Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Vernal Pools

2025-04-30T18:57:31Z

Arenschu:

[[File:Vernalseason.jpg|300px|right|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff] Vernal pool changes throughout seasons ]]

==Overview==
Vernal pools are defined as isolated, seasonal wetlands that are characterized by being relatively small, shallow, and ephemeral. These features are filled in the spring by rain and snow melt, and they dry up near the end of summer when evaporation rates and temperatures are at their highest. They resist evaporation the longest when the depressions are lined with thick [[Clay]], which slows the percolation rate of precipitation into the soil. [[#4.|[4]]] These pools form not only near other wetlands, but also in low lying areas with [[Soil Structures|soil structures]] capable of holding water on top of the organic layer, or the [[Humus]] layer, of the [[Soil Horizons]].

These seasonal wetland bodies are vital ecosystems for various [[Organisms]] including but not limited to amphibians, [[Insects]], birds, and crustaceans. Vernal pools have been found on the tops of upland areas, woodlands, and urban areas. The key characteristic that contributes to the importance of these pools is that they are separated from other water bodies. Vernal pools are distinct, temporary wetland ecosystems due to their seasonal nature and isolation. [[#13.|[13]]]

==Formation==

In order for vernal pools to form, many factors must align. The topography, water table (in some cases), soil history, and [[Soil processes]] all have to be just right before a vernal pool will take shape. Most vernal pools occur only in the Western and Northeastern Regions of the United States. They will form however in many parts of Canada, and many other Mediterranean or Subtropical regions on earth. [[#14.|[14]]]

Most believe that the water table in a region is the sole reason behind vernal pool formation, but this is not the case. Although the water table in an area can be extremely important in vernal pool formation. If the area has a higher water table, vernal pool formation will be promoted because water is more likely to pool up on the surface in the spring months and create vernal pools; This is common in wetland areas and near stream beds. However, the water table does not have to be high in order for a vernal pool to form. Vernal pools can form due to the rock below and holding runoff in an area, creating a suspended water table or a lower infiltration rate in that area. [[#14.|[14]]]

[[File:GlacialVernalPool.jpg|275px|left|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff.] Glacial vernal pool formation]]

The soil is often the promoting factor causing vernal pools to form. Areas that promote vernal pool formation are or were affected by ''glacial action'', ''floodplains'', ''sag ponds'', and even areas with ''human activity''. ''Floodplains'' are common areas for vernal pools because during periods of high water or flooding, water pockets fill and remain full for a short period of time. This is most common in the spring during high periods of snow melt and rain. If there is a hard clay based layer in the soil, that will also assist in keeping the water pooled on top.

Areas that have been affected by ''glacial action'' often result in vernal pools. Glaciers create many depressions, scrapes, scours, and erosion in areas where they travel or melt away. The topography of the Northeastern United States and Canada was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet that covered the area from 11,700-2.6 MYA. These features left behind after glacier retreat can fill with precipitation resulting in ephemeral pools. A ''sag pond'' is created when there is an underlying rock susceptible to weathering. When the rock under the soil weathers, a depression will form in the soil above to fill the void of non-existent rock. This creates an area where water can collect and remain, retained by the remaining rock below the soil.

==Ecological Importance==
[[File:Vernalpoolwildflowers.jpg|250px|right|thumb| [https://www.tes.com/lessons/w4CKexdQnEoeAA/science] A community of wildflowers surrounding an ephemeral wetland]]

Vernal pools provide an ideal habitat for many insects, amphibians, and plants; although their lifespan before drying out may be short. The main advantage they have over other bodies of water is the lack of predatory aquatic species. Additionally, many birds will use larger vernal pools as seasonal water sources and migratory landing areas. Although much of the ecological importance tied to vernal pools is due to the overwhelming amount of [[biodiversity interactions]] in the systems, including rare [[invertebrates]], crustaceans, [[insects]], and plant species.

Various plant communities also play an important role in the vernal pool's sub-ecosystem. In the spring-time, wildflowers often bloom in circular patterns along the shoreline, and by time summer ends they're replaced with dry, cracked soil. [[#12.|[12]]] Plant species found in vernal pools are adapted to the high desiccation rate and stressful conditions present in the pools. These miniature wetlands thrive during and preceding the rainy season, with some staying dried for up to six months. [[#8.|[8]]] Some rare (and endangered) plant species that thrive in vernal pools are, '''Shumard's Oak''', '''Raven's-foot Sedge''', '''Squarrose Sedge''', and '''False Hop Sedge'''. [[#11.|[11]]] Some species that depend on vernal pools are, [[Tiger Salamander]], [[anostraca]], and specifically female bees of the genus ''Andrena''. [[#6.|[6]]]

[[File:FrogEggs.jpg|275px|thumb|right| [https://www.friendsofsligocreek.org/vernal-pools/]

Amphibian eggs covered in algae, found in a vernal pool of Sligo Creek Park]]

The hydrologic cycle of vernal pools is one of the key aspects making animal life in the pools so specific. This includes the time of inundation, size, depth change, evapotranspiration, and [[Water Behavior in Soils]]. Factors like water temperature, [[Soil]] chemistry, surrounding habitats, and [[Biodiversity interactions]] are what allows the wetlands to return annually. Many species that are found here will carry out their first few life stages and leave; others will stay put after the water evaporates. Fairy shrimp eggs can be laid as cysts for decades before they are exposed to a water source. These crustaceans will live typically for only a few months after they hatch because of natural reasons, including desiccation. [[#11.|[11]]]

==Declining Habitat==

Unfortunately, vernal pools have been in a state of decline since industrialization has become more frequent. Some of the earliest restoration efforts were made in 1980 by the Nature Conservancy, whose members started to buy areas in California containing the pools in order to preserve them.[[#2.|[2]]] Conservation efforts are difficult because of the ephemeral characteristic of the wetlands and the lack of education surrounding them.

Directly correlated with the rule of humans on Earth, vernal pools are in a serious decline. This poses a significant problem for many species that are entirely dependent on vernal pools for survival. Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems due of their biodiversity and [[ecosystem services]], vernal pools should not be excluded from this classification under wetlands. The biggest issue facing these sub ecosystems is development and destruction of forests, where most vernal pools can be located. Most real estate developers consider them to be obstacles in the development process; so regulation has been put into place in some areas that require fees to be paid in order to get a permit to build on these sites.[[#1.|[1]]] Vernal pools are abundant in forests in the Northeast and Western states, and when the forests are destroyed for human use, the vernal pools are ultimately succumbed as well. From 1800 to 2018, forest coverage in Michigan alone dropped from 89% to 45% and is continually approaching a lower percentage.[[#11.|[11]]]

Climate change has already shown affects on vernal pools in places like North Carolina[[#9.|[9]]], California[[#3.|[3]]] and others. With increasing temperatures and overall less precipitation, the pools will not get a chance to (i) properly form (ii) stay for over one season and (iii) support the soil [[Animals]] and microfauna that depend on these features for habitat.

==Lack of Research==
Vernal pools are not extensively studied, and as a result, humans are unintentionally destroying these important habitats. Research can help and may be the strongest advocate for these pools by demonstrating their ecological significance. Studying and researching all aspect of vernal pools is a necessity for their future conservation and restoration. Without the research, vernal pools will continue to face a serious decline, resulting in endangerment or extinction of fauna, plants, and natural services provided.

[[File: ArtificialPool.jpg|315px|right|thumb| [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/] A completed vernal pool restoration project ]]

==Restoration==
Beyond the efforts of lawmakers charging fees for building, some restoration ecologists are designing faux (man-made) vernal pools to mitigate impacts of the disappearing, naturally occurring ones. There is an adaptive management approach associated with man-made vernal pools, as there is no way to ensure proper working condition until they go through a subjective trial-and-error phase. These man-made pools are considered a last resort once the elimination of a natural pool becomes unavoidable.[[#5.|[5]]]

Documented projects and monitoring show that amphibian reproduction is severely inhibited and almost non-existent. The created wetlands tend to be more permanent than ephemeral, exposing larvae and breeders to more predators over time.[[#5.|[5]]] The improper hydrological regime in designed pools can be directly attributed to the failure of reproductive success with amphibians and other vernal pool breeders.[[#7.|[7]]]

==References==
1. Adams, Jill U. “Pooling Resources.” Science, vol. 350, no. 6256, 2 Oct. 2015, pp. 26–28., doi:10.1126/science.350.6256.26. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/350/6256/26]

2. Baskin, Yvonne. "California's ephemeral vernal pools may be a good model for speciation." BioScience, vol. 44, no. 6, 1994, p. 384+. Science In Context, http://link.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/apps/doc/A15536169/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&sid=SCIC&xid=203d3f61. [http://go.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=Journals&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=MultiTab&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CA15536169&docType=Article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZXBE-MOD1&prodId=SCIC&contentSet=GALE%7CA15536169&searchId=R2&userGroupName=sunybuff_main&inPS=true#]

3. Bauder, Ellen T. "Inundation effects on small-scale plant distributions in San Diego, California vernal pools." Aquatic [[Ecology]] 34.1 (2000): 43-61. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1009916202321]

4. Brown, Kathryn S. “Vanishing Pools Taking Species With Them.” Science, vol. 281, no. 5377, 1998, p. 626., doi:10.1126/science.281.5377.626a. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/281/5377/626.1]

5. Calhoun, A. J. K., et al. “Creating Successful Vernal Pools: A Literature Review and Advice for Practitioners.” Wetlands, vol. 34, no. 5, 17 July 2014, pp. 1027–1038., doi:10.1007/s13157-014-0556-8. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13157-014-0556-8#citeas]

6. “California Vernal Pools.” VernalPool.Org - Plants & Animals of Vernal Pools, [https://www.vernalpool.org/]

7. Denton, Robert D., and Stephen C. Richter. “Amphibian Communities in Natural and Constructed Ridge Top Wetlands with Implications for Wetland Construction.” The Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 77, no. 5, 2013, pp. 886–896., doi:10.1002/jwmg.543. [https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1002%2Fjwmg.543]

8. Hocking, Daniel J. “Creating Vernal Pools.” Daniel J. Hocking, 22 July 2014, danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/. [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/]

9. Montrone, Ashton, et al. “Climate Change Impacts on Vernal Pool Hydrology and Vegetation in Northern California.” Journal of Hydrology, 27 Apr. 2019, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.04.076. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169419304172]

10. Murtagh, Ed. “Vernal Pools.” Friends of Sligo Creek, Takoma Park Newsletter, Aug. 2004. [https://www.friendsofsligocreek.org/vernal-pools/]

11. Thomas, S.A., Y. Lee, M. A. Kost, & D. A. Albert. 2010. Abstract for vernal pool. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Lansing, MI. 24 pp [https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/abstracts/ecology/vernal_pool.pdf]

12. “Vernal Pools.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 6 July 2018, accessed 4 May 2019. [https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/vernal-pools]

13. “Vernal Pools.” Vernal Pools Animals, www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx. [https://www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx]

14. “Vernal Pool EarthCache.” GC2G67F Diamond Head Crater (Earthcache) in Hawaii, United States Created by Martin 5. [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff]

Root Grafting

2025-04-19T17:54:21Z

Arenschu:

[[File:Root Grafting Image resized 400px.jpg|thumb|right|700px|Root grafting]]

== Introduction: ==
Root grafting is a unique event that can happen both naturally and unnaturally and is when roots of two or more plants fuse together, forming a bond between the two or more roots. This allows for the transfer of water, nutrients, and can even form a signal between the two plants. Root grafting can play an important ecological role in plant species and interactions allowing for stability in an environment both above ground and below.

== Mechanism: ==
Root grafting is a common process that is often found in forested environments within dominant same species trees (with minor exceptions there is the potential for opposite species to allow root grafting) . In order for root grafting to occur there must be a fusion of the vascular systems of two or more roots, once this fusion in completed the trees are able to make a physical connection between each other where they can transfer resources like water, nutrients, and can even create a network between the trees acting like the nervous system in the human body (Quer et al. 2020). For this to occur, trees again must commonly be the same species, be large enough in size to support one another, as well as have big enough roots that they can fuse together and effectively transfer resources from one to another (Lev-Yadun and Sprugel n.d.).

== Ecological Significance: ==
[[File:Living stump resized 200px.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Living Stump]]

Root grafting is a large sign that competition between different trees has reached an almost stable state in which trees are able to focus all energy on growing instead of competing. Root grafting can occur in a few different ways; one showing the benefits when both trees are alive and one in which one of the trees has died. When both individuals are alive, they hold many benefits between the two like the transfer of nutrients but also many other benefits. These benefits can consist of less chance of disease if the trees are strong and healthy, mating partners and transferring the required gametes from on to another to produce more trees in the area, with the benefit of nutrient transfer there is the positive growth of each tree resulting in a strong canopy and less light being let to the ground (which prohibits small shrubbery from growing and using nutrients in the soils), and can help with chemical defense and resistance to herbivores and/or pathogens (Lev-Yadun and Sprugel n.d.).

Benefits for trees that may have died to some natural cause while grafted with another tree can also lead a fascinating growths. If during a tree’s natural life there is a destructive event that may cause a tree to die or fall over, and that tree’s roots were strongly grafted to a healthy tree there are still positive effects that will occur. One benefits would be that even if a tree dies, its roots remain alive and act as a connector between the trees that are still alive, allowing for the continued transfer of resources between the trees that are still alive. Another benefit that continues on that continued transfer of resource is it allows for more nutrients to be transferred and used by the healthy remaining trees (this follows the simple idea that with one tree dying, there is now less trees alive and using available resources) (Lev-Yadun and Sprugel n.d.). Under the conditions that a tree may have fallen over and the stump still remails intact and the roots stay below ground there is also the event in which living stumps can be formed. This is when the stump of a fallen tree is able to draw enough resources from its grafted roots that will create a scare over then broken wood and instead of growing a new trunk and leaves it simple lives off of the nearby trees and will continue to absorb water and nutrients to stay alive and grow from year to year (Lanner 1961).

== Soil Interactions: ==
None of this transfer of resources would be possible with the hold of mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhizal fungi acts as a nervous system for these trees and their grafted roots, enhancing the effectiveness of the roots and increasing the amount of nutrients the roots are able to uptake (“Underground Networking” n.d.). This mutual benefit where the trees retain the necessary nutrients for survival and the fungi receives the necessary carbohydrates to survive (“Mycorrhizae” n.d.). In turn this creates a very diverse [[soil]] environment that will then stimulate the growth of many different soil micro and macro [[invertebrates]] allowing for a healthy and stable soil environment.

== Applications: ==
Aside from the natural phenomenon of root grafting and its natural benefits, humans have also been able to apply this technique to benefit anthropocentric values as well. Root grafting is a common practice in farming and home planting that allows humans to genetically modify plant gene structure or save dying plants. Root grafting can be used to genetically modify a plant to make it more efficient and useful for human use (“Grafting and Budding Nursery Crop Plants | NC State Extension Publications” n.d.). For example if you have a small but juicy orange and a large but bitter orange tree, if a farmer was to graft the roots of both trees together, the seeds of the conjoined trees can produce a large and juicy orange that is tastier and more ideal to sell in a market. Root grafting can also be used to help heal a dying or injured plant and join its roots with nearby plants or trees to help obtain the necessary nutrients to get healthier.

== References: ==
Grafting and Budding Nursery Crop Plants | NC State Extension Publications. (n.d.). . https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/grafting-and-budding-nursery-crop-plants.

Lanner, R. M. 1961. Living Stumps in the Sierra Nevada. [[Ecology]] 42:170–173. https://doi.org/10.2307/1933281

Lev-Yadun, S., and D. Sprugel. (n.d.). Why should trees have natural root grafts? https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpr061

[[Mycorrhizae]]. (n.d.). . https://www2.nau.edu/~gaud/bio300/mycorrhizae.htm.

Quer, E., V. Baldy, and A. DesRochers. 2020. Ecological drivers of root grafting in balsam fir natural stands. Forest Ecology and Management 475:118388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118388

Underground Networking: The Amazing Connections Beneath Your Feet. (n.d.). . https://www.nationalforests.org/blog/underground-mycorrhizal-network.

File:Root Grafting Image resized 400px.jpg

2025-04-19T17:53:07Z

Arenschu: Arenschu uploaded a new version of File:Root Grafting Image resized 400px.jpg

File:Root Grafting Image resized 400px.jpg

2025-04-19T17:52:10Z

Arenschu:

Root Grafting

2025-04-19T17:51:13Z

Arenschu:

[[File:Root Grafting Image.jpg|thumb|right|900px|Root grafting]]

== Introduction: ==
Root grafting is a unique event that can happen both naturally and unnaturally and is when roots of two or more plants fuse together, forming a bond between the two or more roots. This allows for the transfer of water, nutrients, and can even form a signal between the two plants. Root grafting can play an important ecological role in plant species and interactions allowing for stability in an environment both above ground and below.

== Mechanism: ==
Root grafting is a common process that is often found in forested environments within dominant same species trees (with minor exceptions there is the potential for opposite species to allow root grafting) . In order for root grafting to occur there must be a fusion of the vascular systems of two or more roots, once this fusion in completed the trees are able to make a physical connection between each other where they can transfer resources like water, nutrients, and can even create a network between the trees acting like the nervous system in the human body (Quer et al. 2020). For this to occur, trees again must commonly be the same species, be large enough in size to support one another, as well as have big enough roots that they can fuse together and effectively transfer resources from one to another (Lev-Yadun and Sprugel n.d.).

== Ecological Significance: ==
[[File:Living stump resized 200px.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Living Stump]]

Root grafting is a large sign that competition between different trees has reached an almost stable state in which trees are able to focus all energy on growing instead of competing. Root grafting can occur in a few different ways; one showing the benefits when both trees are alive and one in which one of the trees has died. When both individuals are alive, they hold many benefits between the two like the transfer of nutrients but also many other benefits. These benefits can consist of less chance of disease if the trees are strong and healthy, mating partners and transferring the required gametes from on to another to produce more trees in the area, with the benefit of nutrient transfer there is the positive growth of each tree resulting in a strong canopy and less light being let to the ground (which prohibits small shrubbery from growing and using nutrients in the soils), and can help with chemical defense and resistance to herbivores and/or pathogens (Lev-Yadun and Sprugel n.d.).

Benefits for trees that may have died to some natural cause while grafted with another tree can also lead a fascinating growths. If during a tree’s natural life there is a destructive event that may cause a tree to die or fall over, and that tree’s roots were strongly grafted to a healthy tree there are still positive effects that will occur. One benefits would be that even if a tree dies, its roots remain alive and act as a connector between the trees that are still alive, allowing for the continued transfer of resources between the trees that are still alive. Another benefit that continues on that continued transfer of resource is it allows for more nutrients to be transferred and used by the healthy remaining trees (this follows the simple idea that with one tree dying, there is now less trees alive and using available resources) (Lev-Yadun and Sprugel n.d.). Under the conditions that a tree may have fallen over and the stump still remails intact and the roots stay below ground there is also the event in which living stumps can be formed. This is when the stump of a fallen tree is able to draw enough resources from its grafted roots that will create a scare over then broken wood and instead of growing a new trunk and leaves it simple lives off of the nearby trees and will continue to absorb water and nutrients to stay alive and grow from year to year (Lanner 1961).

== Soil Interactions: ==
None of this transfer of resources would be possible with the hold of mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhizal fungi acts as a nervous system for these trees and their grafted roots, enhancing the effectiveness of the roots and increasing the amount of nutrients the roots are able to uptake (“Underground Networking” n.d.). This mutual benefit where the trees retain the necessary nutrients for survival and the fungi receives the necessary carbohydrates to survive (“Mycorrhizae” n.d.). In turn this creates a very diverse [[soil]] environment that will then stimulate the growth of many different soil micro and macro [[invertebrates]] allowing for a healthy and stable soil environment.

== Applications: ==
Aside from the natural phenomenon of root grafting and its natural benefits, humans have also been able to apply this technique to benefit anthropocentric values as well. Root grafting is a common practice in farming and home planting that allows humans to genetically modify plant gene structure or save dying plants. Root grafting can be used to genetically modify a plant to make it more efficient and useful for human use (“Grafting and Budding Nursery Crop Plants | NC State Extension Publications” n.d.). For example if you have a small but juicy orange and a large but bitter orange tree, if a farmer was to graft the roots of both trees together, the seeds of the conjoined trees can produce a large and juicy orange that is tastier and more ideal to sell in a market. Root grafting can also be used to help heal a dying or injured plant and join its roots with nearby plants or trees to help obtain the necessary nutrients to get healthier.

== References: ==
Grafting and Budding Nursery Crop Plants | NC State Extension Publications. (n.d.). . https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/grafting-and-budding-nursery-crop-plants.

Lanner, R. M. 1961. Living Stumps in the Sierra Nevada. [[Ecology]] 42:170–173. https://doi.org/10.2307/1933281

Lev-Yadun, S., and D. Sprugel. (n.d.). Why should trees have natural root grafts? https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpr061

[[Mycorrhizae]]. (n.d.). . https://www2.nau.edu/~gaud/bio300/mycorrhizae.htm.

Quer, E., V. Baldy, and A. DesRochers. 2020. Ecological drivers of root grafting in balsam fir natural stands. Forest Ecology and Management 475:118388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118388

Underground Networking: The Amazing Connections Beneath Your Feet. (n.d.). . https://www.nationalforests.org/blog/underground-mycorrhizal-network.

File:Living stump resized 200px.jpg

2025-04-19T17:50:19Z

Arenschu:

2025-03-07T17:34:05Z

Arenschu: /* Life Cycles */

Bryophyte are nonvascular, seedless plants that include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. They are widely distributed and typically small compared to seed-bearing plants. They lack try roots, stems, and leaves, and instead possess specialized structures called rhizoids, which anchor them to various surfaces and aid in water and nutrient absorption through diffusion and osmosis. They play an important role in the environment by colonizing sterile soils, absorbing nutrients and water and release them slowly back into ecosystem, contributing to the new emergence of [[soil]] for plants to grow on.

==Taxonomy==

Bryophyte phylogeny is derived from fossil records and molecular sequencing or rRNA and morphology. There is still much unknown about the true phylogeny of this group, however it is hypothesized that they branched off of charophyte-coleochaete, which is the Groupon green algae that gave rise to vascular plant species [1].

Bryophytes belong to the division Bryophyta and are further divided into three main groups:
<ul>
<li>Mosses (Phylum Bryophyta)</li>
Mosses are green, clump forming plants. They are known to have leafs that are only one cell in width, attached to a stem which is responsible for water and nutrient uptake. Mosses absorb a lot of water and thrive in shaded environments, which is why they are often found in wet, forested environments as a result.

<li>Liverworts (Phylum Marchantiophyta)</li>
Liverworts are very small plants with flattened stems, and undifferentiated leaves. They posses single-called rhizoids, which are responsible for attaching to surfaces, and nutrient/water uptake. They are different compared to the other two bryophytes due to there enclosed lipid membrane-bound bodies. 

<li>Hornworts (Phylum Anthocerotophyta)</li>
Hornworts are characterized by there long horn-like sporophyte that developed in its diploid stage. During the gamete stage, hornworts are flat, green plants. They are often found in damp environments.
</ul>

However, after molecular evidence Bryophyta are no longer divided into three groups and only mosses represent the division of Bryophyta. Hornworts and liverworts are in their own divisions, Anthocerotophyta and Marchantiophyta respectively [1].

==Characteristics==

Bryophytes have many unique features, one of them being, they are small in size and can grow on many surfaces including the surface of rocks. They are primarily found in damp environments, but are also found in a variety of different climates and ecosystems. They can tolerate desiccation and quickly rehydrate when water becomes available. They often form into dense mats that create habitat and microclimates for many [[organisms]].

==Habitat==

Bryophytes can be found in many habitats around the world, such as: wetlands, costal areas, forests, tundra, rocky outcrops. They thrive in damp and shady environments but can also be found in extreme environments such as deserts and the arctic [4].

==Life Cycles==

[[File: Bryophyte_Life_cycle.jpg|upright|thumb|150px|Bryophytes have a life cycle which consists of alternating generations of haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte [2]]]
<ol>
<li>The gametophyte generation produces gametes through mitosis. The haploid gametes are formed in specialized sex organs, the archegonia (female) and the antheridia (male)</li>
<li>The gametes are described as flagellated sperm, which have to transport through water diffusion, and then dispersed by insects.</li>
<li>Fertilization occurs when sperm from antheridia, fertilize eggs in archegonia.</li>
<li>The zygote develops into a diploid sporophyte, which remains attached to the gametophyte (fertilized egg).</li>
<li>The sporophyte produces spores through meiosis, inside the sporangium.</li>
<li>Spores are released, and under the right environmental conditions they will germinate into new gametophytes. This completes the life cycle.</li>
</ol>

==Evolution==

Bryophytes are suggested to be one of the earliest groups of land plants which evolved from aquatic adaptations to survive in terrestrial environments. This was estimated to have happened roughly 430 million years ago. Bryophytes played a crucial role in the colonization of land fro plants by providing habitats and facilitating soil formation through metabolic functions and nutrient cycling [4].

Bryophytes can be used to reveal information about how the first plant adapted in their conquest and terrestrial environment. All the existing species of bryophytes today are recent, descendants of evolved dead bryophytes [4].

==Uses==

Bryophytes have various human uses and ecological significance. They help in soil formation and prevent erosion by stabilizing the soil and act as indicators of environmental health, as they are sensitive to changes in air and water quality. Bryophytes are used in [[horticulture]] for decorative purposes, such as in [[moss]] gardens or terrariums. They contribute to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] in ecosystems by absorbing and retaining nutrients in their tissues. Some species of bryophytes have medicinal [[properties]] and have been used in traditional medicine, and pharmaceutical products [3].

==References==

[1] Bryophyte. 2023, March 31. . Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/plant/bryophyte.

[2] Editors, B. 2019, October 5. Bryophyte - definition, characteristics, life cycle and examples. https://biologydictionary.net/bryophyte/.

[3] (N.d.). . https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/reso/009/06/0056-0065.

[4] PerezJI. “Bryophytes.” Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 28 Aug. 2024, https://stri.si.edu/story/bryophytes#:~:text=Bryophytes%20thrive%20in%20damp%2C%20shady,by%20spores%20instead%20of%20seeds.

Bryophyte

2025-03-07T17:33:17Z

Arenschu: /* Life Cycles */

Bryophyte are nonvascular, seedless plants that include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. They are widely distributed and typically small compared to seed-bearing plants. They lack try roots, stems, and leaves, and instead possess specialized structures called rhizoids, which anchor them to various surfaces and aid in water and nutrient absorption through diffusion and osmosis. They play an important role in the environment by colonizing sterile soils, absorbing nutrients and water and release them slowly back into ecosystem, contributing to the new emergence of [[soil]] for plants to grow on.

==Taxonomy==

Bryophyte phylogeny is derived from fossil records and molecular sequencing or rRNA and morphology. There is still much unknown about the true phylogeny of this group, however it is hypothesized that they branched off of charophyte-coleochaete, which is the Groupon green algae that gave rise to vascular plant species [1].

Bryophytes belong to the division Bryophyta and are further divided into three main groups:
<ul>
<li>Mosses (Phylum Bryophyta)</li>
Mosses are green, clump forming plants. They are known to have leafs that are only one cell in width, attached to a stem which is responsible for water and nutrient uptake. Mosses absorb a lot of water and thrive in shaded environments, which is why they are often found in wet, forested environments as a result.

<li>Liverworts (Phylum Marchantiophyta)</li>
Liverworts are very small plants with flattened stems, and undifferentiated leaves. They posses single-called rhizoids, which are responsible for attaching to surfaces, and nutrient/water uptake. They are different compared to the other two bryophytes due to there enclosed lipid membrane-bound bodies. 

<li>Hornworts (Phylum Anthocerotophyta)</li>
Hornworts are characterized by there long horn-like sporophyte that developed in its diploid stage. During the gamete stage, hornworts are flat, green plants. They are often found in damp environments.
</ul>

However, after molecular evidence Bryophyta are no longer divided into three groups and only mosses represent the division of Bryophyta. Hornworts and liverworts are in their own divisions, Anthocerotophyta and Marchantiophyta respectively [1].

==Characteristics==

Bryophytes have many unique features, one of them being, they are small in size and can grow on many surfaces including the surface of rocks. They are primarily found in damp environments, but are also found in a variety of different climates and ecosystems. They can tolerate desiccation and quickly rehydrate when water becomes available. They often form into dense mats that create habitat and microclimates for many [[organisms]].

==Habitat==

Bryophytes can be found in many habitats around the world, such as: wetlands, costal areas, forests, tundra, rocky outcrops. They thrive in damp and shady environments but can also be found in extreme environments such as deserts and the arctic [4].

==Life Cycles==

[[File: Bryophyte_Life_cycle.jpg|upright|thumb|150px|Bryophytes have a life cycle which consists of alternating generations of haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte [2]:]]
<ol>
<li>The gametophyte generation produces gametes through mitosis. The haploid gametes are formed in specialized sex organs, the archegonia (female) and the antheridia (male)</li>
<li>The gametes are described as flagellated sperm, which have to transport through water diffusion, and then dispersed by insects.</li>
<li>Fertilization occurs when sperm from antheridia, fertilize eggs in archegonia.</li>
<li>The zygote develops into a diploid sporophyte, which remains attached to the gametophyte (fertilized egg).</li>
<li>The sporophyte produces spores through meiosis, inside the sporangium.</li>
<li>Spores are released, and under the right environmental conditions they will germinate into new gametophytes. This completes the life cycle.</li>
</ol>

==Evolution==

Bryophytes are suggested to be one of the earliest groups of land plants which evolved from aquatic adaptations to survive in terrestrial environments. This was estimated to have happened roughly 430 million years ago. Bryophytes played a crucial role in the colonization of land fro plants by providing habitats and facilitating soil formation through metabolic functions and nutrient cycling [4].

Bryophytes can be used to reveal information about how the first plant adapted in their conquest and terrestrial environment. All the existing species of bryophytes today are recent, descendants of evolved dead bryophytes [4].

==Uses==

Bryophytes have various human uses and ecological significance. They help in soil formation and prevent erosion by stabilizing the soil and act as indicators of environmental health, as they are sensitive to changes in air and water quality. Bryophytes are used in [[horticulture]] for decorative purposes, such as in [[moss]] gardens or terrariums. They contribute to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] in ecosystems by absorbing and retaining nutrients in their tissues. Some species of bryophytes have medicinal [[properties]] and have been used in traditional medicine, and pharmaceutical products [3].

==References==

[1] Bryophyte. 2023, March 31. . Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/plant/bryophyte.

[2] Editors, B. 2019, October 5. Bryophyte - definition, characteristics, life cycle and examples. https://biologydictionary.net/bryophyte/.

[3] (N.d.). . https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/reso/009/06/0056-0065.

[4] PerezJI. “Bryophytes.” Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 28 Aug. 2024, https://stri.si.edu/story/bryophytes#:~:text=Bryophytes%20thrive%20in%20damp%2C%20shady,by%20spores%20instead%20of%20seeds.

File:Bryophyte Life cycle.jpg

2025-03-07T17:31:09Z

Arenschu: Arenschu reverted File:Bryophyte Life cycle.jpg to an old version

File:Bryophyte Life cycle.jpg

2025-03-07T17:29:56Z

Arenschu: Arenschu uploaded a new version of File:Bryophyte Life cycle.jpg

Bryophyte

2025-03-07T17:26:03Z

Arenschu:

Bryophyte are nonvascular, seedless plants that include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. They are widely distributed and typically small compared to seed-bearing plants. They lack try roots, stems, and leaves, and instead possess specialized structures called rhizoids, which anchor them to various surfaces and aid in water and nutrient absorption through diffusion and osmosis. They play an important role in the environment by colonizing sterile soils, absorbing nutrients and water and release them slowly back into ecosystem, contributing to the new emergence of [[soil]] for plants to grow on.

==Taxonomy==

Bryophyte phylogeny is derived from fossil records and molecular sequencing or rRNA and morphology. There is still much unknown about the true phylogeny of this group, however it is hypothesized that they branched off of charophyte-coleochaete, which is the Groupon green algae that gave rise to vascular plant species [1].

Bryophytes belong to the division Bryophyta and are further divided into three main groups:
<ul>
<li>Mosses (Phylum Bryophyta)</li>
Mosses are green, clump forming plants. They are known to have leafs that are only one cell in width, attached to a stem which is responsible for water and nutrient uptake. Mosses absorb a lot of water and thrive in shaded environments, which is why they are often found in wet, forested environments as a result.

<li>Liverworts (Phylum Marchantiophyta)</li>
Liverworts are very small plants with flattened stems, and undifferentiated leaves. They posses single-called rhizoids, which are responsible for attaching to surfaces, and nutrient/water uptake. They are different compared to the other two bryophytes due to there enclosed lipid membrane-bound bodies. 

<li>Hornworts (Phylum Anthocerotophyta)</li>
Hornworts are characterized by there long horn-like sporophyte that developed in its diploid stage. During the gamete stage, hornworts are flat, green plants. They are often found in damp environments.
</ul>

However, after molecular evidence Bryophyta are no longer divided into three groups and only mosses represent the division of Bryophyta. Hornworts and liverworts are in their own divisions, Anthocerotophyta and Marchantiophyta respectively [1].

==Characteristics==

Bryophytes have many unique features, one of them being, they are small in size and can grow on many surfaces including the surface of rocks. They are primarily found in damp environments, but are also found in a variety of different climates and ecosystems. They can tolerate desiccation and quickly rehydrate when water becomes available. They often form into dense mats that create habitat and microclimates for many [[organisms]].

==Habitat==

Bryophytes can be found in many habitats around the world, such as: wetlands, costal areas, forests, tundra, rocky outcrops. They thrive in damp and shady environments but can also be found in extreme environments such as deserts and the arctic [4].

==Life Cycles==

[[File: Bryophyte_Life_cycle.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Bryophytes have a life cycle which consists of alternating generations of haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte [2]:]]
<ol>
<li>The gametophyte generation produces gametes through mitosis. The haploid gametes are formed in specialized sex organs, the archegonia (female) and the antheridia (male)</li>
<li>The gametes are described as flagellated sperm, which have to transport through water diffusion, and then dispersed by insects.</li>
<li>Fertilization occurs when sperm from antheridia, fertilize eggs in archegonia.</li>
<li>The zygote develops into a diploid sporophyte, which remains attached to the gametophyte (fertilized egg).</li>
<li>The sporophyte produces spores through meiosis, inside the sporangium.</li>
<li>Spores are released, and under the right environmental conditions they will germinate into new gametophytes. This completes the life cycle.</li>
</ol>

==Evolution==

Bryophytes are suggested to be one of the earliest groups of land plants which evolved from aquatic adaptations to survive in terrestrial environments. This was estimated to have happened roughly 430 million years ago. Bryophytes played a crucial role in the colonization of land fro plants by providing habitats and facilitating soil formation through metabolic functions and nutrient cycling [4].

Bryophytes can be used to reveal information about how the first plant adapted in their conquest and terrestrial environment. All the existing species of bryophytes today are recent, descendants of evolved dead bryophytes [4].

==Uses==

Bryophytes have various human uses and ecological significance. They help in soil formation and prevent erosion by stabilizing the soil and act as indicators of environmental health, as they are sensitive to changes in air and water quality. Bryophytes are used in [[horticulture]] for decorative purposes, such as in [[moss]] gardens or terrariums. They contribute to [[Nutrient Cycling|nutrient cycling]] in ecosystems by absorbing and retaining nutrients in their tissues. Some species of bryophytes have medicinal [[properties]] and have been used in traditional medicine, and pharmaceutical products [3].

==References==

[1] Bryophyte. 2023, March 31. . Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/plant/bryophyte.

[2] Editors, B. 2019, October 5. Bryophyte - definition, characteristics, life cycle and examples. https://biologydictionary.net/bryophyte/.

[3] (N.d.). . https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/reso/009/06/0056-0065.

[4] PerezJI. “Bryophytes.” Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 28 Aug. 2024, https://stri.si.edu/story/bryophytes#:~:text=Bryophytes%20thrive%20in%20damp%2C%20shady,by%20spores%20instead%20of%20seeds.

Vernal Pools

2025-03-05T23:57:14Z

Arenschu:

[[File:Vernalseason.jpg|300px|right|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff] Vernal pool changes throughout seasons ]]

==Overview==
Vernal pools are defined as isolated, seasonal wetlands that are characterized by being relatively small, shallow, and ephemeral. These features are filled in the spring by rain and snow melt, and they dry up near the end of summer when evaporation rates and temperatures are at their highest. They resist evaporation the longest when the depressions are lined with thick [[Clay]], which slows the percolation rate of precipitation into the soil. [[#4.|[4]]] These pools form not only near other wetlands, but also in low lying areas with [[Soil Structures|soil structures]] capable of holding water on top of the organic layer, or the [[Humus]] layer, of the [[Soil Horizons]].

These seasonal wetland bodies are vital ecosystems for various [[Organisms]] including but not limited to amphibians, [[Insects]], birds, and crustaceans. Vernal pools have been found on the tops of upland areas, woodlands, and urban areas. The key characteristic that contributes to the importance of these pools is that they are separated from other water bodies. Vernal pools are distinct, temporary wetland ecosystems due to their seasonal nature and isolation. [[#13.|[13]]]

==Formation==

In order for vernal pools to form, many factors must align. The topography, water table (in some cases), soil history, and [[Soil processes]] all have to be just right before a vernal pool will take shape. Most vernal pools occur only in the Western Region and the Northeastern Region of the United States. They will form however in many parts of Canada, and many other Mediterranean or Subtropical regions on earth. [[#14.|[14]]]

Most believe that the water table in a region is the sole reason behind vernal pool formation, but this is not the case. Although the water table in an area can be extremely important in vernal pool formation. If the area has a higher water table, vernal pool formation will be promoted because water is more likely to pool up on the surface in the spring months and create vernal pools; This is common in wetland areas and near stream beds. However, the water table does not have to be high in order for a vernal pool to form. Vernal pools can form due to the rock below and holding runoff in an area, creating a suspended water table or a lower infiltration rate in that area. [[#14.|[14]]]

[[File:GlacialVernalPool.jpg|275px|left|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff.] Glacial vernal pool formation]]

The soil is often the promoting factor causing vernal pools to form. Areas that promote vernal pool formation are or were affected by ''glacial action'', ''floodplains'', ''sag ponds'', and even areas with ''human activity''. ''Floodplains'' are common areas for vernal pools because during periods of high water or flooding, water pockets fill and remain full for a short period of time. This is most common in the spring during high periods of snow melt and rain. If there is a hard clay based layer in the soil, that will also assist in keeping the water pooled on top.

Areas that have been affected by ''glacial action'' often result in vernal pools. Glaciers create many depressions, scrapes, scours, and erosion in areas where they travel or melt away. The topography of the Northeastern United States and Canada was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet that covered the area from 11,700-2.6 MYA. These features left behind after glacier retreat can fill with precipitation resulting in ephemeral pools. A ''sag pond'' is created when there is an underlying rock susceptible to weathering. When the rock under the soil weathers, a depression will form in the soil above to fill the void of non-existent rock. This creates an area where water can collect and remain, retained by the remaining rock below the soil.

==Ecological Importance==
[[File:Vernalpoolwildflowers.jpg|250px|right|thumb| [https://www.tes.com/lessons/w4CKexdQnEoeAA/science] A community of wildflowers surrounding an ephemeral wetland]]

Vernal pools provide an ideal habitat for many insects, amphibians, and plants; although their lifespan before drying out may be short. The main advantage they have over other bodies of water is the lack of predatory aquatic species. Additionally, many birds will use larger vernal pools as seasonal water sources and migratory landing areas. Although much of the ecological importance tied to vernal pools is due to the overwhelming amount of [[biodiversity interactions]] in the systems, including rare [[invertebrates]], crustaceans, [[insects]], and plant species.

Various plant communities also play an important role in the vernal pool's sub-ecosystem. In the spring-time, wildflowers often bloom in circular patterns along the shoreline, and by time summer ends they're replaced with dry, cracked soil. [[#12.|[12]]] Plant species found in vernal pools are adapted to the high desiccation rate and stressful conditions present in the pools. These miniature wetlands thrive during and preceding the rainy season, with some staying dried for up to six months. [[#8.|[8]]] Some rare (and endangered) plant species that thrive in vernal pools are, '''Shumard's Oak''', '''Raven's-foot Sedge''', '''Squarrose Sedge''', and '''False Hop Sedge'''. [[#11.|[11]]] Some species that depend on vernal pools are, [[Tiger Salamander]], fairy Shrimp, and specifically female bees of the genus ''Andrena''. [[#6.|[6]]]

[[File:FrogEggs.jpg|275px|thumb|right| [https://www.friendsofsligocreek.org/vernal-pools/]

Amphibian eggs covered in algae, found in a vernal pool of Sligo Creek Park]]

The hydrologic cycle of vernal pools is one of the key aspects making animal life in the pools so specific. This includes the time of inundation, size, depth change, evapotranspiration, and [[Water Behavior in Soils]]. Factors like water temperature, [[Soil]] chemistry, surrounding habitats, and [[Biodiversity interactions]] are what allows the wetlands to return annually. Many species that are found here will carry out their first few life stages and leave; others will stay put after the water evaporates. Fairy shrimp eggs can be laid as cysts for decades before they are exposed to a water source. These crustaceans will live typically for only a few months after they hatch because of natural reasons, including desiccation. [[#11.|[11]]]

==Declining Habitat==

Unfortunately, vernal pools have been in a state of decline since industrialization has become more frequent. Some of the earliest restoration efforts were made in 1980 by the Nature Conservancy, whose members started to buy areas in California containing the pools in order to preserve them.[[#2.|[2]]] Conservation efforts are difficult because of the ephemeral characteristic of the wetlands and the lack of education surrounding them.

Directly correlated with the rule of humans on Earth, vernal pools are in a serious decline. This poses a significant problem for many species that are entirely dependent on vernal pools for survival. Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems due of their biodiversity and [[ecosystem services]], vernal pools should not be excluded from this classification under wetlands. The biggest issue facing these sub ecosystems is development and destruction of forests, where most vernal pools can be located. Most real estate developers consider them to be obstacles in the development process; so regulation has been put into place in some areas that require fees to be paid in order to get a permit to build on these sites.[[#1.|[1]]] Vernal pools are abundant in forests in the Northeast and Western states, and when the forests are destroyed for human use, the vernal pools are ultimately succumbed as well. From 1800 to 2018, forest coverage in Michigan alone dropped from 89% to 45% and is continually approaching a lower percentage.[[#11.|[11]]]

Climate change has already shown affects on vernal pools in places like North Carolina[[#9.|[9]]], California[[#3.|[3]]] and others. With increasing temperatures and overall less precipitation, the pools will not get a chance to (i) properly form (ii) stay for over one season and (iii) support the soil [[Animals]] and microfauna that depend on these features for habitat.

===Lack of Research===
Vernal pools are not extensively studied, and as a result, humans are unintentionally destroying these important habitats. Research can help and may be the strongest advocate for these pools by demonstrating their ecological significance. Studying and researching all aspect of vernal pools is a necessity for their future conservation and restoration. Without the research, vernal pools will continue to face a serious decline, resulting in endangerment or extinction of fauna, plants, and natural services provided.

[[File: ArtificialPool.jpg|315px|right|thumb| [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/] A completed vernal pool restoration project ]]

===Restoration===
Beyond the efforts of lawmakers charging fees for building, some restoration ecologists are designing faux (man-made) vernal pools to mitigate impacts of the disappearing, naturally occurring ones. There is an adaptive management approach associated with man-made vernal pools, as there is no way to ensure proper working condition until they go through a subjective trial-and-error phase. These man-made pools are considered a last resort once the elimination of a natural pool becomes unavoidable.[[#5.|[5]]]

Documented projects and monitoring show that amphibian reproduction is severely inhibited and almost non-existent. The created wetlands tend to be more permanent than ephemeral, exposing larvae and breeders to more predators over time.[[#5.|[5]]] The improper hydrological regime in designed pools can be directly attributed to the failure of reproductive success with amphibians and other vernal pool breeders.[[#7.|[7]]]

==References==
1. Adams, Jill U. “Pooling Resources.” Science, vol. 350, no. 6256, 2 Oct. 2015, pp. 26–28., doi:10.1126/science.350.6256.26. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/350/6256/26]

2. Baskin, Yvonne. "California's ephemeral vernal pools may be a good model for speciation." BioScience, vol. 44, no. 6, 1994, p. 384+. Science In Context, http://link.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/apps/doc/A15536169/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&sid=SCIC&xid=203d3f61. [http://go.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=Journals&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=MultiTab&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CA15536169&docType=Article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZXBE-MOD1&prodId=SCIC&contentSet=GALE%7CA15536169&searchId=R2&userGroupName=sunybuff_main&inPS=true#]

3. Bauder, Ellen T. "Inundation effects on small-scale plant distributions in San Diego, California vernal pools." Aquatic [[Ecology]] 34.1 (2000): 43-61. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1009916202321]

4. Brown, Kathryn S. “Vanishing Pools Taking Species With Them.” Science, vol. 281, no. 5377, 1998, p. 626., doi:10.1126/science.281.5377.626a. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/281/5377/626.1]

5. Calhoun, A. J. K., et al. “Creating Successful Vernal Pools: A Literature Review and Advice for Practitioners.” Wetlands, vol. 34, no. 5, 17 July 2014, pp. 1027–1038., doi:10.1007/s13157-014-0556-8. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13157-014-0556-8#citeas]

6. “California Vernal Pools.” VernalPool.Org - Plants & Animals of Vernal Pools, [https://www.vernalpool.org/]

7. Denton, Robert D., and Stephen C. Richter. “Amphibian Communities in Natural and Constructed Ridge Top Wetlands with Implications for Wetland Construction.” The Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 77, no. 5, 2013, pp. 886–896., doi:10.1002/jwmg.543. [https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1002%2Fjwmg.543]

8. Hocking, Daniel J. “Creating Vernal Pools.” Daniel J. Hocking, 22 July 2014, danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/. [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/]

9. Montrone, Ashton, et al. “Climate Change Impacts on Vernal Pool Hydrology and Vegetation in Northern California.” Journal of Hydrology, 27 Apr. 2019, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.04.076. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169419304172]

10. Murtagh, Ed. “Vernal Pools.” Friends of Sligo Creek, Takoma Park Newsletter, Aug. 2004. [https://www.friendsofsligocreek.org/vernal-pools/]

11. Thomas, S.A., Y. Lee, M. A. Kost, & D. A. Albert. 2010. Abstract for vernal pool. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Lansing, MI. 24 pp [https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/abstracts/ecology/vernal_pool.pdf]

12. “Vernal Pools.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 6 July 2018, accessed 4 May 2019. [https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/vernal-pools]

13. “Vernal Pools.” Vernal Pools Animals, www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx. [https://www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx]

14. “Vernal Pool EarthCache.” GC2G67F Diamond Head Crater (Earthcache) in Hawaii, United States Created by Martin 5. [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff]

Vernal Pools

2025-03-05T23:53:13Z

Arenschu:

[[File:Vernalseason.jpg|300px|right|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff] Vernal pool changes throughout seasons ]]

==Overview==
Vernal pools are defined as isolated, seasonal wetlands that are characterized by being relatively small, shallow, and ephemeral. These features are filled in the spring by rain and snow melt, and they dry up near the end of summer when evaporation rates and temperatures are at their highest. They resist evaporation the longest when the depressions are lined with thick [[Clay]], which slows the percolation rate of precipitation into the soil. [[#4.|[4]]] These pools form not only near other wetlands, but also in low lying areas with [[Soil Structures|soil structures]] capable of holding water on top of the organic layer, or the [[Humus]] layer, of the [[Soil Horizons]].

These seasonal wetland bodies are vital ecosystems for various [[Organisms]] including but not limited to amphibians, [[Insects]], birds, and crustaceans. Vernal pools have been found on the tops of upland areas, woodlands, and urban areas. The key characteristic that contributes to the importance of these pools is that they are separated from other water bodies. Vernal pools are distinct, temporary wetland ecosystems due to their seasonal nature and isolation. [[#13.|[13]]]

==Formation==

In order for vernal pools to form, many factors must align. The topography, water table (in some cases), soil history, and [[Soil processes]] all have to be just right before a vernal pool will take shape. Most vernal pools occur only in the Western Region and the Northeastern Region of the United States. They will form however in many parts of Canada, and many other Mediterranean or Subtropical regions on earth. [[#14.|[14]]]

Most believe that the water table in a region is the sole reason behind vernal pool formation, but this is not the case. Although the water table in an area can be extremely important in vernal pool formation. If the area has a higher water table, vernal pool formation will be promoted because water is more likely to pool up on the surface in the spring months and create vernal pools; This is common in wetland areas and near stream beds. However, the water table does not have to be high in order for a vernal pool to form. Vernal pools can form due to the rock below and holding runoff in an area, creating a suspended water table or a lower infiltration rate in that area. [[#14.|[14]]]

[[File:GlacialVernalPool.jpg|275px|left|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff.] Glacial vernal pool formation]]

The soil is often the promoting factor causing vernal pools to form. Areas that promote vernal pool formation are or were affected by ''glacial action'', ''floodplains'', ''sag ponds'', and even areas with ''human activity''. ''Floodplains'' are common areas for vernal pools because during periods of high water or flooding, water pockets fill and remain full for a short period of time. This is most common in the spring during high periods of snow melt and rain. If there is a hard clay based layer in the soil, that will also assist in keeping the water pooled on top.

Areas that have been affected by ''glacial action'' often result in vernal pools. Glaciers create many depressions, scrapes, scours, and erosion in areas where they travel or melt away. The topography of the Northeastern United States and Canada was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet that covered the area from 11,700-2.6 MYA. These features left behind after glacier retreat can fill with precipitation resulting in ephemeral pools. A ''sag pond'' is created when there is an underlying rock susceptible to weathering. When the rock under the soil weathers, a depression will form in the soil above to fill the void of non-existent rock. This creates an area where water can collect and remain, retained by the remaining rock below the soil.

==Ecological Importance==
[[File:Vernalpoolwildflowers.jpg|250px|right|thumb| [https://www.tes.com/lessons/w4CKexdQnEoeAA/science] A community of wildflowers surrounding an ephemeral wetland]]

Vernal pools provide an ideal habitat for many insects, amphibians, and plants; although their lifespan before drying out may be short. The main advantage they have over other bodies of water is the lack of predatory aquatic species. Additionally, many birds will use larger vernal pools as seasonal water sources and migratory landing areas. Although much of the ecological importance tied to vernal pools is due to the overwhelming amount of [[biodiversity interactions]] in the systems, including rare [[invertebrates]], crustaceans, [[insects]], and plant species.

Various plant communities also play an important role in the vernal pool's sub-ecosystem. In the spring-time, wildflowers often bloom in circular patterns along the shoreline, and by time summer ends they're replaced with dry, cracked soil. [[#12.|[12]]] Plant species found in vernal pools are adapted to the high desiccation rate and stressful conditions present in the pools. These miniature wetlands thrive during and preceding the rainy season, with some staying dried for up to six months. [[#8.|[8]]] Some rare (and endangered) plant species that thrive in vernal pools are, '''Shumard's Oak''', '''Raven's-foot Sedge''', '''Squarrose Sedge''', and '''False Hop Sedge'''. [[#11.|[11]]] Some species that depend on vernal pools are, [[Tiger Salamander]], fairy Shrimp, and specifically female bees of the genus ''Andrena''. [[#6.|[6]]]

[[File:FrogEggs.jpg|275px|thumb|right| [https://www.fosc.org/VernalPool.htm]

Amphibian eggs covered in algae, found in a vernal pool of Sligo Creek Park]]

The hydrologic cycle of vernal pools is one of the key aspects making animal life in the pools so specific. This includes the time of inundation, size, depth change, evapotranspiration, and [[Water Behavior in Soils]]. Factors like water temperature, [[Soil]] chemistry, surrounding habitats, and [[Biodiversity interactions]] are what allows the wetlands to return annually. Many species that are found here will carry out their first few life stages and leave; others will stay put after the water evaporates. Fairy shrimp eggs can be laid as cysts for decades before they are exposed to a water source. These crustaceans will live typically for only a few months after they hatch because of natural reasons, including desiccation. [[#11.|[11]]]

==Declining Habitat==

Unfortunately, vernal pools have been in a state of decline since industrialization has become more frequent. Some of the earliest restoration efforts were made in 1980 by the Nature Conservancy, whose members started to buy areas in California containing the pools in order to preserve them.[[#2.|[2]]] Conservation efforts are difficult because of the ephemeral characteristic of the wetlands and the lack of education surrounding them.

Directly correlated with the rule of humans on Earth, vernal pools are in a serious decline. This poses a significant problem for many species that are entirely dependent on vernal pools for survival. Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems due of their biodiversity and [[ecosystem services]], vernal pools should not be excluded from this classification under wetlands. The biggest issue facing these sub ecosystems is development and destruction of forests, where most vernal pools can be located. Most real estate developers consider them to be obstacles in the development process; so regulation has been put into place in some areas that require fees to be paid in order to get a permit to build on these sites.[[#1.|[1]]] Vernal pools are abundant in forests in the Northeast and Western states, and when the forests are destroyed for human use, the vernal pools are ultimately succumbed as well. From 1800 to 2018, forest coverage in Michigan alone dropped from 89% to 45% and is continually approaching a lower percentage.[[#11.|[11]]]

Climate change has already shown affects on vernal pools in places like North Carolina[[#9.|[9]]], California[[#3.|[3]]] and others. With increasing temperatures and overall less precipitation, the pools will not get a chance to (i) properly form (ii) stay for over one season and (iii) support the soil [[Animals]] and microfauna that depend on these features for habitat.

===Lack of Research===
Vernal pools are not extensively studied, and as a result, humans are unintentionally destroying these important habitats. Research can help and may be the strongest advocate for these pools by demonstrating their ecological significance. Studying and researching all aspect of vernal pools is a necessity for their future conservation and restoration. Without the research, vernal pools will continue to face a serious decline, resulting in endangerment or extinction of fauna, plants, and natural services provided.

[[File: ArtificialPool.jpg|315px|right|thumb| [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/] A completed vernal pool restoration project ]]

===Restoration===
Beyond the efforts of lawmakers charging fees for building, some restoration ecologists are designing faux (man-made) vernal pools to mitigate impacts of the disappearing, naturally occurring ones. There is an adaptive management approach associated with man-made vernal pools, as there is no way to ensure proper working condition until they go through a subjective trial-and-error phase. These man-made pools are considered a last resort once the elimination of a natural pool becomes unavoidable.[[#5.|[5]]]

Documented projects and monitoring show that amphibian reproduction is severely inhibited and almost non-existent. The created wetlands tend to be more permanent than ephemeral, exposing larvae and breeders to more predators over time.[[#5.|[5]]] The improper hydrological regime in designed pools can be directly attributed to the failure of reproductive success with amphibians and other vernal pool breeders.[[#7.|[7]]]

==References==
1. Adams, Jill U. “Pooling Resources.” Science, vol. 350, no. 6256, 2 Oct. 2015, pp. 26–28., doi:10.1126/science.350.6256.26. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/350/6256/26]

2. Baskin, Yvonne. "California's ephemeral vernal pools may be a good model for speciation." BioScience, vol. 44, no. 6, 1994, p. 384+. Science In Context, http://link.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/apps/doc/A15536169/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&sid=SCIC&xid=203d3f61. [http://go.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=Journals&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=MultiTab&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CA15536169&docType=Article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZXBE-MOD1&prodId=SCIC&contentSet=GALE%7CA15536169&searchId=R2&userGroupName=sunybuff_main&inPS=true#]

3. Bauder, Ellen T. "Inundation effects on small-scale plant distributions in San Diego, California vernal pools." Aquatic [[Ecology]] 34.1 (2000): 43-61. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1009916202321]

4. Brown, Kathryn S. “Vanishing Pools Taking Species With Them.” Science, vol. 281, no. 5377, 1998, p. 626., doi:10.1126/science.281.5377.626a. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/281/5377/626.1]

5. Calhoun, A. J. K., et al. “Creating Successful Vernal Pools: A Literature Review and Advice for Practitioners.” Wetlands, vol. 34, no. 5, 17 July 2014, pp. 1027–1038., doi:10.1007/s13157-014-0556-8. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13157-014-0556-8#citeas]

6. “California Vernal Pools.” VernalPool.Org - Plants & Animals of Vernal Pools, [https://www.vernalpool.org/]

7. Denton, Robert D., and Stephen C. Richter. “Amphibian Communities in Natural and Constructed Ridge Top Wetlands with Implications for Wetland Construction.” The Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 77, no. 5, 2013, pp. 886–896., doi:10.1002/jwmg.543. [https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1002%2Fjwmg.543]

8. Hocking, Daniel J. “Creating Vernal Pools.” Daniel J. Hocking, 22 July 2014, danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/. [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/]

9. Montrone, Ashton, et al. “Climate Change Impacts on Vernal Pool Hydrology and Vegetation in Northern California.” Journal of Hydrology, 27 Apr. 2019, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.04.076. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169419304172]

10. Murtagh, Ed. “Vernal Pools.” Friends of Sligo Creek, Takoma Park Newsletter, Aug. 2004. [https://www.friendsofsligocreek.org/vernal-pools/]

11. Thomas, S.A., Y. Lee, M. A. Kost, & D. A. Albert. 2010. Abstract for vernal pool. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Lansing, MI. 24 pp [https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/abstracts/ecology/vernal_pool.pdf]

12. “Vernal Pools.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 6 July 2018, accessed 4 May 2019. [https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/vernal-pools]

13. “Vernal Pools.” Vernal Pools Animals, www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx. [https://www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx]

14. “Vernal Pool EarthCache.” GC2G67F Diamond Head Crater (Earthcache) in Hawaii, United States Created by Martin 5. [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff]

Vernal Pools

2025-03-05T23:48:53Z

Arenschu:

[[File:Vernalseason.jpg|300px|right|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff] Vernal pool changes throughout seasons ]]

==Overview==
Vernal pools are defined as isolated, seasonal wetlands that are characterized by being relatively small, shallow, and ephemeral. These features are filled in the spring by rain and snow melt, and they dry up near the end of summer when evaporation rates and temperatures are at their highest. They resist evaporation the longest when the depressions are lined with thick [[Clay]], which slows the percolation rate of precipitation into the soil. [[#4.|[4]]] These pools form not only near other wetlands, but also in low lying areas with [[Soil Structures|soil structures]] capable of holding water on top of the organic layer, or the [[Humus]] layer, of the [[Soil Horizons]].

These seasonal wetland bodies are vital ecosystems for various [[Organisms]] including but not limited to amphibians, [[Insects]], birds, and crustaceans. Vernal pools have been found on the tops of upland areas, woodlands, and urban areas. The key characteristic that contributes to the importance of these pools is that they are separated from other water bodies. Vernal pools are distinct, temporary wetland ecosystems due to their seasonal nature and isolation. [[#13.|[13]]]

==Formation==

In order for vernal pools to form, many factors must align. The topography, water table (in some cases), soil history, and [[Soil processes]] all have to be just right before a vernal pool will take shape. Most vernal pools occur only in the Western Region and the Northeastern Region of the United States. They will form however in many parts of Canada, and many other Mediterranean or Subtropical regions on earth. [[#14.|[14]]]

Most believe that the water table in a region is the sole reason behind vernal pool formation, but this is not the case. Although the water table in an area can be extremely important in vernal pool formation. If the area has a higher water table, vernal pool formation will be promoted because water is more likely to pool up on the surface in the spring months and create vernal pools; This is common in wetland areas and near stream beds. However, the water table does not have to be high in order for a vernal pool to form. Vernal pools can form due to the rock below and holding runoff in an area, creating a suspended water table or a lower infiltration rate in that area. [[#14.|[14]]]

[[File:GlacialVernalPool.jpg|275px|left|thumb| [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff.] Glacial vernal pool formation]]

The soil is often the promoting factor causing vernal pools to form. Areas that promote vernal pool formation are or were affected by ''glacial action'', ''floodplains'', ''sag ponds'', and even areas with ''human activity''. ''Floodplains'' are common areas for vernal pools because during periods of high water or flooding, water pockets fill and remain full for a short period of time. This is most common in the spring during high periods of snow melt and rain. If there is a hard clay based layer in the soil, that will also assist in keeping the water pooled on top.

Areas that have been affected by ''glacial action'' often result in vernal pools. Glaciers create many depressions, scrapes, scours, and erosion in areas where they travel or melt away. The topography of the Northeastern United States and Canada was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet that covered the area from 11,700-2.6 MYA. These features left behind after glacier retreat can fill with precipitation resulting in ephemeral pools. A ''sag pond'' is created when there is an underlying rock susceptible to weathering. When the rock under the soil weathers, a depression will form in the soil above to fill the void of non-existent rock. This creates an area where water can collect and remain, retained by the remaining rock below the soil.

==Ecological Importance==
[[File:Vernalpoolwildflowers.jpg|250px|right|thumb| [https://www.tes.com/lessons/w4CKexdQnEoeAA/science] A community of wildflowers surrounding an ephemeral wetland]]

Vernal pools provide an ideal habitat for many insects, amphibians, and plants; although their lifespan before drying out may be short. The main advantage they have over other bodies of water is the lack of predatory aquatic species. Additionally, many birds will use larger vernal pools as seasonal water sources and migratory landing areas. Although much of the ecological importance tied to vernal pools is due to the overwhelming amount of [[biodiversity interactions]] in the systems, including rare [[invertebrates]], crustaceans, [[insects]], and plant species.

Various plant communities also play an important role in the vernal pool's sub-ecosystem. In the spring-time, wildflowers often bloom in circular patterns along the shoreline, and by time summer ends they're replaced with dry, cracked soil. [[#12.|[12]]] Plant species found in vernal pools are adapted to the high desiccation rate and stressful conditions present in the pools. These miniature wetlands thrive during and preceding the rainy season, with some staying dried for up to six months. [[#8.|[8]]] Some rare (and endangered) plant species that thrive in vernal pools are, '''Shumard's Oak''', '''Raven's-foot Sedge''', '''Squarrose Sedge''', and '''False Hop Sedge'''. [[#11.|[11]]] Some species that depend on vernal pools are, [[Tiger Salamander]], fairy Shrimp, and specifically female bees of the genus ''Andrena''. [[#6.|[6]]]

[[File:FrogEggs.jpg|275px|thumb|right| [https://www.fosc.org/VernalPool.htm]

Amphibian eggs covered in algae, found in a vernal pool of Sligo Creek Park]]

The hydrologic cycle of vernal pools is one of the key aspects making animal life in the pools so specific. This includes the time of inundation, size, depth change, evapotranspiration, and [[Water Behavior in Soils]]. Factors like water temperature, [[Soil]] chemistry, surrounding habitats, and [[Biodiversity interactions]] are what allows the wetlands to return annually. Many species that are found here will carry out their first few life stages and leave; others will stay put after the water evaporates. Fairy shrimp eggs can be laid as cysts for decades before they are exposed to a water source. These crustaceans will live typically for only a few months after they hatch because of natural reasons, including desiccation. [[#11.|[11]]]

==Declining Habitat==

Unfortunately, vernal pools have been in a state of decline since industrialization has become more frequent. Some of the earliest restoration efforts were made in 1980 by the Nature Conservancy, whose members started to buy areas in California containing the pools in order to preserve them.[[#2.|[2]]] Conservation efforts are difficult because of the ephemeral characteristic of the wetlands and the lack of education surrounding them.

Directly correlated with the rule of humans on Earth, vernal pools are in a serious decline. This poses a significant problem for many species that are entirely dependent on vernal pools for survival. Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems due of their biodiversity and [[ecosystem services]], vernal pools should not be excluded from this classification under wetlands. The biggest issue facing these sub ecosystems is development and destruction of forests, where most vernal pools can be located. Most real estate developers consider them to be obstacles in the development process; so regulation has been put into place in some areas that require fees to be paid in order to get a permit to build on these sites.[[#1.|[1]]] Vernal pools are abundant in forests in the Northeast and Western states, and when the forests are destroyed for human use, the vernal pools are ultimately succumbed as well. From 1800 to 2018, forest coverage in Michigan alone dropped from 89% to 45% and is continually approaching a lower percentage.[[#11.|[11]]]

Climate change has already shown affects on vernal pools in places like North Carolina[[#9.|[9]]], California[[#3.|[3]]] and others. With increasing temperatures and overall less precipitation, the pools will not get a chance to (i) properly form (ii) stay for over one season and (iii) support the soil [[Animals]] and microfauna that depend on these features for habitat.

===Lack of Research===
Vernal pools are not extensively studied, and as a result, humans are unintentionally destroying these important habitats. Research can help and may be the strongest advocate for these pools by demonstrating their ecological significance. Studying and researching all aspect of vernal pools is a necessity for their future conservation and restoration. Without the research, vernal pools will continue to face a serious decline, resulting in endangerment or extinction of fauna, plants, and natural services provided.

[[File: ArtificialPool.jpg|315px|right|thumb| [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/] A completed vernal pool restoration project ]]

===Restoration===
Beyond the efforts of lawmakers charging fees for building, some restoration ecologists are designing faux (man-made) vernal pools to mitigate impacts of the disappearing, naturally occurring ones. There is an adaptive management approach associated with man-made vernal pools, as there is no way to ensure proper working condition until they go through a subjective trial-and-error phase. These man-made pools are considered a last resort once the elimination of a natural pool becomes unavoidable.[[#5.|[5]]]

Documented projects and monitoring show that amphibian reproduction is severely inhibited and almost non-existent. The created wetlands tend to be more permanent than ephemeral, exposing larvae and breeders to more predators over time.[[#5.|[5]]] The improper hydrological regime in designed pools can be directly attributed to the failure of reproductive success with amphibians and other vernal pool breeders.[[#7.|[7]]]

==References==
1. Adams, Jill U. “Pooling Resources.” Science, vol. 350, no. 6256, 2 Oct. 2015, pp. 26–28., doi:10.1126/science.350.6256.26. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/350/6256/26]

2. Baskin, Yvonne. "California's ephemeral vernal pools may be a good model for speciation." BioScience, vol. 44, no. 6, 1994, p. 384+. Science In Context, http://link.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/apps/doc/A15536169/SCIC?u=sunybuff_main&sid=SCIC&xid=203d3f61. [http://go.galegroup.com.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=Journals&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=MultiTab&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=1&docId=GALE%7CA15536169&docType=Article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZXBE-MOD1&prodId=SCIC&contentSet=GALE%7CA15536169&searchId=R2&userGroupName=sunybuff_main&inPS=true#]

3. Bauder, Ellen T. "Inundation effects on small-scale plant distributions in San Diego, California vernal pools." Aquatic [[Ecology]] 34.1 (2000): 43-61. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1009916202321]

4. Brown, Kathryn S. “Vanishing Pools Taking Species With Them.” Science, vol. 281, no. 5377, 1998, p. 626., doi:10.1126/science.281.5377.626a. [https://science-sciencemag-org.gate.lib.buffalo.edu/content/281/5377/626.1]

5. Calhoun, A. J. K., et al. “Creating Successful Vernal Pools: A Literature Review and Advice for Practitioners.” Wetlands, vol. 34, no. 5, 17 July 2014, pp. 1027–1038., doi:10.1007/s13157-014-0556-8. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13157-014-0556-8#citeas]

6. “California Vernal Pools.” VernalPools.Org - Plants & Animals of Vernal Pools, [https://www.vernalpools.org/species.htm]

7. Denton, Robert D., and Stephen C. Richter. “Amphibian Communities in Natural and Constructed Ridge Top Wetlands with Implications for Wetland Construction.” The Journal of Wildlife Management, vol. 77, no. 5, 2013, pp. 886–896., doi:10.1002/jwmg.543. [https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1002%2Fjwmg.543]

8. Hocking, Daniel J. “Creating Vernal Pools.” Daniel J. Hocking, 22 July 2014, danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/. [https://danieljhocking.wordpress.com/2014/07/22/creating-vernal-pools/]

9. Montrone, Ashton, et al. “Climate Change Impacts on Vernal Pool Hydrology and Vegetation in Northern California.” Journal of Hydrology, 27 Apr. 2019, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.04.076. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169419304172]

10. Murtagh, Ed. “Vernal Pools.” Friends of Sligo Creek, Takoma Park Newsletter, Aug. 2004. [https://www.friendsofsligocreek.org/vernal-pools/]

11. Thomas, S.A., Y. Lee, M. A. Kost, & D. A. Albert. 2010. Abstract for vernal pool. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Lansing, MI. 24 pp [https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/abstracts/ecology/vernal_pool.pdf]

12. “Vernal Pools.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 6 July 2018, accessed 4 May 2019. [https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/vernal-pools]

13. “Vernal Pools.” Vernal Pools Animals, www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx. [https://www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/VernalPool_Geology.aspx]

14. “Vernal Pool EarthCache.” GC2G67F Diamond Head Crater (Earthcache) in Hawaii, United States Created by Martin 5. [https://www.geocaching.com/geocache/GC6ZRQV_vernal-pool-earthcache?guid=451fa0e4-d882-4d81-936c-9e56bfb317ff]