Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-08T15:21:02Z

Azizahbe:

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. The body shape and loose skin facilitates squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy are its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

The naked mole rat spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, the burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affects the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies theses creatures as extremophiles.<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individuals position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. Their are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. Their is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Naked Mole-Rat

2023-05-08T15:13:26Z

Azizahbe:

'''Naked mole-rats''' are small, fossorial rodents found mainly in Kenya and the Horn of Africa. They live in long, complex burrows and rarely venture aboveground. Their ability to thrive in the harsh conditions of subterranean Africa classifies them as [[extremophiles]], and they have developed a number of unique traits seldom seen elsewhere in the animal kingdom. These include reduced pain sensitivity, cancer immunity, and eusociality.
<ref name="microbio">Holtze, Susanne, Stanton Braude, Alemayehu Lemma, Rosie Koch, Michaela Morhart, Karol Szafranski, Matthias Platzer, Fitsum Alemayehu, Frank Goeritz, and Thomas Bernd Hildebrandt. “The Microenvironment of Naked Mole‐rat Burrows in East Africa.” African journal of [[ecology]] 56, no. 2 (2018): 279–289.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Naked mole-rat'''
<ref> Mehgan, Murphy. ''The disease-resistant naked mole-rat''. Smithsonian Institution. https://critter.science/the-disease-resistant-naked-mole-rat/</ref>
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(0,204,102)|'''Taxonomy <ref>“Heterocephalus glaber.” itis.gov, n.d. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=584677#null. </ref>'''
|-
| colspan="2" |[[File:molerat2.jpg|300px|Naked mole-rat]]
|-
! Kingdom
| Animalia
|-
! Phylum
| Chordata
|-
! Class
| Mammalia
|-
! Order
| Rodentia
|-
! Family
| Bathyergidae
|-
! Genus
| Heterocephalus
|-
! Species
| Heterocephalus glaber
|-
|}

==Anatomy==
Naked mole rats have very poor eyesight and hearing. Instead, these creatures rely mostly on their sense of touch to navigate their burrows and are especially sensitive to vibrations. True to their name, they lack fur on their bodies, which exposes their cylindrical bodies and loose, pale, wrinkled skin. The body shape and loose skin facilitates squeezing through the tight corridors of their burrows. However, they do have around 40 thin, whisker-like hairs on each side of their bodies that are sensitive to physical stimulation. The skin itself has also been shown to be immune to certain sources of pain. Their burrows usually have a very high carbon dioxide concentration, which in most creatures would cause pain due to tissue acidosis. The mole rat, however, is immune to this. <ref name = "blind"/>

 
Besides their "naked" bodies, the other most striking part of the creature's anatomy are its large incisors. The jaw makes up about 25% of the creature's musculature, and it uses this muscle for a variety of tasks. The incisors are the primary tool used for digging their complex subterranean network of burrows. Additionally, they use their teeth as a transportation mechanism for food, debris, and their young.
<ref name = "blind">Browe, Brigitte M., Emily N. Vice, and Thomas J. Park. “Naked Mole‐Rats: Blind, Naked, and Feeling No Pain.” Anatomical Record 303 (2020): 77–88. </ref>

==Habitat and Distribution==
[[File:molerathabitat.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Habitat <ref name="habitat">“Naked Mole Rat Range Map (Africa)” theanimalfiles.com, 2006. https://www.theanimalfiles.com/mammals/rodents/mole_rat_naked.html. </ref>]]

The naked mole rat spend almost their entire lives within complex networks of burrows underneath the grasslands of Eastern Africa. Specifically, they can be found around Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia. Aboveground, it is hot and arid, and there is very little rainfall. Despite this, the burrows have a relatively constant ambient temperature throughout the year. This is beneficial, as the mole rat is one of the few mammals that are poikilothermic and have considerably varying internal temperatures. If some outside condition alters the temperature within the burrow, the mole rats are able to sense this and reorganize and/or expand their burrows to compensate. These burrows exist in varying degrees of complexity, but often contain multiple nests, waste chambers, food storage chambers, and escape routes.
<ref name = "blind"/>
The largest of these burrows can even reach over 3,000 meters in length.
<ref name="truth">Buffenstein, Rochelle, Vincent Amoroso, Blazej Andziak, Stanislav Avdieiev, Jorge Azpurua, Alison J. Barker, Nigel C. Bennett, et al. “The Naked Truth: a Comprehensive Clarification and Classification of Current ‘myths’ in Naked Mole‐rat Biology.” Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 97, no. 1 (2022): 115–140</ref>
These sprawling tunnels help with [[soil]] aeration where air from surface-level tunnels (with a higher oxygen concentration) is able to mix with the air in deeper parts of the soil, thus creating a "plunger effect". <ref name= "microbio"/>

 
Each burrow develops a distinct [[microclimate]] based on a host of conditions. The depth, slope, and soil compaction all contribute to this. The behavior of the colony itself also plays a role, as the population size and metabolic rate of the mole rats also affects the microclimate. The soil color determines how much heat from the sun is absorbed, and this is the main driver of temperature within a burrow. While mole rats are protected from the worst of the desert threats (climate extremes, predators, UV radiation), there are different problems that come with living perpetually underground. Food can be scarce, digging and maintaining these tunnels has a high energy cost, and gas exchange is impaired. Managing to survive despite these drawbacks classifies theses creatures as extremophiles.<ref name = "microbio"/>

[[File:moleratburrow.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Mole Rat Burrow<ref name="burrow">Digging the Underground Life. Photograph. The-Scientist.com. Accessed April 21, 2023. https://www.the-scientist.com/infographics/digging-the-underground-life-40923. </ref>]]

==Behavior==
The naked mole rat is one of the few mammals that can be defined as "eusocial". To be considered eusocial, an organism must display a reproductive division of labor, generational overlap, and cooperative raising of the young.
<ref name = "truth"/>
Age and size are the main traits that determine an individuals position in the social hierarchy, with the oldest and largest occupying the topmost positions. Their are multiple distinct roles that individuals perform in the colony, and the same individuals tend to keep the same role for long periods of time. Particularly, younger members tend to raise young, and older members tend to defend the colony. Their is also a specialized role for food-gathering, which involves tunneling until an individual finds an underground tuber. Food is then taken from inside the tuber, leaving the skin intact to facilitate the plant's regrowth. <ref name="microbio"/>
<ref name = "blind"/>

 
Similarly to certain [[insects]], the largest female is designated the "queen" and is the sole breeder. She uses pheromones and intimidation to suppress other reproductive activity in the colony except for a handful of chosen partners. These pheromones are released mainly through urination.
<ref name = "reprod">Zhou, Shuzhi, Melissa M. Holmes, Nancy G. Forger, Bruce D. Goldman, Matthew B. Lovern, Alain Caraty, Imre Kalló, Christopher G. Faulkes, and Clive W. Coen. “Socially Regulated Reproductive Development: Analysis of GnRH-1 and Kisspeptin Neuronal Systems in Cooperatively Breeding Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus Glaber).” Journal of comparative neurology (1911) 521, no. 13 (2013): 3003–3029.</ref>
Dual-queen colonies can sometimes form, but this is exceptionally rare due to the reproductive suppression instituted by the original queen. <ref name="blind"/>

==Longevity and Cancer Resistance==
The naked mole-rat is the longest living rodent, often living to over 30 years old. It is also extremely resistant to abnormal tumor growth. A sequencing of the mole-rat's genome suggest that these traits are due to this species' unique makeup of protein p53, which is a regulatory protein that often gets mutated in the presence of cancer.
<ref name="genome">Keane, Michael, Thomas Craig, Jessica Alfoeldi, Aaron M. Berlin, Jeremy Johnson, Andrei Seluanov, Vera Gorbunova, et al. “The Naked Mole Rat Genome Resource: Facilitating Analyses of Cancer and Longevity-Related Adaptations.” BIOINFORMATICS 30, no. 24 (2014): 3558–3560.</ref>
Additionally, many negative age-related effects rarely manifest in these creatures, such as neurodegeneration, loss of thermoregulative capability, and loss of reproductive capability. A prevailing theory is that longer=living species possess mitochondria that are better capable of consuming reactive oxygen species, or highly reactive molecules containing the element oxygen (H202 , peroxide, for example).
<ref name= 'mitochon">Munro, Daniel, Cécile Baldy, Matthew E. Pamenter, and Jason R. Treberg. “The Exceptional Longevity of the Naked Mole‐rat May Be Explained by Mitochondrial Antioxidant Defenses.” Aging cell 18, no. 3 (2019): e12916–n/a.</ref>

==References==
<references />

Amanita muscaria

2023-05-08T15:03:26Z

Azizahbe:

[[File:flyagarlic1.jpg|400px|left|thumb| [https://www.almanac.com/sites/default/files/styles/or/public/image_nodes/foxglove-shutterstock_656531998.jpg?itok=XBjjszop] Amanita muscaria]]
[[Amanita muscaria]], also known as fly agaric, is a basidiomycete fungus native to temperate and boreal regions in the Norther Hemisphere. Amanita muscaria are cosmopolitan species and associates with a variety of deciduous and coniferous trees. Easily recognizable for their iconic toadstool appearance, Amanita muscaria are poisonous and contain psychoactive constituents.
[[File:flyagarlictree.jpg|441px|right|thumb| [http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2009/christia_eri2/Classification.htm]Amanita muscaria phylogenic tree]]

==Taxonomy==

'''Kingdom:''' Fungi
'''Phylum:''' Basidiomycota
'''Class:''' Agaricomycetes
'''Order:''' Agaricales
'''family:''' Amanitaceae
==Overview==
Amanita muscaria has many variations in regional subspecies which can be distinguished by their environment and physiology.
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto"
|+ Amanita muscaria subspecies
|-
! Image !! Scientific name !! Common name !! Description !!
|-
| [[File:orange1.jpg|170px|right|thumb| [https://www.almanac.com/sites/default/files/styles/or/public/image_nodes/foxglove-shutterstock_656531998.jpg?itok=XBjjszop]]] || Amanita muscaria var. muscaria || Euro-Asian fly agaric || Bright red fly agaric from northern Europe and Asia. Cap might be orange or yellow due to slow development of the purple pigment.
|-
| [[File:red1.jpg|170px|right|thumb| [https://www.almanac.com/sites/default/files/styles/or/public/image_nodes/foxglove-shutterstock_656531998.jpg?itok=XBjjszop]]] || Amanita muscaria var. flavivolvata || American fly agaric || red, with yellow to yellowish-white warts. It is found from southern Alaska down through the Rocky Mountains, through Central America, all the way to Andean Colombia.
|-
| [[File:yellow1.jpg|170px|right|thumb| [https://www.almanac.com/sites/default/files/styles/or/public/image_nodes/foxglove-shutterstock_656531998.jpg?itok=XBjjszop]]] || Amanita muscaria var. guessowii || American fly agaric (yellow variant) || has a yellow to orange cap, with the centre more orange or perhaps even reddish orange.
|-
| [[File:orangeyellow12.jpg|170px|right|thumb| [https://www.almanac.com/sites/default/files/styles/or/public/image_nodes/foxglove-shutterstock_656531998.jpg?itok=XBjjszop]]] || Amanita muscaria var. inzengae || Inzenga's fly agaric || it has a pale yellow to orange-yellow cap with yellowish warts and stem which may be tan.
|}

==Ecology==
Fly agarlic has been used historically as a pesticide by combining the mushroom with milk and spraying on plants. The practice of using amanita muscaria for pest management in Germanic and Slavic speaking parts of Europe lead to the fungus claiming the common name "fly agarlic" for its ability to kill flies.[[#2.|[2]]]
[[File:flyagarlic5.jpg|300px|left|thumb| [https://www.almanac.com/sites/default/files/styles/or/public/image_nodes/foxglove-shutterstock_656531998.jpg?itok=XBjjszop] Digitalis purpurea]]

[[File:flyagarlic3.jpg|275px|left|thumb| [https://i.pinimg.com/originals/44/11/27/441127cce1406c41d504537e772acbdc.jpg.] Digitalis purpea illustration.]]

==Medicinal Use==

[[#5.|[5]]]

==References==
1. xxx

2. Wasson, R. Gordon. Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973.

3. xxx

4. xxx
5. xx
6. xxxxx

Acorn ant

2023-05-05T21:41:00Z

Azizahbe: Created page with "(Temnothorax curvispinosus) or the Acorn ant is one of North America's better studied ant species. Common and widely scattered all over the eastern United States. They are som..."

(Temnothorax curvispinosus) or the Acorn ant is one of North America's better studied ant species. Common and widely scattered all over the eastern United States. They are sometimes called the acorn ant because they can live in hollowed out acorns. Acorn ants can be found in both rural and urban areas.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
| [[File:Acorn ant.jpg| 300px]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Arthropoda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hymenoptera
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Formicidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subfamily:
|style="min-width:6em; |Myrmicinae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Tribe:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crematogastrini
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Temnothorax
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |T. curvispinosus
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Bug Guide <ref>“Species Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” BugGuide.Net, https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>
|}

== '''Description''' ==

Temnothorax Curvispinosus or Acorn ants are one of North Americans common ant species. Acorn ants are temperature sensitive and are really small in size. Colonies grow to between 100 and 300 ants. An entire colony can live inside hollow acorns. They are known as passive and are not aggressive. The acorn ant is amber/yellow in color with an 11 segmented antenna, a curved propodeal spine that is spaced closely together. Their middle part of the body (mesosoma) is covered in rough ridges (rugae). Their head has tiny holes or “studs” separate from their eyes.

== '''Habitat''' ==

[[File:Acorn ant map.PNG| 500px | border | Ant Web |]]

=== Range ===
Native to the eastern part of the United State, as far north as Maine, as far south as Florida, and as far west as Arizona. Parts of Canada, specifically Ontario. They occupy temperate and subtropical northern forest.

=== Nest ===
Acorn ant nest are usually found in hollow stems, insect galls, puffballs, pinecones, and under rocks or in [[soil]], usually at lower elevations. Nest populations are around 80-100 workers with multiple queens. Nests are polydomous (inhabiting several nests) and can change after any disturbance in or near it.<ref> Healey, Christiane I. M., and Stephen C. Pratt. “The Effect of Prior Experience on Nest Site Evaluation by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Animal Behaviour, vol. 76, no. 3, 2008, pp. 893–99, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.02.016.</ref> In the summer, colonies can break off from the main nest and build nest in the surrounding area. These colonies can sometimes have multiple queens in each nest or sometimes a nest with just workers and larvae. During the winter, colonies come back together into one nest. About half of the colony is lost in the winter. Ants can either die off or migrate to a new nest and either start or join a new colony. <ref> Pratt, S.C. Behavioral mechanisms of collective nest-site choice by the ant Temnothorax curvispinosus . Insect. Soc. 52, 383–392 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-005-0823-z</ref>

== '''Reproduction''' ==
Acorn ants are polygynous, Worker ants reproduce with queens inside the colony. Larvae are usually found inside a nest at any time of the year. New colonies are formed by multiple queens (Pleometrosis) or a new queen can be adopted into an existing colony.<ref> Pratt, Stephen C. “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology, vol. 62, no. 8, 2008, pp. 1369–76, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref> The queen will lay around a dozen eggs in a nest. The eggs hatch into larva, which go through multiple molting stages as they grow. Eventually the larva will metamorphose into a pupa then turn into an adult ant. The queen and male ant have wings while the worker ant, which is female, does not have any wings.
[[File:Worker acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Worker]][[File:Male acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Male]][[File:Queen acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Queen]]

== '''Diet''' ==
Acorn Ants are generalists and eat liquid sugars like honeydew on tree and plant leaves. They can carry seeds back to the nest. They also eat protein, small [[insects]] like spring tails and dipterans (flies). [[Foraging]] is usually done in tandem (one ant leading another ant), is higher in the spring and summer months, and slower in the fall. They do not forage in the winter. <ref>Mackay, W. P. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])". Sociobiology. 36: 265–444</ref>
== '''Adaption''' ==
Acorn ants are temperature sensitive but colonies that live in urban areas have adapted to tolerate the higher temperatures. The development of cities has caused a rapid rise in environmental temperatures, especially with impervious surfaces. Acorn ants had an evolutionary change in thermal tolerance. Urban population ants exhibited greater heat tolerance under the fast rate of temperature change, and this result was correlated with both faster rates of diurnal temperature rise in urban acorn ant nest sites and more rapid spatial changes in temperature across urban foraging areas. <ref>Diamond, Sarah E; Chick, Lacy D; Perez, Abe; Strickler, Stephanie A; Zhao, Crystal (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature". Conservation Physiology. 6 (1): coy030. doi:10.1093/conphys/coy030. ISSN 2051-1434. PMC 6007456. PMID 29977563.</ref>

== '''References''' ==

<ref>Bender, Eric (21 March 2022). "Urban evolution: How species adapt to survive in cities". Knowable Magazine. Annual Reviews. doi:10.1146/knowable-031822-1.</ref>
<ref>Tate Holbrook. "Individual Life Cycle of Ants". ASU - Ask A Biologist. 17 Dec 2009. ASU - Ask A Biologist, Web. 4 May 2023. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>
<ref>“Temnothorax Species - Acorn Ants.” Ant Antics, https://www.antantics.co.uk/product-page/temnothorax-species-acorn-ants</ref>
<ref> “Acorn Ants and Allies (Genus Temnothorax).” INaturalist United Kingdom, https://uk.inaturalist.org/taxa/424607-Temnothorax#cite_note-Snelling_et_al_2014-5</ref>

File:Queen acorn ant.jpg

2023-05-05T21:26:07Z

Azizahbe:

File:Male acorn ant.jpg

2023-05-05T21:25:21Z

Azizahbe:

File:Worker acorn ant.jpg

2023-05-05T21:24:31Z

Azizahbe:

File:Acorn ant map.PNG

2023-05-05T21:13:49Z

Azizahbe:

File:Acorn ant.jpg

2023-05-05T21:12:01Z

Azizahbe:

Karner blue

2023-04-25T03:35:16Z

Azizahbe: Created page with "(Plebejus samuelis) or the Karner Blue is an endangered species of blue butterfly found in some regions of New York and other Great Lakes states, areas of New Jersey, and sout..."

(Plebejus samuelis) or the Karner Blue is an endangered species of blue butterfly found in some regions of New York and other Great Lakes states, areas of New Jersey, and southern areas in New Hampshire. The butterfly, whose life cycle depends on the wild blue lupine flower was classified as an endangered species in the United States in 1992.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
| [[File:Male karner blue lg.jpg| 300px]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Arthropoda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Lepidoptera
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Lycaenidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Plebejus
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |P. samuelis
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Nature Serve <ref>“Plebejus Samuelis Karner Blue.” NatureServe Explorer 2.0, https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.120997/Plebejus_samuelis.</ref>
|}

== '''Description''' ==

The male and female show sexual dimorphism, which is the difference in appearance between female and male butterflies. The topside of the male is silvery or dark blue with narrow black margins. Females are grayish brown to blue in color on the topside portions of wings with irregular bands of orange crescents inside the narrow black border. Both male and females have a gray underside with a band of orange crescents along the edges of both wings and scattered black spots with white circles. They have an average wing span of 2.2- 3.5 cm. Karner Blue are considered endangered due to a dramatic range decline. They are considered (G1) critically imperiled according to Nature Serve Explorer

== '''Range and Habitat''' ==

[[File:Karner blue range.PNG| 500px | border | Conservation Status Range |]]

=== Range ===
Kerner blue butterflies natural ranges once was a narrow band across 12 states and parts of Ontario, Canada. <ref>“Melissa Blue (Includes Karner Blue) Plebejus Melissa (W.H. Edwards, 1873).” Melissa Blue (Includes Karner Blue) Plebejus Melissa (W.H. Edwards, 1873) | Butterflies and Moths of North America, 28 Aug. 2022, https://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/Plebejus-melissa.</ref> Today eastern subspecies populations are found in southern New Hampshire, central New York all the way to Wisconsin. Western subspecies populations occur in the intermountain west from Canada to Baja California plains and prairies, all the way to northwest Iowa and Southwestern Minnesota. <ref>“Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides Melissa Samuelis): U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.” FWS.gov, https://www.fws.gov/species/karner-blue-butterfly-lycaeides-melissa-samuelis.</ref>
=== Habitat ===
Historically, Karner blue butterflies occupied pine barren and oak and pine-oak savannah ecosystems with sandy pine prairies, barrens, and lakeshore dunes in the northeastern and Midwestern parts of the United States. Now, in eastern New York these butterflies live in remnants of barrens or savannahs, highway and power line corridors, gaps within forest ecosystems, young forests, trails and road systems of forests, airports, and military camps. These new habitats share the same structures consisting of open patchy canopy with grasses and forbs in the open space. <ref>Forrester, Jodi A., et al. “Maintaining Critical Habitat in a Heavily Managed Landscape: Effects of Power Line Corridor Management on Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides Melissa Samuelis) Habitat.” Restoration [[Ecology]], vol. 13, no. 3, 2005, pp. 488–98, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2005.00061.x.</ref>
== '''Life Cycle''' ==

[[File:Karner blue caterpillar.jpeg| 300px]]

The Karner blue butterfly usually has two flight periods each year, the first flight are eggs that hatch in April. These eggs were laid butterflies last year and survived overwinter. The larvae that emerge pass through four in- stars. The caterpillars then feed only on wild lupine plant leaves, mainly on leaf mesophyll. <ref>Knutson, Randy L., et al. “Movement Patterns and Population Characteristics of the Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides Melissa Samuelis) at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.” Natural Areas Journal, vol. 19, no. 2, 1999, pp. 109–20.</ref> Karner blue butterflies have a mutualistic relationship with around 27 different ant species. larvae that are tended by ants develop rapidly and exhibited a steep rise in weight. <ref>Grundel, R., et al. “Effect of Canopy Cover and Seasonal Change on Host Plant Quality for the Endangered Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides Melissa Samuelis).” Oecologia, vol. 114, no. 2, 1998, pp. 243–50, https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420050442</ref> The ants protect the caterpillars from some natural predators or parasites and in return the ants recieve nectar from the caterpillar. The caterpillars and pupae have special glands that secrete juices high in sugars and amino acids that are harvested. In May, the caterpillars pupate, and the first brood adult butterflies emerge from their cocoon-like chrysalis by early June. The now adult butterflies’ mate and lay their eggs in June on wild lupine plants. The eggs hatch in about one week and the caterpillars feed for about three weeks. They then pupate and the summer's second generation of adult butterflies appears in July. These adults then mate and lay eggs that will not hatch until the following spring.
== '''Diet''' ==
Karner blue caterpillar feed only on the leaves of the wild lupine plant. Lupine plants are perennial herbs with showy clusters of blue/purple pea-like flowers that are in clusters on stems. Adults feed on the nectar of multiple native and non-native flowering plant species. The Karner blue butterfly exhibits generalist but also selective characteristics of some nectar species. Across the Karner blue's range at least 51 first brood nectar species and 71 second brood nectar species have been noted. <ref>GRUNDEL, RALPH, et al. “Nectar Plant Selection by the Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides Melissa Samuelis) at the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.” The American Midland Naturalist, vol. 144, no. 1, 2000, pp. 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031(2000)144[0001:NPSBTK]2.0.CO;2.</ref> Because the Karner blue caterpillar can only successfully feed on wild lupine, the reproductive success of the larvae is critically dependent on wild lupine plants.
== '''Predation''' ==
The Karner Blue butterfly has a few predators in both larval and adult forms. Some larval predators are spiders, stink bugs, paper wasps and ants. These ant predators are different species from the ants that tend to the larvae. The seven-spotted lady beetle is one of the few confirmed predators of Karner blue butterfly larvae. <ref>Schellhorn, Nancy A., et al. “The Co-Occurrence of an Introduced Biological Control Agent ([[Coleoptera]]: Coccinella Septempunctata) and an Endangered Butterfly (Lepidoptera: Lycaeides Melissa Samuelis).” Journal of Insect Conservation, vol. 9, no. 1, 2005, pp. 41–47, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-004-4887-2.</ref> More potential larval predators include green lacewings, soldier beetles, and damsel bugs. Adult Karner blue butterfly predators are crab spiders, robber flies, ambush bugs, assassin bugs, and dragonflies. Other predators include white-tailed deer and birds from predation of butterfly eggs, larvae, and pupae by grazing on wild lupine. There are four larval parasites: the tachinid fly Aplomya theclarum, the braconid wasp Apanteles sp., and two ichneumonid wasps Neotypus nobilitator and Parania geniculate. <ref>Johnson, Kurt., and Steven L. Coates. Nabokov’s Blues : the Scientific Odyssey of a Literary Genius. 1st ed., Zoland Books, 1999.</ref>
== '''Management ''' ==
The Karner Blue is eradicated or endangered in several states and has The Nature Conservancy rank of T2 - Imperiled because of rarity (6 to 20 occurrences), or because of other factors demonstrably making it very vulnerable to extinction throughout its range. <ref>“Karner Blue Butterfly.” The Nature Conservancy, 9 Sept. 2018, https://www.nature.org/en-us/get-involved/how-to-help/animals-we-protect/karner-blue-butterfly/</ref> Overall, the Karner blue has main requirements: lupine for larvae and nectar for adults. The goal of management is to provide this endangered species with a landscape that contains quality habitat patches situated to allow gene flow among patches and to allow recolonization following local extinction. Two conclusions important for Karner blue butterfly landscape management and monitoring are suggested by our data: (1) Efforts should be made to maintain subpopulations of Karner blues within 300 m of each other to allow dispersal among those subpopulations. (2) A 2:1 male:female sex ratio occurred at the population peak with- in a brood.
A wide variety of management techniques are used like mowing which can maintain open areas with little to no detrimental effect on Karner blue butterflies. Controlled fires can also be used to maintain sites in early successional stages. Other management practices that are encouraged are: establishing dispersal corridors for adult butterflies, creating openings to promote lupine and nectaring sources, and propagating/planting lupine and nectaring sources as needed. There are some management practices that need to be avoided because they are typically harmful to Karner blue butterflies. Practices that increase deer and/or grouse populations, close-cropped grazing, frequent or poorly timed mowing, plowing, use of herbicides that kill lupine or nectar plants, and use of pesticides that are detrimental to Karner blue butterflies, ants they associate with, or pollinators of species they use for nectar. <ref>Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides Melissa Samuelis) Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 3, 2003.</ref>

== '''References''' ==

<ref>Haack, Robert A. 1993. The endangered Karner blue butterfly (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): biology, management considerations, and data gaps. In: Gillespie, Andrew R.; Parker, George R.; Pope, Phillip E.; Rink, George: eds. Proceedings of the 9th Central Hardwood Forest Conference; Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-161. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station: 83-100</ref>
<ref>Smallidge, Peter J., et al. “Community Characteristics and Vegetation Management of Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides Melissa Samuelis) Habitats on Rights-of-Way in East- Central New York, USA.” The Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 33, no. 6, 1996, pp. 1405–19, https://doi.org/10.2307/2404780</ref>
<ref>Maxwell, Judith Ann. The Conservation of the Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides Melissa Samuelis Nabokov): Ecological Studies on Habitat Creation and Management. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1998.</ref>

File:Male karner blue lg.jpg

2023-04-25T03:33:25Z

Azizahbe:

File:Karner blue range.PNG

2023-04-25T03:31:27Z

Azizahbe:

File:Karner blue caterpillar.jpeg

2023-04-25T03:29:35Z

Azizahbe:

American Bullfrog

2023-03-11T01:39:47Z

Azizahbe:

(Lithobates catesbeianus) or the American Bullfrog as it is more commonly known is a member of the true frog family found natively in Eastern North America. With its large size compared to other frog species the species is able to inhabit a wide variety of aquatic environments with relative success. The American Bullfrog gets its name from the male call during breeding season resembling a bulls bellow.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Scientific Classification'''
|-
| [[File:American bullfrog adult male.jpg| 300px]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subkingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Bilateria
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Infrakingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |Deuterostomia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Chordata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Vertebrata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Infraphylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |Gnathostomata
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Superclass:
|style="min-width:6em; |Tetrapoda
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Amphibia
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Anura
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Ranidea
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Lithobates''
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''L. catesbeianus''
|-
|colspan="2" |Source: Integrated Taxonomic Information System <ref name="ITIS">[https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=977384#null "Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Report"], ''ITIS'' USGS Open-File Report 2006-1195: Nomenclature", ''USGS'', n.d.. Retrieved 3/10/2023.</ref>
|}

== '''Description''' ==
The American Bullfrog has an olive-green coloring on the dorsal surface (backside) which may also include dull brown mottling or banding patterns ending at the top lip. The ventral surface (belly) typically appears as an off-white color with gray or yellow blotchy patches that end at the bottom lip. They can grow up to 0.5 kg (1.1 lbs.) in weight and between 90-152 mm (3.5-6 in) in length.<ref>Bruening, S. 2002. "Lithobates catesbeianus" (On-line), Animal [[Diversity]] Web. Accessed March 10, 2023 at https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Lithobates_catesbeianus/</ref> American Bullfrogs possess extremely small teeth that only functions to grasp objects. The eyes notably have horizontal pupils and a brownish iris. The tympanum (external eardrum) is right behind the eyes and are enclosed with thin skin to pick up sound and vibrations. The hind legs are long and possess webbing between the toes while the frontal legs are shorter and are un-webbed.

The American Bullfrog displays sexual dimorphism, physical differences between sexes. Female bullfrogs have a smaller tympanum than males. Males typically have a tympanum that is larger than the eye and female tympanum are about the same size as the eye. You can also tell the differences between sexes from the color of the throat. Males tend to have bright, yellow-colored throats while females usually have a cream or pale white colored throats.<ref>Asahara, Masakazu et al. “Sexual dimorphism in external morphology of the American bullfrog Rana (Aquarana) catesbeiana and the possibility of sex determination based on tympanic membrane/eye size ratio.” The Journal of veterinary medical science vol. 82,8 (2020): 1160-1164. doi:10.1292/jvms.20-0039</ref>

== '''Range and Habitat''' ==

[[File:American bullfrog range.PNG| 400px | border | Native and Introduced Range |]]

=== Range ===
The American Bullfrog is native to the eastern part of North America. Its range extends as far north as Nova Scotia to as south as Florida, from the Atlantic coast to as far west as Kansas. They have been introduced to western parts of North America like Colorado, Nebraska, Nevada California, Oregon, Arizona, Utah, and Washington. They have also been introduced to Mexico, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. They have also been introduced into Europe (Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, France), Asia (India, China, South Korea, Japan), and other countries such as Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Cuba. <ref>Liz McKercher, and Denise R. Gregoire, 2023, Lithobates catesbeianus (Shaw, 1802): U.S. Geological Survey, Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL, https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?SpeciesID=71, Revision Date: 12/2/2022, Access Date: 3/10/2023</ref> Possible reasons for introduction include intentional like biological control agents or a source of food and release of frogs that are kept as pets.

=== Habitat ===
American Bullfrogs live in or near areas of water like lakes, ponds, swamps, marshes, streams, and rivers. They prefer warm, still, and shallow freshwater with lots of vegetation. Bullfrogs are somewhat tolerant of colder temperatures and can hibernate in mud and the bottom layer underwater during freezing temperatures.

== '''Reproduction''' ==
American Bullfrog breeding season takes place only once a year during the end of spring into summer, from May to July. Males arrive at the breeding sites first before the females arrive. Male bullfrogs group together in clusters called choruses. <ref>Emlen, Stephen T. “Lek Organization and Mating Strategies in the Bullfrog.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology, vol. 1, no. 3, 1976, pp. 283–313, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00300069.</ref> Female bullfrogs find choruses to be more attractive. Males have more than one mate, so choruses are constantly breaking apart and reforming, with different male individuals. male bullfrogs have three different calls during this time. A territorial call that warns other males, a confrontational call that usually happens right before a fight, and a mating call to attract females. <ref>Wiewandt, Thomas A. “Vocalization, Aggressive Behavior, and Territoriality in the Bullfrog, Rana Catesbeiana.” Copeia, vol. 1969, no. 2, 1969, pp. 276–85, https://doi.org/10.2307/1442074.</ref> When a female picks a male, she moves into his territory to lay her eggs. The male will simultaneously release sperm while the female lays a clutch of about 20,000 eggs. This is a form of external fertilization, <ref>LANNOO, MICHAEL, et al. “Introduction.” Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status of United States Species, edited by MICHAEL LANNOO, 1st ed., University of California Press, 2005, pp. 351–80. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1pp5xd.59. Accessed 11 Mar. 2023.</ref> where the eggs are fertilized outside of the female body.

== '''Growth and Development''' ==
American Bullfrog tadpoles hatch after four to five days after fertilization. Adults do not have parental investment once they hatch, and the tadpoles must survive on their own. Tadpoles will stay in the water and as they develop will move into deeper water. Tadpoles have three pairs of external gills and multiple rows of teeth on the lips. As they develop, they grow downward-facing mouths and tails with broad dorsal and ventral fins. <ref>Stebbins, Robert C., and Nathan W. Cohen. “Reproduction.” A Natural History of Amphibians, Princeton University Press, 1995, pp. 140–94. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1nxcv5j.21. Accessed 11 Mar. 2023.</ref> They start using their teeth to eat bigger particles of food. It can take around three years before a tadpole develops into an adult frog. Once the tadpoles turn into adults, it can take three to five years for both female and male frogs to reach sexual maturity. A bullfrog can live up to seven to ten years in the wild.

[[File:American bullfrog tadpole.jpg| 250px ]]

== '''Diet''' ==
The American Bullfrog is a carnivore and known to eat a variety of [[organisms]] most typically being [[invertebrates]] including species of snail, crustaceans, worm, mollusks, and insect. However due to the opportunistic behavior of the American Bullfrog they have been found to eat species of rodents, small snakes, birds, and are even found to be cannibalistic. They can eat frogs, tadpoles and the eggs of fish or [[salamanders]]. Tadpoles mostly eat aquatic plants and algae and will eat larger portions as they grow.

=== Feeding ===
American Bullfrogs are observed to be ambush and opportunistic predators, feeding on a variety of [[animals]] unsuspecting of their presence. Once the prey has been spotted, the bullfrog will move towards the prey using a series of hops to sneak up on its prey. The bullfrog uses its tongue to catch the prey and takes a bite from its strong jaw. Smaller prey is then consumed and engulphed using its mouth. American Bullfrogs have been observed to use their front legs as hands to assist in eating larger prey that are not able to fit inside the mouth. Bullfrogs are observed to asphyxiate larger prey after a successful catch as a defense mechanism. This behavior mimics other forms of feeding from other frogs, most notably
a [[wood frog]]<ref>Cardini, F. (1974). Specializations of the Feeding Response of the Bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, for the Capture of Prey Submerged in Water. M.S. Thesis, U. of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA</ref>

== '''Predators''' ==
American Bullfrogs are an essential prey item for many birds, predatory fish, otters, and other amphibians. Herons like the Great Blue Heron and Great Egrets, smaller birds like the common and belted kingfisher, turtles, water snakes and raccoons. American Bullfrog eggs are famously bad tasting to many predators that typically consume frog and fish eggs as part of their diet. Tadpoles are not eaten by predators because they have an undesirable taste. However, predators that aren't deterred by the taste tend to have an easier time spotting out Bullfrog tadpoles due to their activity. Bullfrogs tend to be loud when attacked by a predator, warning other bullfrogs in the area to the potential danger where many will retreat to deeper

== '''Management ''' ==

=== Problem ===

Introduced bullfrogs in non-native ranges are now a concern for the native species in that range. They are highly adaptable and have a high reproductive rate. The Bullfrog has both a direct and indirect effect on native species, like native birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes, through competition, predation, habitat alteration and displacement. They also have negative effects on some aquatic snakes and waterfowl. There is also a concern that the bullfrog is a possible carrier for a chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which is fatal for some amphibians. <ref>Adams, Michael J., and Christopher A. Pearl. “Problems and Opportunities Managing Invasive Bullfrogs: Is There Any Hope?” Biological Invaders in Inland Waters: Profiles, Distribution, and Threats, Springer Netherlands, pp. 679–93, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6029-8_38.</ref>
=== Solution ===
Some management options for Bullfrogs are direct removal, adults being caught in traps or hand captures, and tadpoles by draining ponds or chemical treatment. The use of funnel traps, gigs, guns, and fencing off a pond are some other methods that are used. A third management option is habitat manipulation. The use of chemical control and toxicants as a management option is a possibility but needs more experiments and testing to not affect the entire aquatic ecosystem. <ref>Snow, N. P, & Witmer, G. (2010). American Bullfrogs as Invasive Species: A Review of the Introduction, Subsequent Problems, Management Options, and Future Directions. Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference, 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.5070/V424110490 Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5j46t7f2</ref>

== '''References''' ==

<ref>Emlen, Stephen T. “Territoriality in the Bullfrog, Rana Catesbeiana.” Copeia, vol. 1968, no. 2, 1968, pp. 240–43, https://doi.org/10.2307/1441748.</ref>
<ref>Ryan, Michael J. “The Reproductive Behavior of the Bullfrog (Rana Catesbeiana).” Copeia, vol. 1980, no. 1, 1980, pp. 108–14, https://doi.org/10.2307/1444139.</ref>
<ref>Korschgen, Leroy J., and Thomas S. Baskett. “Foods of Impoundment- and Stream-Dwelling Bullfrogs in Missouri.” Herpetologica, vol. 19, no. 2, 1963, pp. 89–99. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3890543. Accessed 11 Mar. 2023.</ref>
<ref>HIRAI, Toshiaki. “Diet Composition of Introduced Bullfrog, Rana Catesbeiana, in the Mizorogaike Pond of Kyoto, Japan.” Ecological Research, vol. 19, no. 4, 2004, pp. 375–80, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1703.2004.00647.x.</ref>
<ref>“American Bullfrog.” NatureMapping, http://naturemappingfoundation.org/natmap/facts/american_bullfrog_k6.html#:~:text=The%20male%20and%20female%20bullfrogs,much%20larger%20than%20the%20eye.</ref>
<ref>“California's Invaders: American Bullfrog.” California Department of Fish and Wildlife, https://wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Invasives/Species/Bullfrog#:~:text=American%20bullfrogs%20occupy%20a%20wide,lakes%20and%20banks%20of%20streams.</ref>
<ref>“American Bullfrog.” National Aquarium, https://aqua.org/explore/animals/american-bullfrog#:~:text=During%20the%20cold%20winter%20season,portions%20of%20streams%20and%20rivers.</ref>
<ref>“Eggs, Tadpoles and Development of American Bullfrog - Lithobates Catesbeianus.” Californiaherps.com, Reptiles and Amphibians of California, https://californiaherps.com/frogs/pages/l.catesbeianus.tadpoles.html.</ref>

File:American bullfrog tadpole.jpg

2023-03-10T22:25:38Z

Azizahbe:

File:American bullfrog range.PNG

2023-03-10T22:21:28Z

Azizahbe:

File:American bullfrog adult male.jpg

2023-03-10T22:20:59Z

Azizahbe: