variety of common names, including nightcrawler, Canadian nightcrawler, and dewworm<ref name="ITIS"></ref>.
As an earthworm, its habits are critical to observe because of its effect on the [[soil]] structure around it. ''L. terrestris'' is thought to have originated from Europe, because its introduction occurs with European settlement; there has been some suggestions that the nightcrawler came first with the landing of the Mayflower in North America<ref name="[[henshue]]">Nicholas Henshue, "Earthworm [[Diversity]]", ''Soil [[Ecology]]: University at Buffalo'', 4/6/2022. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>. The environmental effect of this earthworm as an exotic species in North American temperate forests especially has only just started to be more intensely studied in the last three decades<ref name="Bohlen"></ref>.

== Description ==
[[File:L_terrestris_1.JPG|150px|right|Caption: An individual of the species ''L. terrestris.'']]
The nightcrawler is a larger earthworm than some: length averages between 110-200 mm, with a diameter of 7-10 mm. The worm is a dark brown, with a reddish hue which fades towards the end, which is slightly flattened. <ref name="CABI">S James, [https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/109385 "Data Sheet: Lumbricus Terrestris"], ''CABI'', Invasive Species Compendium, 22/12/10. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>

== Ecology ==
''L. terrestris'' is an anecic earthworm, one which burrows far down into the soil and tends to eat the surface litter on the soil in which they live<ref name="mulci">A. Milcu, J. Schumacher, S. Scheu, "Earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) affect plant seedling recruitment and microhabitat heterogeneity", ''Functional Ecology , Apr., 2006, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Apr., 2006), pp. 261-268''. April 2006. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>.

=== Diet ===

=== Reproduction ===

=== Effect as an Invasive Species ===

== References ==
<references />

Lumbricus terrestris

2022-05-02T03:25:56Z

Cchorose:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
|colspan="2" |[[File:l_terrestris_2.jpg|300px|caption]]
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Annelida
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Class:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Clitellata
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Order:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Opisthopora
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Family:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |Lumbricidae
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |''Lumbricus''
|-
!style="min-width:7.5em; |Species:
|style="min-width:7.5em; |''L. terrestris''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Integrated Taxonomic Information System<ref name="ITIS">[https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=977384#null "Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Report"], ''ITIS'' USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature", ''USGS'', n.d.. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>
|}

''Lumbricus terrestris'' is a species of [[earthworm]] which has been distributed across a majority of the globe due to farming practices and commercial industries<ref name="Bohlen">Patrick J Bohlen, Stefan Scheu, Cindy M Hale, Mary Ann McLean, Sonja Migge, Peter M Groffman, and Dennis Parkinson, "Non-native invasive earthworms as agents
of change in northern temperate forests", ''Front Ecol Environ 2004; 2(8): 427–435'', 2004. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref> Due to its wide distribution, the worm has a variety of common names, including nightcrawler, Canadian nightcrawler, and dewworm<ref name="ITIS"></ref>.
As an earthworm, its habits are critical to observe because of its effect on the [[soil]] structure around it. ''L. terrestris'' is thought to have originated from Europe, because its introduction occurs with European settlement; there has been some suggestions that the nightcrawler came first with the landing of the Mayflower in North America<ref name="[[henshue]]">Nicholas Henshue, "Earthworm [[Diversity]]", ''Soil [[Ecology]]: University at Buffalo'', 4/6/2022. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>. The environmental effect of this earthworm as an exotic species in North American temperate forests especially has only just started to be more intensely studied in the last three decades<ref name="Bohlen"></ref>.

== Description ==
[[File:L_terrestris_1.JPG|150px|right|Caption: An individual of the species ''L. terrestris.'']]
The nightcrawler is a larger earthworm than some: length averages between 110-200 mm, with a diameter of 7-10 mm. The worm is a dark brown, with a reddish hue which fades towards the end, which is slightly flattened. <ref name="CABI">S James, [https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/109385 "Data Sheet: Lumbricus Terrestris"], ''CABI'', Invasive Species Compendium, 22/12/10. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>

== Ecology ==
''L. terrestris'' is an anecic earthworm, one which burrows far down into the soil which tend to eat the surface litter on the soil in which they live<ref name="mulci">A. Milcu, J. Schumacher, S. Scheu, "Earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) affect plant seedling recruitment and microhabitat heterogeneity", ''Functional Ecology , Apr., 2006, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Apr., 2006), pp. 261-268''. April 2006. Retrieved 5/1/2022.</ref>.

=== Diet ===

=== Reproduction ===

=== Effect as an Invasive Species ===

== References ==
<references />

Lumbricus terrestris

2022-05-02T01:56:10Z

Cchorose:

File:L terrestris 2.jpg

2022-05-02T01:50:58Z

Cchorose:

File:L terrestris 1.JPG

2022-05-02T01:33:49Z

Cchorose: Picture of a canadian nightcrawler, courtesy of henshue's presentation

== Summary ==
Picture of a canadian nightcrawler, courtesy of henshue's presentation

Lumbricus terrestris

2022-04-27T22:04:32Z

Cchorose: Worm time

WORM'S COMING SOON

Plant establishment

2022-04-27T22:00:59Z

Cchorose: Added a link for allelopathy. Page looks really good to me!

== Definitions ==
To define a plant establishment, it must first be known what it is to establish something. Establish can be defined as "to start something that will last for a long time, or to create or set something in a particular way". [1]
Based on that, a plant establishment can be defined as, "the act of a plant taking root within a [[soil]] where it can flourish".
[[File:Established_Plant.jpg|frame|Multiple coffee plants established in pots [3]]]

== Plant Establishment ==
When plants first colonize an area, they are limited by a number of factors including competition for resources, environmental conditions, seed availability or a lack of facilitating species. This phase is arguably the most critical part of ecosystem development. A seed has to be dispersed to an area and land on a suitable microsite while also being at a time with favorable conditions for germination and early growth. This is remedied as time goes on because succession will continue, making the abiotic factors and species interactions, like competition, more favorable for colonizing plants. The more plants that become established in an area, the higher the quality of the soil becomes. This leads to an overall higher success rate of plant establishment. When the soil quality raises to a certain point, smaller seeds are able to establish themselves, adding competition to the area, which makes the site even more suitable for other types of plants. The [[diversity]] will create many more [[microsites]] in which plants with contrasting resource requirements can establish themselves and coexist. [2] This increase in biodiversity is beneficial to the overall health of the ecosystem, and the area in general.

Physically harsh environments such as outwash plains, pumice deposits and other fresh volcanic surfaces, can be extremely limiting for plant establishment, but not impossible. In these types of areas, the soils are typically extremely infertile with very poor water holding capacity, the surface is potentially unstable, and is often exposed to wind or lacking in shelter. Any little advantage that a seed can get to survive will give it the chance to establish itself. These advantages include depressions and other concave surfaces, larger stones, rocks and already established plants. The depressions and concave surfaces may increase soil moisture, provide shelter from temperature extremes and winds, or trap seeds. The larger stones, rocks, and established plants can also create favorable conditions by reducing wind and direct solar exposure, thus lowering evaporation rates and moisture loss. [4] These species can be considered [[pioneer species]] within their environment.

== Moss ==
[[File:moss.jpg|frame|Moss hanging over a rock, creating a shady area [7]]]
[[Moss]] is a type of vegetation that is usually one of the first [[organisms]] to colonize an area, although it is typically restricted to moist environments. Mosses are considered bryophytes which are more complex than algae, yet less complex than vascular plants. [8] They have been found to be both a facilitator and a deterrent for plant establishment. Moss could potentially create shade, which can deter plants from growing due to a lack of sunlight getting to the new plants. However, the shading can also help newly establishing plants, as stated above, by limiting direct sunlight which would reduce evaporation rates. The potential increase in moisture would most likely be used by the moss itself, but most mosses are capable of surviving prolonged periods of desiccation, so plants do have a chance to receive that extra moisture, which can be seen as facilitation by the moss. [5&8] In colder environments such as an outwash plain, moss has been seen to create enough cover to protect seeds from heavy frosts, facilitating plant establishment. Mosses have also been found to secrete substances which can prove to be a deterrent for plant germination, a process known as [[allelopathy]]; however, the substances mainly affect herbivores, causing them to stay away from newly established plants. [5&6] Overall, moss can be helpful in the creation of plant establishments by buffering environmental extremes, but are not beneficial to plants once they have taken root. [6]

== References ==
[1] "establish". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 2 May. 2018. <Dictionary.com http://www.dictionary.com/browse/establish>.

[2] Marteinsdottir, Bryndis, et al. "Multiple mechanisms of early plant community assembly with stochasticity driving the process." [[Ecology]], vol. 99, no. 1, 2018, p. 91+. General OneFile, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A532385328/GPS?u=avlr&sid=GPS&xid=5153d942. Accessed 2 May 2018.

[3] “Plants, Types, Growing Areas.” Plants, Types, Growing Areas - The Coffee Plant - Coffea Arabica - Coffea Caneph / Dethlefsen & Balk - Tea, Coffee, Confiserie, Accessories, www.dethlefsen-balk.de/ENU/10889/Coffee_Plant.html.

[4] Marteinsdottir, Bryndis, et al. "An experimental test of the relationship between small scale topography and seedling establishment in primary succession." Plant Ecology, vol. 214, no. 8, 2013, p. 1007+. Gardening,Landscape and Horticulture Collection, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A344602188/GPS?u=avlr&sid=GPS&xid=d12f9d06. Accessed 3 May 2018.

[5] Jeschke, Michael, and Kathrin Kiehl. "Effects of a dense moss layer on germination and establishment of vascular plants in newly created calcareous grasslands." Flora, vol. 203, no. 7, 2008, p. 557+. Gardening,Landscape and Horticulture Collection, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A191002267/GPS?u=avlr&sid=GPS&xid=79640672. Accessed 4 May 2018.

[6] Drake, Paige, et al. "Mosses inhibit germination of vascular plants on an extensive green roof." Ecological Engineering, vol. 117, 2018, p. 111. Gardening,Landscape and Horticulture Collection, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A536492308/GPS?u=avlr&sid=GPS&xid=6c41986f. Accessed 5 May 2018.

[7] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Moss.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 20 Sept. 2017, www.britannica.com/plant/moss-plant.

[8] Ensminger, Peter A. "Moss." The Gale Encyclopedia of Science, edited by K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, 5th ed., Gale, 2014. Student Resources In Context, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CV2644031481/SUIC?u=sunybuff_main&sid=SUIC&xid=971d03d3. Accessed 8 May 2018.

Cicadas

2022-04-27T21:48:53Z

Cchorose:

[[File: cicada.jpg|thumb|Periodical Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brood-x-cicadas-could-cause-a-bird-baby-boom/]]
== Description ==
Cicadas are members of the family Cicadidae in the order Homoptera [2]. They have two pairs of membranous wings and two compound eyes, as well as three simple eyes. Cicadas can range in size from 2 to 5 cm in length [2]. Their coloration can vary from bright orange and red patterns to iridescent greens and blues. Cicadas are easily identifiable by their recognizable vocalizations in the mid and late summer months. Male cicadas are responsible for these vocalizations which are produced by vibrating membranes which are located at the base of their abdomens [2]. The natural song frequency of a cicada is determined by the dimensions of the abdominal cavity and the tympana, which functions as an eardrum membrane in the abdomen [1]. North American species produce a series of rhythmical buzzes or whines, while species from other parts of the world produce more musical vocalizations [2]. Vocalizations can be made for several reasons; for mating, as a sign of disturbance, or as a result of daily weather fluctuations and the songs produced by other nearby males [2]

== Annual vs. Periodical Cicadas ==
[[File: dogday.jpg|thumb|Dog-day Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]]

Cicada species can be divided into two sub-categories based on the timing of their life cycles. Annual cicadas have a life cycle of two to five years and broods overlap, resulting in new adults every year [3]. An example of an annual cicada is the species ''Neotibicen canicularis'', more commonly known as the Dog-Day Cicada [3]. [[Periodical Cicadas]] do not appear every year and have life cycles of 13 to 17 years [3]. There are a total of seven species of cicada that are considered periodical, and all belong to the genus ''Magicicada''[3]. Of these seven species, four have a 17-year cycle and are generally found in the north, while the remaining three species have a 13-year cycle and are generally found in more southern regions [3]. Adult periodical cicadas typically emerge in May and June and are identifiable by their black bodies, striking red eyeballs and orange veined wings [3].

== Habitat and Range ==
Over 3,000 species of cicadas are known to exist, ranging in habitat from deserts, to grasslands and forests with most being situated in tropical environments [2]. Within these environments, cicadas inhabit regions with deciduous, woody trees and plants that can support their reproductive and nutritional needs [6]. Nymphs require environments with [[soil]] fertile enough to support complex root systems which they can feed upon as they grow [6]. Adults require woody plants with tender, thin twigs in which they can lay their eggs and also extract fluid from food [5]. Annual cicadas can be found worldwide, while periodicals are restricted solely to the central and eastern regions of the United States [4].

== Life Cycle ==
The life cycle of a cicada begins with the laying of eggs in woody plant tissues that will later drop from the plant during or after egg hatching [2]. Female cicadas can lay up to 400 eggs spread over dozens of sites [4]. After 6 to 10 weeks, nymphs emerge from these eggs and burrow into the ground where they will sustain themselves on juices from roots of perennial plants [2]. The nymph phase of the cicada is spent entirely in underground burrows until they emerge to the surface and molt their shells to become adults [4]. [[File: molt.jpg|thumb|Molting Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]] This event occurs in synchrony for all emerging adults as it is dependent on the year and soil temperature [4]. Once an adult, the sole purpose of the cicada is to mate and lay eggs. Because of this, the typical lifespan of the newly emerged adult cicadas is usually only about four to six weeks before they die. [4].

== Ecological Role ==
Cicadas play a beneficial role in the environment as they aerate the soil as nymphs, prune trees and shrubs as adults, and serve as a source of nitrogen for plants once they die [5]. They also function as an important link in the food chain as almost all insectivorous species will readily eat them when the adults emerge in the summer. Because cicadas emerge in the millions, they are fairly resilient to predation, making them an abundant and reliable food source [5]. However, cicadas can be considered a vulnerable group of [[insects]] as the nymphs are heavily affected by the application of pesticides as well as other lawn and garden chemicals [5].

Due to the short lifespan and high number of eggs laid by females in one lifecycle, cicadas are deemed predatory by farmers due to the large nutrient intake required to sustain the population. This can lead to a decrease in crop vegetation during their adult lifespan, however this only occurs once every 13 or 17 years, depending on the species periodical juvenile gestation period.

== References ==

[1] Bennet-Clark, H. C., and D. Young. (1992). A MODEL OF THE MECHANISM OF SOUND PRODUCTION IN CICADAS:32.

[2] cicada | Description, Life Cycle, & Facts. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada.

[3] Cicada - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). . https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html.

[4] Cicadas, facts and photos. 2011, May 10. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas.

[5] [[Periodical Cicadas]]. (n.d.). . https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas.

[6] Where Do Cicadas Live? Facts About Cicada Habitats. 2018, April 11. . https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat.

Cicadas

2022-04-27T21:48:20Z

Cchorose: Minor grammar corrections

[[File: cicada.jpg|thumb|Periodical Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brood-x-cicadas-could-cause-a-bird-baby-boom/]]
== Description ==
Cicadas are members of the family Cicadidae in the order Homoptera [2]. They have two pairs of membranous wings and two compound eyes, as well as three simple eyes. Cicadas can range in size from 2 to 5 cm in length [2]. Their coloration can vary from bright orange and red patterns to iridescent greens and blues. Cicadas are easily identifiable by their recognizable vocalizations in the mid and late summer months. Male cicadas are responsible for these vocalizations which are produced by vibrating membranes which are located at the base of their abdomens [2]. The natural song frequency of a cicada is determined by the dimensions of the abdominal cavity and the tympana, which functions as an eardrum membrane in the abdomen [1]. North American species produce a series of rhythmical buzzes or whines, while species from other parts of the world produce more musical vocalizations [2]. Vocalizations can be made for several reasons; for mating, as a sign of disturbance, or as a result of daily weather fluctuations and the songs produced by other nearby males [2]

== Annual vs. Periodical Cicadas ==
[[File: dogday.jpg|thumb|Dog-day Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html]]

Cicada species can be divided into two sub-categories based on the timing of their life cycles. Annual cicadas have a life cycle of two to five years and broods overlap, resulting in new adults every year [3]. An example of an annual cicada is the species ''Neotibicen canicularis'', more commonly known as the Dog-Day Cicada [3]. [[Periodical Cicadas]] do not appear every year and have life cycles of 13 to 17 years [3]. There are a total of seven species of cicada that are considered periodical, and all belong to the genus ''Magicicada''[3]. Of these seven species, four have a 17-year cycle and are generally found in the north, while the remaining three species have a 13-year cycle and are generally found in more southern regions [3]. Adult periodical cicadas typically emerge in May and June and are identifiable by their black bodies, striking red eyeballs and orange veined wings [3].

== Habitat and Range ==
Over 3,000 species of cicadas are known to exist, ranging in habitat from deserts, to grasslands and forests with most being situated in tropical environments [2]. Within these environments, cicadas inhabit regions with deciduous, woody trees and plants that can support their reproductive and nutritional needs [6]. Nymphs require environments with [[soil]] fertile enough to support complex root systems which they can feed upon as they grow [6]. Adults require woody plants with tender, thin twigs in which they can lay their eggs and also extract fluid from food [5]. Annual cicadas can be found worldwide, while periodicals are restricted solely to the central and eastern regions of the United States [4].

== Life Cycle ==
The life cycle of a cicada begins with the laying of eggs in woody plant tissues that will later drop from the plant during or after egg hatching [2]. Female cicadas can lay up to 400 eggs spread over dozens of sites [4]. After 6 to 10 weeks, nymphs emerge from these eggs and burrow into the ground where they will sustain themselves on juices from roots of perennial plants [2]. The nymph phase of the cicada is spent entirely in underground burrows until they emerge to the surface and molt their shells to become adults [4]. [[File: molt.jpg|thumb|Molting Cicada - ''Retrieved from'' https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada]] This event occurs in synchrony for all emerging adults as it is dependent on the year and soil temperature [4]. Once an adult, the sole purpose of the cicada is to mate and lay eggs. Because of this, the typical lifespan of the newly emerged adult cicadas is usually only about four to six weeks before they die. [4].

== Ecological Role ==
Cicadas play a beneficial role in the environment as they aerate the soil as nymphs, prune trees and shrubs as adults, and serve as a source of nitrogen for plants once they die [5]. They also function as an important link in the food chain as almost all insectivorous species will readily eat them when the adults emerge in the summer. Because cicadas emerge in the millions, they are fairly resilient to predation, making them an abundant and reliable food source [5]. However, cicadas can be considered a vulnerable group of [[insects]] as the nymphs are heavily affected by the application of pesticides as well as other lawn and garden chemicals [5].

Due to the short lifespan and high number of eggs laid by females in one lifecycle, cicadas are deemed predatory by farmers due to the large nutrient intake required to sustain the population. This can lead to a decrease in crop vegetation during their adult lifespan, however this only occurs once every 13 or 17 years, depending on the species periodically juvenile gestation period.

== References ==

[1] Bennet-Clark, H. C., and D. Young. (1992). A MODEL OF THE MECHANISM OF SOUND PRODUCTION IN CICADAS:32.

[2] cicada | Description, Life Cycle, & Facts. (n.d.). . https://www.britannica.com/animal/cicada.

[3] Cicada - NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). . https://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/91895.html.

[4] Cicadas, facts and photos. 2011, May 10. . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/cicadas.

[5] [[Periodical Cicadas]]. (n.d.). . https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicadas.

[6] Where Do Cicadas Live? Facts About Cicada Habitats. 2018, April 11. . https://www.orkin.com/other/cicadas/habitat.

Soil Particle Size Analysis Methods

2022-03-31T17:44:15Z

Cchorose: FIXED REFERENCE CODING THANK YOU HENSHUE

There are three basic classifications of [[soil]] particle size: [[clay]], [[silt]] and [[sand]], from smallest to largest, respectively. There are several different methods to determining how much clay, silt and sand is in a sample of soil. Methods may be mechanical, chemical, or both with many different innovations on these methods to fit unique situations being utilized by researchers.
Please redirect to the [[Loss on Ignition]] test, for a method which determines the amount of organic matter in the soil.

==Basic Analysis==
Soil has three basic classifications, but there are further definitions within those classifications to clarify analysis. These can vary a small amount across soil classification systems, but for the purposes of soil [[ecology]], the utilization of the USDA classification is a standardized classification, as well as the World Reference Base (WRB), an international standard for soil classification system endorsed by the International Union of Soil Sciences. The USDA classification is based off the grade scale from Wentworth (1922).<ref name="USGS">[https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1195/htmldocs/nomenclature.htm "USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature"], ''USGS'', 05/01/2020. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Soil particle names
! Diameter Ranges (mm)
USDA classification

! Diameter Ranges (mm)
WRB classification

|-
| Clay
| less than 0.002
| less than 0.002
|-
| Silt
| 0.002 - 0.05
| 0.002 - 0.063
|-
| Very fine sand
| 0.05 - 0.10
| 0.063 - 0.125
|-
| Fine sand
| 0.10 - 0.25
| 0.125 - 0.20
|-
| Medium sand
| 0.25 - 0.50
| 0.20 - 0.63
|-
| Coarse sand
| 0.50 - 1.00
| 0.63 - 1.25
|-
| Very coarse sand
| 1.00 - 2.00
| 1.25 - 2.00
|}

There is also soil material classification which is based off the percentage of clay, silt, and sand within the sampled material, which can vary across soil classification systems. For the purposes of [[Soil Ecology|soil ecology]], soil classifications are defined by the USDA.

''See also:'' [[Soil Textures]]

==Methods==
[[File:sieve.jpg|left|thumb|caption|US Standard Sieve]]
===Sieving===
There are different methods of sieving, such as dry or wet sieving, with different innovations on the basic process.<ref name="Diaz">Dı́az-Zorita, M., E. Perfect, and J. H. Grove, "Disruptive methods for assessing soil structure", ''Soil and Tillage Research 64:3–22'', 2002. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

For dry, flat sieving, the soil must be dried to a constant weight before the sample is actually put through any sieves. All moisture held in the soil should be eliminated either by exposing the sample to 120˚F for at least 24 hours or air drying.<ref name="Diaz" /> Once this is accomplished, the sample is put through a series of sieves, which should be arranged with a larger size mesh on top to the smaller size mesh on the bottom. The size of these screens is dependent on which particles are to be isolated for the experiment.

[[File:sievestack.jpeg|right|thumb|caption|Stacked Sieve: largest screen size at the top, smallest screen sieve at the bottom]]

There are U.S.A. standard size sieves which are often utilized for this process.

The sieve with the larger holes will screen out any larger particles present in the soil; this could include gravel, defined as a particle larger than 2mm in diameter. The subsequent sieves will act in the same way for progressively smaller soil particles. For example, silt particles ranges from 0.05mm - 0.002 mm,<ref name="USGS">[https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1195/htmldocs/nomenclature.htm "USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature"], ''USGS'', 05/01/2020. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> therefore a sieve with a corresponding screen hole size of 0.002 mm would be necessary to filter for silt particles.

Once the stack of sieves have been set up, the dry soil sample can be sifted. Sieves can be shaken mechanically or manually; this can be done horizontally, vertically, or both.<ref name="Diaz">Dı́az-Zorita, M., E. Perfect, and J. H. Grove, "Disruptive methods for assessing soil structure", ''Soil and Tillage Research 64:3–22'', 2002. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> There is also no standard time for shaking flat sieves, the duration being dependent on the type of soil and the determined point of stopping the shaking which differs among researchers.<ref name="Diaz">Dı́az-Zorita, M., E. Perfect, and J. H. Grove, "Disruptive methods for assessing soil structure", ''Soil and Tillage Research 64:3–22'', 2002. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> Regardless, by the end of the sieving, the sample should be roughly separated into gravel, sand, silt and clay. The proportions of different particle amounts to the entire soil sample can then be calculated with basic division. A simple example is, 26g sand/50g total soil = 52% sand.
Dry flat soil sieving is a purely mechanical process to determine soil particle size in a sample of soil, lacking a clear standardization of method and so likely to have some level of error in measurements.<ref name="Diaz">Dı́az-Zorita, M., E. Perfect, and J. H. Grove, "Disruptive methods for assessing soil structure", ''Soil and Tillage Research 64:3–22'', 2002. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> It is also not effective for all types of soil all the time, especially for [[clay]] particles. This is because [[clay]] particles are made up of either three or four charged ions, which leads these charged particles to cling together.<ref>Coleman, D. C., and D. A. Crossley, "Fundamentals of soil ecology. Third edition.", ''Elsevier/Academic Press, London ; San Diego, CA.'', 2018. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> This tendency is called flocculation, defined as the aggregation or clumping together of smaller particles to form larger particles due to different physical, chemical, and biological interactions.<ref>Liss, S. N., I. G. Droppo, G. G. Leppard, and T. G. Milligan, editors, "Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems.", ''CRC Press'', 2004. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

===Hydrometer===
Using a hydrometer is a second method to determine the proportion of different particles in a soil sample, orginally developed in 1927.<ref>Bouyoucos G, "A recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of soils", ''American Society of Agronomy'', 2951. 3/29/2022.</ref> To address the issue of the ionic bonds between clay particles, sodium hexametaphosphate is added to the water as a deflocculant. The sodium hexametaphosphate acts as a dispersing agent, interacting with the charged particles on clay particles to prevent the clay particles from coming together into a clump.<ref name="Andreola">Andreola, F., E. Castellini, T. Manfredini, and M. Romagnoli, "The role of sodium hexametaphosphate in the dissolution process of kaolinite and kaolin", ''Journal of the European Ceramic Society 24:2113–2124.'', 2004. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

To use the hydrometer method, a solution of water mixed with sodium hexametaphosphate is prepared.<ref name="Dir Bour">Bouyoucos, George, "Directions for making mechanical analysis of soils by the hydrometer method", ''Soil Science. Vol 42 Issue 3: pp 225-230'', 1936e. Retrieved 3/29/2022. </ref> The accuracy of particle percentages is dependent on a constant temperature, adequate particle dispersal, and correct timing of the density observations.<ref name="Carolyn">Carolyn, C. B., and G. Karl, "Comparison of Hydrometer Settling Times in Soil Particle Size Analysis", ''Journal of Range Management 42:81-83'', 1989. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> Once the solution is prepared, it must be placed into an orbital shaker overnight.<ref name="Dir Bour">Bouyoucos, George, "Directions for making mechanical analysis of soils by the hydrometer method", ''Soil Science. Vol 42 Issue 3: pp 225-230'', 1936e. Retrieved 3/29/2022. </ref> If it is not placed into an orbital shaker, it should be shaken with a mixing stone for about 5 minutes, the stone removed, and placed in a centrifuge for 15 minutes. The solution must then be transferred to 1000 milliliters or 1 liter graduated cylinder, where water is added to fill the graduated cylinders totally.<ref name="Dir Bour">Bouyoucos, George, "Directions for making mechanical analysis of soils by the hydrometer method", ''Soil Science. Vol 42 Issue 3: pp 225-230'', 1936e. Retrieved 3/29/2022. </ref> The particles should separate based on their size and sink, with the largest flaling to the bottom and the smallest particles remaining higher. The soil hydrometer is then used to measure the relative density of the solution. The hydrometer will need to be placed into a water filled graduated cylinder to allow for proper calibration before measurements can be taken. Record the value of the hydrometer for this “blank” solution as a baseline. For accurate measurements, the hydrometer should be placed into the graduated cylinder with the soil mixture at different time frames. The number visible on the hydrometer is the value to be recorded.<ref name="Bouy recalibration"> Bouyoucos G, ["A recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of soils"], ''American Society of Agronomy'', 1951. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

For sand percent composition, the hydrometer should be put in and measurement should be read between 30 to 60 seconds, with general recommendations to mark the measurement at 40-45 seconds.<ref name="Carolyn">Carolyn, C. B., and G. Karl, "Comparison of Hydrometer Settling Times in Soil Particle Size Analysis", ''Journal of Range Management 42:81-83'', 1989. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> Once this has been recorded, the hydrometer should be removed, and the solution is to be stirred or shaken again. For further accuracy, the hydrometer can be put in again and the measurement can be recorded at 40 seconds again to take the average of the two readings of the sample.<ref name="Carolyn">Carolyn, C. B., and G. Karl, "Comparison of Hydrometer Settling Times in Soil Particle Size Analysis", ''Journal of Range Management 42:81-83'', 1989. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

For silt percentage composition, the hydrometer should be read between 1 to 1.5 hours.

For clay percentage composition, the hydrometer should be read between 6 to 24 hours, though there is variation depending on the time that the hydrometer is read.<ref name="Carolyn">Carolyn, C. B., and G. Karl, "Comparison of Hydrometer Settling Times in Soil Particle Size Analysis", ''Journal of Range Management 42:81-83'', 1989. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

With these values the percentages of sand, silt, and clay can be calculated as follows:<ref name="Bouy recalibration"> Bouyoucos G, ["A recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of soils"], ''American Society of Agronomy'', 1951. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

%Silt = (dried soil mass - (sand hydrometer value – blank hydrometer value)/ (dried soil mass) * 100

%Clay = (clay hydrometer value – blank hydrometer value)/ (dried soil mass) * 100

%Sand = 100 – (%Clay + %Silt)

The sand and silt proportions may be similar between the dry flat sieving and hydrometer tests, however a more accurate proportion of clay particle may be obtained from a hydrometer reading due to the nature of the sodium hexametaphosphate acting as a deflocculant.<ref name="Andreola">Andreola, F., E. Castellini, T. Manfredini, and M. Romagnoli, "The role of sodium hexametaphosphate in the dissolution process of kaolinite and kaolin", ''Journal of the European Ceramic Society 24:2113–2124.'', 2004. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Soil pH

2022-03-30T16:58:35Z

Cchorose: Minor grammar corrections

[[Soil]] pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a soil. Soil pH can be used as an important indicator to make both qualitative and quantitative analysis regarding soil characteristics. In soils, the pH is commonly measured as a slurry of soil mixed with water or a salt solution; the pH normally falls between 3 and 10, with 7 being neutral. Alkaline soils are basic soils with a pH above 7, while soils with a pH below 7 are acidic soils. Ultra-acidic soils which have a pH < 3.5 and very strongly alkaline soils which have a pH > 9 are rare, but can occur. The soil pH can affect many chemical processes and it specifically affects plant nutrient availability, influencing the chemical reactions they undergo. The best pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.5, although many plants have adapted to survive at pH values outside this range.

== Soil pH ranges and classification ==
{|class="wikitable" style="align: center; height: 400px;"
|-
!scope="col"|Denomination
!scope="col" width="100"|pH range
|-
|Ultra acidic|| < 3.5
|-
|Extremely acidic|| 3.5–4.4
|-
|Very strongly acidic|| 4.5–5.0
|-
|Strongly acidic|| 5.1–5.5
|-
|Moderately acidic|| 5.6–6.0
|-
|Slightly acidic|| 6.1–6.5
|-
|Neutral|| 6.6–7.3
|-
|Slightly alkaline|| 7.4–7.8
|-
|Moderately alkaline|| 7.9–8.4
|-
|Strongly alkaline|| 8.5–9.0
|-
|Very strongly alkaline|| > 9.0
|-
|}

== Methods of determining pH in soil ==
Observing a soil profile can reveal profile characteristics that can be possible indicators of acidic, alkaline or neutral soils.
* Poor incorporation of an organic surface layer with underlying mineral layer can indicate strongly acidic soils
* Columnar structure can be an indicator of sodic condition
* Presence of a caliche layer or a mineral deposit indicates the presence of calcium carbonates, which are present in alkaline conditions.

Observation of predominant flora. Calcifuge plants prefer acidic soils and include species from nearly all Ericaceae species, many birch, foxglove, gorse, and scots pine.

Use of an inexpensive pH testing kit where a small sample of soil can be mixed with an indicator solution which changes color according to the pH of the soil.

Use of a commercially available electronic pH meter in which a glass or solid-state electrode is inserted into moistened soil or a mixture of soil and water.

== Factors affecting soil pH ==
====Sources of acidity====
* Rainfall: average rainfall has a pH of 5.6. When the acid rain falls and flows into the soil it results in the leaching of basic cations from the soil.

*Root respiration and [[decomposition]] of organic matter by [[microorganisms]] releases carbon dioxide and increases carbonic acid concentration and subsequent leaching which acidifies the soil.

* Fertilizer use, ammonium fertilizers react in the soil by the process of nitrification to form nitrate and in the process releases of Hydrogen ions which acidify the soil.

====Sources of alkalinity====

* Weathering of silicate, aluminosilicate, and carbonate materials will cause the soil basicity to rise.

* Addition of water containing dissolved bicarbonates, occurs when irrigating with high-bicarbonate waters.

The accumulation of basic elements such as carbonates and bicarbonates occurs when insufficient water flows through the soils to leach the soluble salts.

== Soil pH effects on plant growth ==
====Acidic soils====
Plants grown in acidic soils can experience many stresses including aluminum, hydrogen, and/or manganese toxicity, as well as nutrient deficiencies of calcium and magnesium.
Aluminum toxicity is the most widespread problem in acid soils. Aluminum is present in all soils to different degrees, dissolved aluminum is toxic to plants and aluminum is the most soluble at low pH, above a pH of 5 there is little aluminum soluble in most soils. Plants do not use aluminum as a nutrient and instead takes it up through osmosis through the [[plant roots]]. This uptake of aluminum has several effects on the growth of plants. The aluminum inhibits root growth; lateral roots and root tips become thickened and roots lack fine branching.

====Alkaline soils====
Alkaline soils have low infiltration capacity so rain water stagnates on the soil easily and it is harder for plants to get established. Alkaline soils require irrigated water and good drainage. This soil is only used in agriculture for crops tolerant to surface water-logging such as grass and rice. The productivity of this soil is lower.

== Water availability in relation to soil pH ==
Strongly alkaline soils are sodic and have slow infiltration. Alkaline soils also have very poor available water capacity. Plant growth is restricted in wet conditions because aeration is poor when the soil is wet, and in dry conditions, water available to plants is rapidly depleted and the soils become hard.

Strongly acidic soils have strong aggregation, good internal drainage and good water-holding characteristics. For many plant species, aluminum toxicity severely limits root growth and moisture stress can occur when the soil is relatively moist.

== Changing soil pH ==
====Increasing pH of acidic soils====
Finely ground limestone is often applied to acid soils to increase soil pH in a process called liming. The amount of liming needed depends on the mesh size used and the buffering capacity of the soil. The finer the mesh, the faster it will react to soil acidity. The buffering capacity of a soil depends on its [[clay]] content and the amount of organic matter. Soils with a high buffering capacity will need a greater amount of liming to achieve an equivalent change in pH.

====Decreasing pH of alkaline soils====
The pH level can be reduced by adding acidifying agents or acidic organic materials. Elemental sulfur has been used as it slowly oxidizes in soil to form sulfuric acid. Acidifying fertilizers such as ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate and urea can help reduce the pH of a soil because ammonium oxidizes to form nitric acid. Aluminum sulfate will also reduce the pH, but the aluminum is also detrimental to plant growth.

== Gallery ==
[[File:Proper pH.png]]

[[File:PH map.png]]

== References ==
[1] Cox, L., and R. Koenig. (n.d.). Solutions to Soil Problems, II. High pH (alkaline soil)

[2] nrcs142p2_053293.pdf. (n.d.). .

[3] Queensland;, c=AU; o=The S. of. (n.d.). Soil pH | Soil [[properties]]. Text, corporateName=The State of Queensland; jurisdiction=Queensland. https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/management/soil/soil-properties/ph-levels.

[4] Soil pH: What it Means. (n.d.). .
https://www.esf.edu/pubprog/brochure/soilph/soilph.htm.

[5] Magdoff, F., and R. Bartlett. 1985. Soil pH buffering revisited. Soil Sci Soc Am J. Soil Science Society of America Journal - SSSAJ 49.

[6] Mclean, E. O. 1983. Soil pH and Lime Requirement. Pages 199–224 Methods of Soil Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

[7] Robson, A. 2012. Soil Acidity and Plant Growth. Elsevier.

[8] Sloan, J., and N. Basta. 1995a. Remediation of Acid Soils by Using Alkaline Biosolids. Journal of Environmental Quality - J ENVIRON QUAL 24.

[9] Sloan, J. J., and N. T. Basta. 1995b. Remediation of Acid Soils by Using Alkaline Biosolids. Journal of Environmental Quality 24:1097–1103.

[10] Thomas, G. W. 1996. Soil pH and Soil Acidity. Pages 475–490 Methods of Soil Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Soil pH

2022-03-30T16:49:54Z

Cchorose: The second sentence said something like 'Soil pH can be used as an important indicator to make quantitative and quantitative analysis regarding soil characteristics.' I assume it was supposed to be QUALITATIVE and quantitative so I changed it. Fixed some other small grammar issues in the first paragraph

[[Soil]] pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a soil. Soil pH can be used as an important indicator to make both qualitative and quantitative analysis regarding soil characteristics. In soils, the pH is commonly measured as a slurry of soil mixed with water or a salt solution; the pH normally falls between 3 and 10, with 7 being neutral. Alkaline soils are basic soils with a pH above 7, while soils with a pH below 7 are acidic soils. Ultra-acidic soils which have a pH < 3.5 and very strongly alkaline soils which have a pH > 9 are rare, but can occur. The soil pH can affect may chemical processes and it specifically affects plant nutrient availability, influencing the chemical reactions they undergo. The best pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.5, although many plants have adapted to survive at pH values outside this range.

== Soil pH ranges and classification ==
{|class="wikitable" style="align: center; height: 400px;"
|-
!scope="col"|Denomination
!scope="col" width="100"|pH range
|-
|Ultra acidic|| < 3.5
|-
|Extremely acidic|| 3.5–4.4
|-
|Very strongly acidic|| 4.5–5.0
|-
|Strongly acidic|| 5.1–5.5
|-
|Moderately acidic|| 5.6–6.0
|-
|Slightly acidic|| 6.1–6.5
|-
|Neutral|| 6.6–7.3
|-
|Slightly alkaline|| 7.4–7.8
|-
|Moderately alkaline|| 7.9–8.4
|-
|Strongly alkaline|| 8.5–9.0
|-
|Very strongly alkaline|| > 9.0
|-
|}

== Methods of determining pH in soil ==
Observing a soil profile can reveal profile characteristics that can be possible indicators of acidic, alkaline or neutral soils.
* Poor incorporation of an organic surface layer with underlying mineral layer can indicate strongly acidic soils
* Columnar structure can be an indicator of sodic condition
* Presence of a caliche layer or a mineral deposit indicates the presence of calcium carbonates, which are present in alkaline conditions.

Observation of predominant flora. Calcifuge plants prefer acidic soils and include species from nearly all Ericaceae species, many birch, foxglove, gorse, and scots pine.

Use of an inexpensive pH testing kit where a small sample of soil can be mixed with an indicator solution which changes color according to the pH of the soil.

Use of a commercially available electronic pH meter in which a glass or solid-state electrode is inserted into moistened soil or a mixture of soil and water.

== Factors affecting soil pH ==
'''Sources of acidity'''
* Rainfall: average rainfall has a pH of 5.6. When the acid rain falls and flows into the soil it results in the leaching of basic cations from the soil.

*Root respiration and [[decomposition]] of organic matter by [[microorganisms]] releases carbon dioxide and increases carbonic acid concentration and subsequent leaching which acidifies the soil.

* Fertilizer use, ammonium fertilizers react in the soil by the process of nitrification to form nitrate and in the process releases of Hydrogen ions which acidify the soil.

'''Sources of alkalinity'''

* Weathering of silicate, aluminosilicate, and carbonate materials will cause the soil basicity to rise.

* Addition of water containing dissolved bicarbonates, occurs when irrigating with high-bicarbonate waters.

The accumulation of basic elements such as carbonates and bicarbonates occurs when insufficient water flows through the soils to leach the soluble salts.

== Soil pH effects on plant growth ==
'''Acidic soils'''
Plants grown in acidic soils can experience many stresses including aluminum, hydrogen, and/or manganese toxicity, as well as nutrient deficiencies of calcium and magnesium.
Aluminum toxicity is the most widespread problem in acid soils. Aluminum is present in all soils to different degrees, dissolved aluminum is toxic to plants and aluminum is the most soluble at low pH, above a pH of 5 there is little aluminum soluble in most soils. Plants do not use aluminum as a nutrient and instead takes it up through osmosis through the [[plant roots]]. This uptake of aluminum has several effects on the growth of plants. The aluminum inhibits root growth, lateral roots and root tips become thickened and roots lack fine branching.

'''Alkaline soils'''
Alkaline soils have low infiltration capacity so rain water stagnates on the soil easily and it is harder for plants to get established. Alkaline soils require irrigated water and good drainage. This soil is only used in agriculture for crops tolerant to surface waterlogging such as grass and rice. The productivity of this soil is lower.

== Water availability in relation to soil pH ==
Strongly alkaline soils are sodic and have slow infiltration. alkaline soils also have very poor available water capacity. Plant growth is restricted because aeration is poor when the soil is wet, in dry conditions, plant available water is rapidly depleted and the soils become hard.

Strongly acidic soils have strong aggregation, good internal drainage and good water-holding characteristics. For many plant species aluminum toxicity severely limits root growth and moisture stress can occur when the soil is relatively moist.

== Changing soil pH ==
'''Increasing pH of acidic soils'''
Finely ground limestone is often applied to acid soils to increase soil pH called liming. The amount of liming needed depends on the mesh size used and the buffering capacity of the soil. The finer the mesh the faster it will react to soil acidity. The buffering capacity of a soil depends on its [[clay]] content and the amount of organic matter. Soils with a high buffering capacity will need a greater amount of liming to achieve an equivalent change in pH.

'''Decreasing pH of alkaline soils'''
The pH level can be reduced by adding acidifying agents or acidic organic materials. Elemental sulfur has been used as it slowly oxidizes in soil to form sulfuric acid. Acidifying fertilizers such as ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate and urea can help reduce the pH of a soil because ammonium oxidizes to form nitric acid. Aluminum sulfate will also reduce the pH but the aluminum is also detrimental to plant growth.

== Gallery ==
[[File:Proper pH.png]]

[[File:PH map.png]]

== References ==
[1] Cox, L., and R. Koenig. (n.d.). Solutions to Soil Problems, II. High pH (alkaline soil)

[2] nrcs142p2_053293.pdf. (n.d.). .

[3] Queensland;, c=AU; o=The S. of. (n.d.). Soil pH | Soil [[properties]]. Text, corporateName=The State of Queensland; jurisdiction=Queensland. https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/management/soil/soil-properties/ph-levels.

[4] Soil pH: What it Means. (n.d.). .
https://www.esf.edu/pubprog/brochure/soilph/soilph.htm.

[5] Magdoff, F., and R. Bartlett. 1985. Soil pH buffering revisited. Soil Sci Soc Am J. Soil Science Society of America Journal - SSSAJ 49.

[6] Mclean, E. O. 1983. Soil pH and Lime Requirement. Pages 199–224 Methods of Soil Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

[7] Robson, A. 2012. Soil Acidity and Plant Growth. Elsevier.

[8] Sloan, J., and N. Basta. 1995a. Remediation of Acid Soils by Using Alkaline Biosolids. Journal of Environmental Quality - J ENVIRON QUAL 24.

[9] Sloan, J. J., and N. T. Basta. 1995b. Remediation of Acid Soils by Using Alkaline Biosolids. Journal of Environmental Quality 24:1097–1103.

[10] Thomas, G. W. 1996. Soil pH and Soil Acidity. Pages 475–490 Methods of Soil Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Soil Particle Size Analysis Methods

2022-03-30T02:15:58Z

Cchorose: Fixing reference coding - or at least erased the coding and made citations not a disaster. If someone has figured out how to code the references so you can cite the same number multiple times please tell me

There are three basic classifications of [[soil]] particle size: [[clay]], [[silt]] and [[sand]], from smallest to largest, respectively. There are several different methods to determining how much clay, silt and sand is in a sample of soil. Methods may be mechanical, chemical, or both with many different innovations on these methods to fit unique situations being utilized by researchers.
Please redirect to the [[Loss on Ignition]] test, for a method which determines the amount of organic matter in the soil.

==Basic Analysis==
Soil has three basic classifications, but there are further definitions within those classifications to clarify analysis. These can vary a small amount across soil classification systems, but for the purposes of soil [[ecology]], the utilization of the USDA classification is a standardized classification, as well as the World Reference Base (WRB), an international standard for soil classification system endorsed by the International Union of Soil Sciences. The USDA classification is based off the grade scale from Wentworth (1922).[1]

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Soil particle names
! Diameter Ranges (mm)
USDA classification

! Diameter Ranges (mm)
WRB classification

|-
| Clay
| less than 0.002
| less than 0.002
|-
| Silt
| 0.002 - 0.05
| 0.002 - 0.063
|-
| Very fine sand
| 0.05 - 0.10
| 0.063 - 0.125
|-
| Fine sand
| 0.10 - 0.25
| 0.125 - 0.20
|-
| Medium sand
| 0.25 - 0.50
| 0.20 - 0.63
|-
| Coarse sand
| 0.50 - 1.00
| 0.63 - 1.25
|-
| Very coarse sand
| 1.00 - 2.00
| 1.25 - 2.00
|}

There is also soil material classification which is based off the percentage of clay, silt, and sand within the sampled material, which can vary across soil classification systems. For the purposes of soil ecology, soil classifications are defined by the USDA.

''See also:'' [[Soil Textures]]

==Methods==
[[File:sieve.jpg|left|thumb|caption|US Standard Sieve]]
===Sieving===
There are different methods of seiving, such as dry or wet sieving, with different innovations on the basic process[2]

For dry, flat sieving, the soil must be dried to a constant weight before the sample is actually put through any seives. All moisture held in the soil should be eliminated either by exposing the sample to 120˚F for at least 24 hours or air drying.[2] Once this is accomplished, the sample is put through a series of sieves, which should be arranged with a larger size mesh on top to the smaller size mesh on the bottom. The size of these screens is dependent on which particles are to be isolated for the experiment.

[[File:sievestack.jpeg|right|thumb|caption|Stacked Sieve: largest screen size at the top, smallest screen sieve at the bottom]]

There are U.S.A. standard size sieves which are often utilized for this process.

The sieve with the larger holes will screen out any larger particles present in the soil; this could include gravel, defined as a particle larger than 2mm in diameter. The subsequent sieves will act in the same way for progressively smaller soil particles. For example, silt particles ranges from 0.05mm - 0.002 mm [1], therefore a sieve with a corresponding screen hole size of 0.002 mm would be necessary to filter for silt particles.

Once the stack of sieves have been set up, the dry soil sample can be sifted. Sieves can be shaken mechanically or manually; this can be done horizontally, vertically, or both. [2] There is also no standard time for shaking flat sieves, the duration being dependent on the type of soil and the determined point of stopping the shaking which differs among researchers.[2] Regardless, by the end of the sieving, the sample should be roughly separated into gravel, sand, silt and clay. The proportions of different particle amounts to the entire soil sample can then be calculated with basic division. A simple example is, 26g sand/50g total soil = 52% sand.
Dry flat soil sieving is a purely mechanical process to determine soil particle size in a sample of soil, lacking a clear standardization of method and so likely to have some level of error in measurements.[2] It is also not effective for all types of soil all the time, especially for [[clay]] particles. This is because [[clay]] particles are made up of either three or four charged ions, which leads these charged particles to cling together.[3] This tendency is called flocculation, defined as the aggregation or clumping together of smaller particles to form larger particles due to different physical, chemical, and biological interactions.[4]

===Hydrometer===
Using a hydrometer is a second method to determine the proportion of different particles in a soil sample, orginally developed in 1927.[5] To address the issue of the ionic bonds between clay particles, sodium hexametaphosphate is added to the water as a deflocculant. The sodium hexametaphosphate acts as a dispersing agent, interacting with the charged particles on clay particles to prevent the clay particles from coming together into a clump.[6]

To use the hydrometer method, a solution of water mixed with sodium hexametaphosphate is prepared.[7] The accuracy of particle percentages is dependent on a constant temperature, adequate particle dispersal, and correct timing of the density observations.[8] Once the solution is prepared, it must be placed into an orbital shaker overnight.[7] If it is not placed into an orbital shaker, it should be shaken with a mixing stone for about 5 minutes, the stone removed, and placed in a centrifuge for 15 minutes. The solution must then be transferred to 1000 milliliters or 1 liter graduated cylinder, where water is added to fill the graduated cylinders totally.[7] The particles should separate based on their size and sink, with the largest flaling to the bottom and the smallest particles remaining higher. The soil hydrometer is then used to measure the relative density of the solution. The hydrometer will need to be placed into a water filled graduated cylinder to allow for proper calibration before measurements can be taken. Record the value of the hydrometer for this “blank” solution as a baseline. For accurate measurements, the hydrometer should be placed into the graduated cylinder with the soil mixture at different time frames. The number visible on the hydrometer is the value to be recorded.[9]

For sand percent composition, the hydrometer should be put in and measurement should be read between 30 to 60 seconds, with general recommendations to mark the measurement at 40-45 seconds.[8] Once this has been recorded, the hydrometer should be removed, and the solution is to be stirred or shaken again. For further accuracy, the hydrometer can be put in again and the measurement can be recorded at 40 seconds again to take the average of the two readings of the sample.[8]

For silt percentage composition, the hydrometer should be read between 1 to 1.5 hours.

For clay percentage composition, the hydrometer should be read between 6 to 24 hours, though there is variation depending on the time that the hydrometer is read.[8]

With these values the percentages of sand, silt, and clay can be calculated as follows [9]:

%Silt = (dried soil mass - (sand hydrometer value – blank hydrometer value)/ (dried soil mass) * 100

%Clay = (clay hydrometer value – blank hydrometer value)/ (dried soil mass) * 100

%Sand = 100 – (%Clay + %Silt)

The sand and silt proportions may be similar between the dry flat sieving and hydrometer tests, however a more accurate proportion of clay particle may be obtained from a hydrometer reading due to the nature of the sodium hexametaphosphate acting as a deflocculant.[6]

==References==

1. USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature. 01 May 2020 https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1195/htmldocs/nomenclature.htm.

2. Dı́az-Zorita, M., E. Perfect, and J. H. Grove. 2002. Disruptive methods for assessing soil structure. Soil and Tillage Research 64:3–22.

3. Coleman, D. C., and D. A. Crossley. 2018. Fundamentals of soil ecology. Third edition. Elsevier/Academic Press, London ; San Diego, CA.

4. Liss, S. N., I. G. Droppo, G. G. Leppard, and T. G. Milligan, editors. 2004. Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems. 0 edition. CRC Press.

5. Bouyoucos G. 1951. A recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of soils. American Society of Agronomy

6. Andreola, F., E. Castellini, T. Manfredini, and M. Romagnoli. 2004. The role of sodium hexametaphosphate in the dissolution process of kaolinite and kaolin. Journal of the European Ceramic Society 24:2113–2124.

7. Bouyoucos, George. 1936. Directions for making mechanical analysis of soils by the hydrometer method. Soil Science. Vol 42 Issue 3: pp 225-230

8. Carolyn, C. B., and G. Karl. 1989. Comparison of Hydrometer Settling Times in Soil Particle Size Analysis. Journal of Range Management 42:81-83.

9. Bouyoucos G. 1951. A recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of soils. American Society of Agronomy

Soil Particle Size Analysis Methods

2022-03-30T02:08:54Z

Cchorose: Complete reworking because half of the previous sources seemed unreliable and the page desired some clarification/clean-up of clunky language

There are three basic classifications of [[soil]] particle size: [[clay]], [[silt]] and [[sand]], from smallest to largest, respectively. There are several different methods to determining how much clay, silt and sand is in a sample of soil. Methods may be mechanical, chemical, or both with many different innovations on these methods to fit unique situations being utilized by researchers.
Please redirect to the [[Loss on Ignition]] test, for a method which determines the amount of organic matter in the soil.

==Basic Analysis==
Soil has three basic classifications, but there are further definitions within those classifications to clarify analysis. These can vary a small amount across soil classification systems, but for the purposes of soil [[ecology]], the utilization of the USDA classification is a standardized classification, as well as the World Reference Base (WRB), an international standard for soil classification system endorsed by the International Union of Soil Sciences. The USDA classification is based off the grade scale from Wentworth (1922).<ref>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1195/htmldocs/nomenclature.htm. "USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature"], ''USGS'', 05_01_2020. 3_29_2022.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Soil particle names
! Diameter Ranges (mm)
USDA classification

! Diameter Ranges (mm)
WRB classification

|-
| Clay
| less than 0.002
| less than 0.002
|-
| Silt
| 0.002 - 0.05
| 0.002 - 0.063
|-
| Very fine sand
| 0.05 - 0.10
| 0.063 - 0.125
|-
| Fine sand
| 0.10 - 0.25
| 0.125 - 0.20
|-
| Medium sand
| 0.25 - 0.50
| 0.20 - 0.63
|-
| Coarse sand
| 0.50 - 1.00
| 0.63 - 1.25
|-
| Very coarse sand
| 1.00 - 2.00
| 1.25 - 2.00
|}

There is also soil material classification which is based off the percentage of clay, silt, and sand within the sampled material, which can vary across soil classification systems. For the purposes of soil ecology, soil classifications are defined by the USDA.

''See also:'' [[Soil Textures]]

==Methods==
[[File:sieve.jpg|left|thumb|caption|US Standard Sieve]]
===Sieving===
There are different methods of seiving, such as dry or wet sieving, with different innovations on the basic process.<ref>Dı́az-Zorita, M., E. Perfect, and J. H. Grove, ["Disruptive methods for assessing soil structure"], ''Soil and Tillage Research 64:3–22'', 2002. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

For dry, flat sieving, the soil must be dried to a constant weight before the sample is actually put through any seives. All moisture held in the soil should be eliminated either by exposing the sample to 120˚F for at least 24 hours or air drying.<ref>Dı́az-Zorita, M., E. Perfect, and J. H. Grove, ["Disruptive methods for assessing soil structure"], ''Soil and Tillage Research 64:3–22'', 2002. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> Once this is accomplished, the sample is put through a series of sieves, which should be arranged with a larger size mesh on top to the smaller size mesh on the bottom. The size of these screens is dependent on which particles are to be isolated for the experiment.

[[File:sievestack.jpeg|right|thumb|caption|Stacked Sieve: largest screen size at the top, smallest screen sieve at the bottom]]

There are U.S.A. standard size sieves which are often utilized for this process.

The sieve with the larger holes will screen out any larger particles present in the soil; this could include gravel, defined as a particle larger than 2mm in diameter. The subsequent sieves will act in the same way for progressively smaller soil particles. For example, silt particles ranges from 0.05mm - 0.002 mm [1], therefore a sieve with a corresponding screen hole size of 0.002 mm would be necessary to filter for silt particles.

Once the stack of sieves have been set up, the dry soil sample can be sifted. Sieves can be shaken mechanically or manually; this can be done horizontally, vertically, or both. <ref>Dı́az-Zorita, M., E. Perfect, and J. H. Grove, ["Disruptive methods for assessing soil structure"], ''Soil and Tillage Research 64:3–22'', 2002. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> There is also no standard time for shaking flat sieves, the duration being dependent on the type of soil and the determined point of stopping the shaking which differs among researchers.<ref>Dı́az-Zorita, M., E. Perfect, and J. H. Grove, ["Disruptive methods for assessing soil structure"], ''Soil and Tillage Research 64:3–22'', 2002. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> Regardless, by the end of the sieving, the sample should be roughly separated into gravel, sand, silt and clay. The proportions of different particle amounts to the entire soil sample can then be calculated with basic division. A simple example is, 26g sand/50g total soil = 52% sand.
Dry flat soil sieving is a purely mechanical process to determine soil particle size in a sample of soil, lacking a clear standardization of method and so likely to have some level of error in measurements.<ref>Dı́az-Zorita, M., E. Perfect, and J. H. Grove, ["Disruptive methods for assessing soil structure"], ''Soil and Tillage Research 64:3–22'', 2002. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> It is also not effective for all types of soil all the time, especially for [[clay]] particles. This is because [[clay]] particles are made up of either three or four charged ions, which leads these charged particles to cling together.<ref>Coleman, D. C., and D. A. Crossley, ["Fundamentals of soil ecology. Third edition."], ''lsevier/Academic Press, London ; San Diego, CA.'', 2018. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> This tendency is called flocculation, defined as the aggregation or clumping together of smaller particles to form larger particles due to different physical, chemical, and biological interactions.<ref>Liss, S. N., I. G. Droppo, G. G. Leppard, and T. G. Milligan, editors, ["Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems."], ''CRC Press'', 2004. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

===Hydrometer===
Using a hydrometer is a second method to determine the proportion of different particles in a soil sample, orginally developed in 1927.<ref>Bouyoucos G, ["A recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of soils"], ''American Society of Agronomy'', 2951. 3/29/2022.</ref> To address the issue of the ionic bonds between clay particles, sodium hexametaphosphate is added to the water as a deflocculant. The sodium hexametaphosphate acts as a dispersing agent, interacting with the charged particles on clay particles to prevent the clay particles from coming together into a clump.<ref>Andreola, F., E. Castellini, T. Manfredini, and M. Romagnoli, ["The role of sodium hexametaphosphate in the dissolution process of kaolinite and kaolin"], ''Journal of the European Ceramic Society 24:2113–2124.'', 2004. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

To use the hydrometer method, a solution of water mixed with sodium hexametaphosphate is prepared.<ref>Bouyoucos, George, ["Directions for making mechanical analysis of soils by the hydrometer method"], ''Soil Science. Vol 42 Issue 3: pp 225-230'', 1936e. Retrieved 3/29/2022. </ref> The accuracy of particle percentages is dependent on a constant temperature, adequate particle dispersal, and correct timing of the density observations.<ref>Carolyn, C. B., and G. Karl, ["Comparison of Hydrometer Settling Times in Soil Particle Size Analysis"], ''Journal of Range Management 42:81-83'', 1989. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> Once the solution is prepared, it must be placed into an orbital shaker overnight.[7] If it is not placed into an orbital shaker, it should be shaken with a mixing stone for about 5 minutes, the stone removed, and placed in a centrifuge for 15 minutes. The solution must then be transferred to 1000 milliliters or 1 liter graduated cylinder, where water is added to fill the graduated cylinders totally.<ref>Bouyoucos, George, ["Directions for making mechanical analysis of soils by the hydrometer method"], ''Soil Science. Vol 42 Issue 3: pp 225-230'', 1936e. Retrieved 3/29/2022. </ref> The particles should separate based on their size and sink, with the largest flaling to the bottom and the smallest particles remaining higher. The soil hydrometer is then used to measure the relative density of the solution. The hydrometer will need to be placed into a water filled graduated cylinder to allow for proper calibration before measurements can be taken. Record the value of the hydrometer for this “blank” solution as a baseline. For accurate measurements, the hydrometer should be placed into the graduated cylinder with the soil mixture at different time frames. The number visible on the hydrometer is the value to be recorded.<ref> Bouyoucos G, ["A recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of soils"], ''American Society of Agronomy'', 1951. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

For sand percent composition, the hydrometer should be put in and measurement should be read between 30 to 60 seconds, with general recommendations to mark the measurement at 40-45 seconds.<ref>Carolyn, C. B., and G. Karl, ["Comparison of Hydrometer Settling Times in Soil Particle Size Analysis"], ''Journal of Range Management 42:81-83'', 1989. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref> Once this has been recorded, the hydrometer should be removed, and the solution is to be stirred or shaken again. For further accuracy, the hydrometer can be put in again and the measurement can be recorded at 40 seconds again to take the average of the two readings of the sample.<ref>Carolyn, C. B., and G. Karl, ["Comparison of Hydrometer Settling Times in Soil Particle Size Analysis"], ''Journal of Range Management 42:81-83'', 1989. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

For silt percentage composition, the hydrometer should be read between 1 to 1.5 hours.

For clay percentage composition, the hydrometer should be read between 6 to 24 hours, though there is variation depending on the time that the hydrometer is read.<ref>Carolyn, C. B., and G. Karl, ["Comparison of Hydrometer Settling Times in Soil Particle Size Analysis"], ''Journal of Range Management 42:81-83'', 1989. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

With these values the percentages of sand, silt, and clay can be calculated as follows <ref> Bouyoucos G, ["A recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of soils"], ''American Society of Agronomy'', 1951. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>:

%Silt = (dried soil mass - (sand hydrometer value – blank hydrometer value)/ (dried soil mass) * 100

%Clay = (clay hydrometer value – blank hydrometer value)/ (dried soil mass) * 100

%Sand = 100 – (%Clay + %Silt)

The sand and silt proportions may be similar between the dry flat sieving and hydrometer tests, however a more accurate proportion of clay particle may be obtained from a hydrometer reading due to the nature of the sodium hexametaphosphate acting as a deflocculant.<ref>Andreola, F., E. Castellini, T. Manfredini, and M. Romagnoli, ["The role of sodium hexametaphosphate in the dissolution process of kaolinite and kaolin"], ''Journal of the European Ceramic Society 24:2113–2124.'', 2004. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

==References==

<ref>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1195/htmldocs/nomenclature.htm. "USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature"], ''USGS'', 05/01/2020. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

<ref>Dı́az-Zorita, M., E. Perfect, and J. H. Grove, ["Disruptive methods for assessing soil structure"], ''Soil and Tillage Research 64:3–22'', 2002. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

<ref>Coleman, D. C., and D. A. Crossley, ["Fundamentals of soil ecology. Third edition."], ''lsevier/Academic Press, London ; San Diego, CA.'', 2018. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

<ref>Liss, S. N., I. G. Droppo, G. G. Leppard, and T. G. Milligan, editors, ["Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems."], ''CRC Press'', 2004. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

<ref>Bouyoucos G, ["A recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of soils"], ''American Society of Agronomy'', 2951. 3/29/2022.</ref>

<ref>Andreola, F., E. Castellini, T. Manfredini, and M. Romagnoli, ["The role of sodium hexametaphosphate in the dissolution process of kaolinite and kaolin"], ''Journal of the European Ceramic Society 24:2113–2124.'', 2004. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

<ref>Bouyoucos, George, ["Directions for making mechanical analysis of soils by the hydrometer method"], ''Soil Science. Vol 42 Issue 3: pp 225-230'', 1936e. Retrieved 3/29/2022. </ref>

<ref>Carolyn, C. B., and G. Karl, ["Comparison of Hydrometer Settling Times in Soil Particle Size Analysis"], ''Journal of Range Management 42:81-83'', 1989. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

<ref> Bouyoucos G, ["A recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of soils"], ''American Society of Agronomy'', 1951. Retrieved 3/29/2022.</ref>

Soil Particle Size Analysis Methods

2022-03-11T21:54:06Z

Cchorose:

There are three basic classifications of [[soil]] particle size. These include [[clay]], [[silt]] and [[sand]], from smallest to largest, respectively. There are several different methods to determining how much clay, silt and sand is in a sample of soil. Methods may be mechanical or Two mechanical methods involve sieving, however, a possibly more accurate method uses a hydrometer.
Please redirect to the [[Loss on Ignition]] test, for a method which determines the amount of organic matter in the soil.

==Soil Particle Size Analysis Methods==
[[File:sieve.jpg|left|thumb|caption|US Standard Sieve]]

===Sieving===

To begin, the soil sample needs to be dried to a constant weight, for 24 hrs at 120˚F this will eliminate all the moisture held in the soil.
Once the soil is dried to constant weight, the sieving can begin. The sieves come with different size screens and they should be chosen according to the particles that are to be isolated.
[[File:sievestack.jpeg|right|thumb|caption|Stacked Sieve: largest screen size at the top, smallest screen sieve at the bottom]]
There should be one sieve on top with larger holes to accommodate for gravel that is in the soil. Gravel includes any particle larger than 2mm and will be considered as "sand". [1]

Course sand particles range from 1.0 - 2.0 mm while very fine sand particles range from 0.05 - 0.10mm.[1] Choosing two or more sieves within that range might be helpful to account for larger or smaller sand particles; for instance, include a sieve at 2.0mm and one at 0.05mm.
Silt particles ranges from 0.05mm - 0.002 mm [1], therefore a sieve with a corresponding screen hole size of 0.002 mm should suffice.

Lastly, clay particles are anything smaller than 0.002mm. [1] At the bottom of the stack of sieves should be placed a bottom container with a solid bottom to collect the clay particle that will sift past the 0.002mm sieve.

Once the sieves are set up, the soil sample that has been dried to a constant weight will be sifted through the sieves using a sieve shaker. After about 15-20 min of shaking the soil should be separated into gravel, sand, silt and clay. The proportions can then be calculated to determine how much of each particle is one soil sample. For instance, 26g sand/50g total soil = 52% sand.

Soil sieving is a purely mechanical process of determining soil particle size in a sample of soil. [2] A better method to accurately separating clay particles from the soil would be to use a hydrometer.

===Hydrometer===

[[Clay]] particles are made up of either three or four charged ions, because of this they tend to cling to one another [3], this tendency is called flocculation[4]. This can sometimes pose a problem when trying to accurately determine the proportion of clay particles in a sample of soil. When measuring soil samples using a hydrometer, sodium hexametaphospahte is added to the water, this acts as a defloccuant, meaning the clay particle ions will now repulse each other instead of clinging to one another. [4,5] This will result in a more accurate reading of sand, silt, and clay particles than could be achieved by sieving alone.
[[File:hydrometer.jpg|right|thumb]]
To measure using a hydrometer, a solution of water mixed with sodium hexametaphosphate is prepared and poured into a 1000ml graudated cylinder. The solution must be at room temperature for accurate readings[6].

The soil sample (for example 50g soil) is then poured into the solution and shaken or stirred until evenly distributed. Historically, the use of a milk shake, or malt machine was recommended to shake the solution! This was to ensure even distribution of the soil throughout the water solution.[7]

The hydrometer is then placed in the graduated cylinder, and a measurement is read off of it after 40 seconds.

The hydrometer is then taken out and the solution of soil, water, and sodium hexmetaphosphate it stirred or shaken again.

Another 40 second reading will be taken and then an average of the two readings will be calculated to determine the amount of sand (and gravel) in the sample.

To obtain an accurate reading of clay and silt percentages the solution should sit for 6.5-8 hours at least, 12 at the most[6], however if 100% accuracy isn't need, an hour will suffice.

The solution, with the hydrometer in it still, will then sit for at least 1-8 hours depending on the accuracy desired. During this time the silt will settle to the bottom on the cylinder and the clay particles will remain suspended in the water[6], this suspension will allow the hydrometer to stay suspended as well and the water line will correlate to a reading which will allow the reader to determine the amount of clay in the sample. The remaining part of the proportion of sand + clay subtracted from the total soil sample will determine the amount of silt in the sample.

==Conclusion==

In conclusion, performing both experiments is a good way to compare and contrast results. The gravel/sand, and silt proportions should resemble one another between the two tests, however a more accurate proportion of clay particle may be obtained from a hydrometer reading.

===References===
1. Whiting, David, et al. Estimating Soil Texture. 2003, Estimating Soil Texture, culter.colorado.edu/~kittel/SoilChar(&RibbonTest)_handout.pdf.

2. “Particle Size Analysis (for Soils/Sediments).” UCL Department of Geography, www.geog.ucl.ac.uk/resources/laboratory/laboratory-
methods/particle-size-analysis/particle-size-analysis-for-soils-sediments.

3. “1.8 Clay Mineral Structure.” Fundamentals of Soil [[Ecology]], by David C. Coleman et al., Academic Press, 2018.

4. Tozzi, Nilo. “Deflocculants: A Detailed Overview.” Deflocculants: A Detailed Overview, digitalfire.com/4sight/education/deflocculants_a_detailed_overview_324.html.

5. Andreola, Fernanda, et al. “The Role of Sodium Hexametaphosphate in the Dissolution Process of Kaolinite and Kaolin.” Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Elsevier, 24 Sept. 2003, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0955221903003662.

6. Carolyn, C. B., and G. Karl. 1989. Comparison of Hydrometer Settling Times in Soil Particle Size Analysis. Journal of Range Management 42:81-83.

7. Bouyoucos, G. J. 1927. Directions for Determining the Colloidal Material of Soils by the Hydrometer Method. Science 66:16-17.