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2026-04-13T04:59:50Z
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https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11201
Composting
2023-05-12T17:01:24Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen<ref name = "UN">Misra, R. V., et al. On-Farm Composting Methods On-Farm Composting Methods. Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations, 2003.</ref> Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space<ref name = "WHO">Gotaas, Harold. “Composting: Sanitary Disposal and Reclamation of Organic Wastes.” World Health Organization Monograph Series, no. 31, Oct. 1956, pp. 57–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3506(56)80025-5.</ref> Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste<ref>Diakubama, Plamedi. Food Waste in American Households. Sept. 2021, pp. 1–12, scholarworks.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=alfie-conferences. Accessed 2022.</ref>Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does<ref name ="LL">Lin, Long, et al. “Improving the Sustainability of Organic Waste Management Practices in the Food-Energy-Water Nexus: A Comparative Review of Anaerobic Digestion and Composting.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 89, June 2018, pp. 151–167, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.025. </ref>.This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned <ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose. Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting<ref>US EPA. “Types of Composting and Understanding the Process | US EPA.” US EPA, 30 Apr. 2019, www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/types-composting-and-understanding-process.</ref>,<ref name="SEH">Salah El Haggar. Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management : Cradle-To-Cradle for Sustainable Development. Burlington, Elsevier Science, 2010.</ref>.<br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens<ref name = "LL"></ref> Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system<ref name = "barb">Pleasant, Barbara, and Deborah L Martin. The Complete Compost Gardening Guide. Storey Publishing, 1 Jan. 2008.</ref> E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines<ref>Hess, Thomas F., et al. “Heat Inactivation OfE. ColiDuring Manure Composting.” Compost Science & Utilization, vol. 12, no. 4, Sept. 2004, pp. 314–322, https://doi.org/10.1080/1065657x.2004.10702200. Accessed 11 May 2020.</ref> To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost<ref name = "barb></ref>.<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach<ref name = "LL"></ref>. This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)<Ref name = "camp">Bernal, M.P., et al. “Composting of Animal Manures and Chemical Criteria for Compost Maturity Assessment. A Review.” Bioresource Technology, vol. 100, no. 22, Nov. 2009, pp. 5444–5453, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.11.027. Accessed 18 Dec. 2019.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall<ref name ="camp"></ref> If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests<ref name = "LL"></ref><br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun<ref name="SEH></ref><br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting<ref>Kumar, Anil, et al. “Potential of Vermicompost for Sustainable Crop Production and Soil Health Improvement in Different Cropping Systems.” International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, vol. 7, no. 10, 10 Oct. 2018, pp. 1042–1055, https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.710.116. Accessed 8 Apr. 2022.</ref> Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease<ref name = "camp"></ref><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration<ref name = "camp></ref>.</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Trench Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to do<br />
|Requires a lot of land space to dig trenches<br />
|-<br />
|Does not attract pests<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Helps plants' roots<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
Trench composting is easy to maintain and involves burying organic waste deep in the ground. This form of compost is odorless and doesn't attract pests since it is buried belowground. Meat products can also be included in this compost. Trench compost helps [[plant roots]] conserve water. This method isn't practical to be used often because a lot of land space is needed to constantly dig up holes<ref name = "LL></ref><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">In-vessel Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires knowledge of operating machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> In-vessel composting involves a large silo or drum where organic waste is added. It can store a lot more waste than other methods, but does require expensive machinery. The machinery also requires knowledge on operation of the equipment. This process is usually used in food processing plants and must be turned as well<ref name ="camp></ref>.</p><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
==Uses for Compost==<br />
Compost is used as fertilizer or potting soils in gardens. It also provides a solution to limiting landfill use and turns waste into a valuable product. Composting has been more recently used to remediate soils that have been contaminated by hazardous waste or heavy metals<ref> Farrell, Mark, and Davey L. Jones. “Use of Composts in the Remediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Soil.” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 175, no. 1-3, Mar. 2010, pp. 575–582, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.044. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019.</ref> Due to the microorganisms involved in compost and their decomposition abilities, compost is a useful remediation tool for degrading toxins<ref>Kumar, Vineet, et al. “Bioremediation: An Eco-Sustainable Approach for Restoration of Contaminated Sites.” Microbial Bioprospecting for Sustainable Development, 2018, pp. 115–136, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0053-0_6.</ref>Compost has shown to remediate heavy metals the best when in combination with another remediation method. For example, Kohler et. al (2015) found that when seedlings were grown in soils contaminated from mine tailings, they were inoculated with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and when combined with compost, plant biomass increased by 64% compared to separate treatments or without any treatment at all<ref>Kohler, A., Kuo, A., Nagy, L. et al. Convergent losses of decay mechanisms and rapid turnover of symbiosis genes in mycorrhizal mutualists. Nat Genet 47, 410–415 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3223</ref>.<br />
===Community Gardens===<br />
Community gardens are a great way to increase food security by providing a healthy food source. Compost is often used in these gardens to fertilize plants and remediate soils that may contain heavy metals since community gardens are often utilized in city spaces where soils can be heavily contaminated. It is important to wear gloves and masks when handling contaminated soils.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11200
Composting
2023-05-12T17:00:50Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen<ref name = "UN">Misra, R. V., et al. On-Farm Composting Methods On-Farm Composting Methods. Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations, 2003.</ref> Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space<ref name = "WHO">Gotaas, Harold. “Composting: Sanitary Disposal and Reclamation of Organic Wastes.” World Health Organization Monograph Series, no. 31, Oct. 1956, pp. 57–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3506(56)80025-5.</ref> Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste<ref>Diakubama, Plamedi. Food Waste in American Households. Sept. 2021, pp. 1–12, scholarworks.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=alfie-conferences. Accessed 2022.</ref>Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does<ref name ="LL">Lin, Long, et al. “Improving the Sustainability of Organic Waste Management Practices in the Food-Energy-Water Nexus: A Comparative Review of Anaerobic Digestion and Composting.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 89, June 2018, pp. 151–167, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.025. </ref>.This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned <ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose. Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting<ref>US EPA. “Types of Composting and Understanding the Process | US EPA.” US EPA, 30 Apr. 2019, www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/types-composting-and-understanding-process.</ref>,<ref name="SEH">Salah El Haggar. Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management : Cradle-To-Cradle for Sustainable Development. Burlington, Elsevier Science, 2010.</ref>.<br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens<ref name = "LL"></ref> Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system<ref name = "barb">Pleasant, Barbara, and Deborah L Martin. The Complete Compost Gardening Guide. Storey Publishing, 1 Jan. 2008.</ref> E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines<ref>Hess, Thomas F., et al. “Heat Inactivation OfE. ColiDuring Manure Composting.” Compost Science & Utilization, vol. 12, no. 4, Sept. 2004, pp. 314–322, https://doi.org/10.1080/1065657x.2004.10702200. Accessed 11 May 2020.</ref> To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost<ref name = "barb></ref>.<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach<ref name = "LL"></ref>. This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)<Ref name = "camp">Bernal, M.P., et al. “Composting of Animal Manures and Chemical Criteria for Compost Maturity Assessment. A Review.” Bioresource Technology, vol. 100, no. 22, Nov. 2009, pp. 5444–5453, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.11.027. Accessed 18 Dec. 2019.</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall<ref name ="camp"></ref> If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests<ref name = "LL"></ref><br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun<ref name="SEH></ref><br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting<ref>Kumar, Anil, et al. “Potential of Vermicompost for Sustainable Crop Production and Soil Health Improvement in Different Cropping Systems.” International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, vol. 7, no. 10, 10 Oct. 2018, pp. 1042–1055, https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.710.116. Accessed 8 Apr. 2022.</ref> Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease<ref name = "camp"><ref><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration<ref name = "camp></ref>.</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Trench Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to do<br />
|Requires a lot of land space to dig trenches<br />
|-<br />
|Does not attract pests<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Helps plants' roots<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
Trench composting is easy to maintain and involves burying organic waste deep in the ground. This form of compost is odorless and doesn't attract pests since it is buried belowground. Meat products can also be included in this compost. Trench compost helps [[plant roots]] conserve water. This method isn't practical to be used often because a lot of land space is needed to constantly dig up holes<ref name = "LL></ref><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">In-vessel Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires knowledge of operating machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> In-vessel composting involves a large silo or drum where organic waste is added. It can store a lot more waste than other methods, but does require expensive machinery. The machinery also requires knowledge on operation of the equipment. This process is usually used in food processing plants and must be turned as well<ref name ="camp></ref>.</p><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
==Uses for Compost==<br />
Compost is used as fertilizer or potting soils in gardens. It also provides a solution to limiting landfill use and turns waste into a valuable product. Composting has been more recently used to remediate soils that have been contaminated by hazardous waste or heavy metals<ref> Farrell, Mark, and Davey L. Jones. “Use of Composts in the Remediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Soil.” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 175, no. 1-3, Mar. 2010, pp. 575–582, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.044. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019.</ref> Due to the microorganisms involved in compost and their decomposition abilities, compost is a useful remediation tool for degrading toxins<ref>Kumar, Vineet, et al. “Bioremediation: An Eco-Sustainable Approach for Restoration of Contaminated Sites.” Microbial Bioprospecting for Sustainable Development, 2018, pp. 115–136, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0053-0_6.</ref>Compost has shown to remediate heavy metals the best when in combination with another remediation method. For example, Kohler et. al (2015) found that when seedlings were grown in soils contaminated from mine tailings, they were inoculated with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and when combined with compost, plant biomass increased by 64% compared to separate treatments or without any treatment at all<ref>Kohler, A., Kuo, A., Nagy, L. et al. Convergent losses of decay mechanisms and rapid turnover of symbiosis genes in mycorrhizal mutualists. Nat Genet 47, 410–415 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3223</ref>.<br />
===Community Gardens===<br />
Community gardens are a great way to increase food security by providing a healthy food source. Compost is often used in these gardens to fertilize plants and remediate soils that may contain heavy metals since community gardens are often utilized in city spaces where soils can be heavily contaminated. It is important to wear gloves and masks when handling contaminated soils.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11199
Composting
2023-05-12T16:55:14Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen<ref name = "UN">Misra, R. V., et al. On-Farm Composting Methods On-Farm Composting Methods. Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations, 2003.</ref> Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space<ref name = "WHO">Gotaas, Harold. “Composting: Sanitary Disposal and Reclamation of Organic Wastes.” World Health Organization Monograph Series, no. 31, Oct. 1956, pp. 57–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3506(56)80025-5.</ref> Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste<ref>Diakubama, Plamedi. Food Waste in American Households. Sept. 2021, pp. 1–12, scholarworks.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=alfie-conferences. Accessed 2022.</ref>Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does<ref name ="LL">Lin, Long, et al. “Improving the Sustainability of Organic Waste Management Practices in the Food-Energy-Water Nexus: A Comparative Review of Anaerobic Digestion and Composting.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 89, June 2018, pp. 151–167, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.025. </ref>.This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned <ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose. Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting<ref>US EPA. “Types of Composting and Understanding the Process | US EPA.” US EPA, 30 Apr. 2019, www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/types-composting-and-understanding-process.</ref>,<ref name="SEH">Salah El Haggar. Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management : Cradle-To-Cradle for Sustainable Development. Burlington, Elsevier Science, 2010.</ref>.<br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens<ref name = "LL"></ref> Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system<ref name = "barb">Pleasant, Barbara, and Deborah L Martin. The Complete Compost Gardening Guide. Storey Publishing, 1 Jan. 2008.</ref> E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines<ref>Hess, Thomas F., et al. “Heat Inactivation OfE. ColiDuring Manure Composting.” Compost Science & Utilization, vol. 12, no. 4, Sept. 2004, pp. 314–322, https://doi.org/10.1080/1065657x.2004.10702200. Accessed 11 May 2020.</ref> To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost<ref name = "barb></ref>.<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach<ref name = "LL"></ref>. This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests<ref name = "LL"></ref><br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun<ref name="SEH></ref><br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting<ref>Kumar, Anil, et al. “Potential of Vermicompost for Sustainable Crop Production and Soil Health Improvement in Different Cropping Systems.” International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, vol. 7, no. 10, 10 Oct. 2018, pp. 1042–1055, https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.710.116. Accessed 8 Apr. 2022.</ref> Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease.[14]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Trench Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to do<br />
|Requires a lot of land space to dig trenches<br />
|-<br />
|Does not attract pests<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Helps plants' roots<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
Trench composting is easy to maintain and involves burying organic waste deep in the ground. This form of compost is odorless and doesn't attract pests since it is buried belowground. Meat products can also be included in this compost. Trench compost helps [[plant roots]] conserve water. This method isn't practical to be used often because a lot of land space is needed to constantly dig up holes<ref name = "LL></ref><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">In-vessel Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires knowledge of operating machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> In-vessel composting involves a large silo or drum where organic waste is added. It can store a lot more waste than other methods, but does require expensive machinery. The machinery also requires knowledge on operation of the equipment. This process is usually used in food processing plants and must be turned as well.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
==Uses for Compost==<br />
Compost is used as fertilizer or potting soils in gardens. It also provides a solution to limiting landfill use and turns waste into a valuable product. Composting has been more recently used to remediate soils that have been contaminated by hazardous waste or heavy metals<ref> Farrell, Mark, and Davey L. Jones. “Use of Composts in the Remediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Soil.” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 175, no. 1-3, Mar. 2010, pp. 575–582, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.044. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019.</ref> Due to the microorganisms involved in compost and their decomposition abilities, compost is a useful remediation tool for degrading toxins<ref>Kumar, Vineet, et al. “Bioremediation: An Eco-Sustainable Approach for Restoration of Contaminated Sites.” Microbial Bioprospecting for Sustainable Development, 2018, pp. 115–136, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0053-0_6.</ref>Compost has shown to remediate heavy metals the best when in combination with another remediation method. For example, Kohler et. al (2015) found that when seedlings were grown in soils contaminated from mine tailings, they were inoculated with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and when combined with compost, plant biomass increased by 64% compared to separate treatments or without any treatment at all<ref>Kohler, A., Kuo, A., Nagy, L. et al. Convergent losses of decay mechanisms and rapid turnover of symbiosis genes in mycorrhizal mutualists. Nat Genet 47, 410–415 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3223</ref>.<br />
===Community Gardens===<br />
Community gardens are a great way to increase food security by providing a healthy food source. Compost is often used in these gardens to fertilize plants and remediate soils that may contain heavy metals since community gardens are often utilized in city spaces where soils can be heavily contaminated. It is important to wear gloves and masks when handling contaminated soils.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11198
Composting
2023-05-12T16:54:33Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen<ref name = "UN">Misra, R. V., et al. On-Farm Composting Methods On-Farm Composting Methods. Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations, 2003.</ref> Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space<ref name = "WHO">Gotaas, Harold. “Composting: Sanitary Disposal and Reclamation of Organic Wastes.” World Health Organization Monograph Series, no. 31, Oct. 1956, pp. 57–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3506(56)80025-5.</ref> Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste<ref>Diakubama, Plamedi. Food Waste in American Households. Sept. 2021, pp. 1–12, scholarworks.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=alfie-conferences. Accessed 2022.</ref>Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does<ref name ="LL">Lin, Long, et al. “Improving the Sustainability of Organic Waste Management Practices in the Food-Energy-Water Nexus: A Comparative Review of Anaerobic Digestion and Composting.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 89, June 2018, pp. 151–167, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.025. </ref>.This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned <ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose. Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting<ref>US EPA. “Types of Composting and Understanding the Process | US EPA.” US EPA, 30 Apr. 2019, www.epa.gov/sustainable-management-food/types-composting-and-understanding-process.</ref>,<ref name="SEH"Salah El Haggar. Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management : Cradle-To-Cradle for Sustainable Development. Burlington, Elsevier Science, 2010.</ref>.<br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens<ref name = "LL"></ref> Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system<ref name = "barb">Pleasant, Barbara, and Deborah L Martin. The Complete Compost Gardening Guide. Storey Publishing, 1 Jan. 2008.</ref> E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines<ref>Hess, Thomas F., et al. “Heat Inactivation OfE. ColiDuring Manure Composting.” Compost Science & Utilization, vol. 12, no. 4, Sept. 2004, pp. 314–322, https://doi.org/10.1080/1065657x.2004.10702200. Accessed 11 May 2020.</ref> To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost<ref name = "barb></ref>.<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach<ref name = "LL"></ref>. This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests<ref name = "LL"></ref><br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun<ref name="SEH></ref><br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting<ref>Kumar, Anil, et al. “Potential of Vermicompost for Sustainable Crop Production and Soil Health Improvement in Different Cropping Systems.” International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, vol. 7, no. 10, 10 Oct. 2018, pp. 1042–1055, https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.710.116. Accessed 8 Apr. 2022.</ref> Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease.[14]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Trench Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to do<br />
|Requires a lot of land space to dig trenches<br />
|-<br />
|Does not attract pests<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Helps plants' roots<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
Trench composting is easy to maintain and involves burying organic waste deep in the ground. This form of compost is odorless and doesn't attract pests since it is buried belowground. Meat products can also be included in this compost. Trench compost helps [[plant roots]] conserve water. This method isn't practical to be used often because a lot of land space is needed to constantly dig up holes<ref name = "LL></ref><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">In-vessel Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires knowledge of operating machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> In-vessel composting involves a large silo or drum where organic waste is added. It can store a lot more waste than other methods, but does require expensive machinery. The machinery also requires knowledge on operation of the equipment. This process is usually used in food processing plants and must be turned as well.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
==Uses for Compost==<br />
Compost is used as fertilizer or potting soils in gardens. It also provides a solution to limiting landfill use and turns waste into a valuable product. Composting has been more recently used to remediate soils that have been contaminated by hazardous waste or heavy metals<ref> Farrell, Mark, and Davey L. Jones. “Use of Composts in the Remediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Soil.” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 175, no. 1-3, Mar. 2010, pp. 575–582, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.044. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019.</ref> Due to the microorganisms involved in compost and their decomposition abilities, compost is a useful remediation tool for degrading toxins<ref>Kumar, Vineet, et al. “Bioremediation: An Eco-Sustainable Approach for Restoration of Contaminated Sites.” Microbial Bioprospecting for Sustainable Development, 2018, pp. 115–136, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0053-0_6.</ref>Compost has shown to remediate heavy metals the best when in combination with another remediation method. For example, Kohler et. al (2015) found that when seedlings were grown in soils contaminated from mine tailings, they were inoculated with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and when combined with compost, plant biomass increased by 64% compared to separate treatments or without any treatment at all<ref>Kohler, A., Kuo, A., Nagy, L. et al. Convergent losses of decay mechanisms and rapid turnover of symbiosis genes in mycorrhizal mutualists. Nat Genet 47, 410–415 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3223</ref>.<br />
===Community Gardens===<br />
Community gardens are a great way to increase food security by providing a healthy food source. Compost is often used in these gardens to fertilize plants and remediate soils that may contain heavy metals since community gardens are often utilized in city spaces where soils can be heavily contaminated. It is important to wear gloves and masks when handling contaminated soils.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11191
Composting
2023-05-12T16:50:21Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen<ref name = "UN">Misra, R. V., et al. On-Farm Composting Methods On-Farm Composting Methods. Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations, 2003.</ref> Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space<ref name = "WHO">Gotaas, Harold. “Composting: Sanitary Disposal and Reclamation of Organic Wastes.” World Health Organization Monograph Series, no. 31, Oct. 1956, pp. 57–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3506(56)80025-5.</ref> Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste<ref>Diakubama, Plamedi. Food Waste in American Households. Sept. 2021, pp. 1–12, scholarworks.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=alfie-conferences. Accessed 2022.</ref>Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does<ref name ="LL">Lin, Long, et al. “Improving the Sustainability of Organic Waste Management Practices in the Food-Energy-Water Nexus: A Comparative Review of Anaerobic Digestion and Composting.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 89, June 2018, pp. 151–167, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.025. </ref>.This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned <ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose. Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting.[12],[13] <br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens<ref name = "LL"></ref> Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system<ref name = "barb">Pleasant, Barbara, and Deborah L Martin. The Complete Compost Gardening Guide. Storey Publishing, 1 Jan. 2008.</ref> E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines<ref>Hess, Thomas F., et al. “Heat Inactivation OfE. ColiDuring Manure Composting.” Compost Science & Utilization, vol. 12, no. 4, Sept. 2004, pp. 314–322, https://doi.org/10.1080/1065657x.2004.10702200. Accessed 11 May 2020.</ref> To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost<ref name = "barb></ref>.<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach<ref name = "LL"></ref>. This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests<ref name = "LL"></ref><br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun.[13]<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting<ref>Kumar, Anil, et al. “Potential of Vermicompost for Sustainable Crop Production and Soil Health Improvement in Different Cropping Systems.” International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, vol. 7, no. 10, 10 Oct. 2018, pp. 1042–1055, https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.710.116. Accessed 8 Apr. 2022.</ref> Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease.[14]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Trench Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to do<br />
|Requires a lot of land space to dig trenches<br />
|-<br />
|Does not attract pests<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Helps plants' roots<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
Trench composting is easy to maintain and involves burying organic waste deep in the ground. This form of compost is odorless and doesn't attract pests since it is buried belowground. Meat products can also be included in this compost. Trench compost helps [[plant roots]] conserve water. This method isn't practical to be used often because a lot of land space is needed to constantly dig up holes<ref name = "LL></ref><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">In-vessel Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires knowledge of operating machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> In-vessel composting involves a large silo or drum where organic waste is added. It can store a lot more waste than other methods, but does require expensive machinery. The machinery also requires knowledge on operation of the equipment. This process is usually used in food processing plants and must be turned as well.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
==Uses for Compost==<br />
Compost is used as fertilizer or potting soils in gardens. It also provides a solution to limiting landfill use and turns waste into a valuable product. Composting has been more recently used to remediate soils that have been contaminated by hazardous waste or heavy metals<ref> Farrell, Mark, and Davey L. Jones. “Use of Composts in the Remediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Soil.” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 175, no. 1-3, Mar. 2010, pp. 575–582, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.044. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019.</ref> Due to the microorganisms involved in compost and their decomposition abilities, compost is a useful remediation tool for degrading toxins<ref>Kumar, Vineet, et al. “Bioremediation: An Eco-Sustainable Approach for Restoration of Contaminated Sites.” Microbial Bioprospecting for Sustainable Development, 2018, pp. 115–136, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0053-0_6.</ref>Compost has shown to remediate heavy metals the best when in combination with another remediation method. For example, Kohler et. al (2015) found that when seedlings were grown in soils contaminated from mine tailings, they were inoculated with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and when combined with compost, plant biomass increased by 64% compared to separate treatments or without any treatment at all<ref>Kohler, A., Kuo, A., Nagy, L. et al. Convergent losses of decay mechanisms and rapid turnover of symbiosis genes in mycorrhizal mutualists. Nat Genet 47, 410–415 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3223</ref>.<br />
===Community Gardens===<br />
Community gardens are a great way to increase food security by providing a healthy food source. Compost is often used in these gardens to fertilize plants and remediate soils that may contain heavy metals since community gardens are often utilized in city spaces where soils can be heavily contaminated. It is important to wear gloves and masks when handling contaminated soils.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11186
Composting
2023-05-12T16:48:48Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen<ref name = "UN">Misra, R. V., et al. On-Farm Composting Methods On-Farm Composting Methods. Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations, 2003.</ref> Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space<ref name = "WHO">Gotaas, Harold. “Composting: Sanitary Disposal and Reclamation of Organic Wastes.” World Health Organization Monograph Series, no. 31, Oct. 1956, pp. 57–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3506(56)80025-5.</ref> Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste<ref>Diakubama, Plamedi. Food Waste in American Households. Sept. 2021, pp. 1–12, scholarworks.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=alfie-conferences. Accessed 2022.</ref>Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does<ref name ="LL">Lin, Long, et al. “Improving the Sustainability of Organic Waste Management Practices in the Food-Energy-Water Nexus: A Comparative Review of Anaerobic Digestion and Composting.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 89, June 2018, pp. 151–167, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.025. </ref>.This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned <ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose. Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting.[12],[13] <br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens<ref name = "LL"></ref> Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system<ref name = "barb">Pleasant, Barbara, and Deborah L Martin. The Complete Compost Gardening Guide. Storey Publishing, 1 Jan. 2008.</ref> E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines<ref>Hess, Thomas F., et al. “Heat Inactivation OfE. ColiDuring Manure Composting.” Compost Science & Utilization, vol. 12, no. 4, Sept. 2004, pp. 314–322, https://doi.org/10.1080/1065657x.2004.10702200. Accessed 11 May 2020.</ref> To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost<ref name = "barb></ref>.<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach<ref name = "LL"></ref>. This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests<ref name = "LL"></ref><br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun.[13]<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting<ref>Kumar, Anil, et al. “Potential of Vermicompost for Sustainable Crop Production and Soil Health Improvement in Different Cropping Systems.” International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, vol. 7, no. 10, 10 Oct. 2018, pp. 1042–1055, https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.710.116. Accessed 8 Apr. 2022.</ref> Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease.[14]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Trench Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to do<br />
|Requires a lot of land space to dig trenches<br />
|-<br />
|Does not attract pests<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Helps plants' roots<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
Trench composting is easy to maintain and involves burying organic waste deep in the ground. This form of compost is odorless and doesn't attract pests since it is buried belowground. Meat products can also be included in this compost. Trench compost helps [[plant roots]] conserve water. This method isn't practical to be used often because a lot of land space is needed to constantly dig up holes<ref name = "LL></ref><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">In-vessel Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires knowledge of operating machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> In-vessel composting involves a large silo or drum where organic waste is added. It can store a lot more waste than other methods, but does require expensive machinery. The machinery also requires knowledge on operation of the equipment. This process is usually used in food processing plants and must be turned as well.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
==Uses for Compost==<br />
Compost is used as fertilizer or potting soils in gardens. It also provides a solution to limiting landfill use and turns waste into a valuable product. Composting has been more recently used to remediate soils that have been contaminated by hazardous waste or heavy metals<ref> Farrell, Mark, and Davey L. Jones. “Use of Composts in the Remediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Soil.” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 175, no. 1-3, Mar. 2010, pp. 575–582, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.044. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019.</ref> Due to the microorganisms involved in compost and their decomposition abilities, compost is a useful remediation tool for degrading toxins<ref>Kumar, Vineet, et al. “Bioremediation: An Eco-Sustainable Approach for Restoration of Contaminated Sites.” Microbial Bioprospecting for Sustainable Development, 2018, pp. 115–136, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0053-0_6.</ref>Compost has shown to remediate heavy metals the best when in combination with another remediation method. For example, Kohler et. al (2015) found that when seedlings were grown in soils contaminated from mine tailings, they were inoculated with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and when combined with compost, plant biomass increased by 64% compared to separate treatments or without any treatment at all.[11]<br />
===Community Gardens===<br />
Community gardens are a great way to increase food security by providing a healthy food source. Compost is often used in these gardens to fertilize plants and remediate soils that may contain heavy metals since community gardens are often utilized in city spaces where soils can be heavily contaminated. It is important to wear gloves and masks when handling contaminated soils.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11184
Composting
2023-05-12T16:47:24Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen<ref name = "UN">Misra, R. V., et al. On-Farm Composting Methods On-Farm Composting Methods. Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations, 2003.</ref> Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space<ref name = "WHO">Gotaas, Harold. “Composting: Sanitary Disposal and Reclamation of Organic Wastes.” World Health Organization Monograph Series, no. 31, Oct. 1956, pp. 57–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3506(56)80025-5.</ref> Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste<ref>Diakubama, Plamedi. Food Waste in American Households. Sept. 2021, pp. 1–12, scholarworks.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=alfie-conferences. Accessed 2022.</ref>Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does<ref name ="LL">Lin, Long, et al. “Improving the Sustainability of Organic Waste Management Practices in the Food-Energy-Water Nexus: A Comparative Review of Anaerobic Digestion and Composting.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 89, June 2018, pp. 151–167, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.025. </ref>.This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned <ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose. Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting.[12],[13] <br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens<ref name = "LL"></ref> Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system<ref name = "barb">Pleasant, Barbara, and Deborah L Martin. The Complete Compost Gardening Guide. Storey Publishing, 1 Jan. 2008.</ref> E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines<ref>Hess, Thomas F., et al. “Heat Inactivation OfE. ColiDuring Manure Composting.” Compost Science & Utilization, vol. 12, no. 4, Sept. 2004, pp. 314–322, https://doi.org/10.1080/1065657x.2004.10702200. Accessed 11 May 2020.</ref> To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost<ref name = "barb></ref>.<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach<ref name = "LL"></ref>. This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests<ref name = "LL"></ref><br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun.[13]<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting<ref>Kumar, Anil, et al. “Potential of Vermicompost for Sustainable Crop Production and Soil Health Improvement in Different Cropping Systems.” International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, vol. 7, no. 10, 10 Oct. 2018, pp. 1042–1055, https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.710.116. Accessed 8 Apr. 2022.</ref> Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease.[14]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Trench Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to do<br />
|Requires a lot of land space to dig trenches<br />
|-<br />
|Does not attract pests<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Helps plants' roots<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
Trench composting is easy to maintain and involves burying organic waste deep in the ground. This form of compost is odorless and doesn't attract pests since it is buried belowground. Meat products can also be included in this compost. Trench compost helps [[plant roots]] conserve water. This method isn't practical to be used often because a lot of land space is needed to constantly dig up holes<ref name = "LL></ref><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">In-vessel Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires knowledge of operating machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> In-vessel composting involves a large silo or drum where organic waste is added. It can store a lot more waste than other methods, but does require expensive machinery. The machinery also requires knowledge on operation of the equipment. This process is usually used in food processing plants and must be turned as well.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
==Uses for Compost==<br />
Compost is used as fertilizer or potting soils in gardens. It also provides a solution to limiting landfill use and turns waste into a valuable product. Composting has been more recently used to remediate soils that have been contaminated by hazardous waste or heavy metals.[10] Due to the microorganisms involved in compost and their decomposition abilities, compost is a useful remediation tool for degrading toxins<ref>Kumar, Vineet, et al. “Bioremediation: An Eco-Sustainable Approach for Restoration of Contaminated Sites.” Microbial Bioprospecting for Sustainable Development, 2018, pp. 115–136, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0053-0_6.</ref>Compost has shown to remediate heavy metals the best when in combination with another remediation method. For example, Kohler et. al (2015) found that when seedlings were grown in soils contaminated from mine tailings, they were inoculated with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and when combined with compost, plant biomass increased by 64% compared to separate treatments or without any treatment at all.[11]<br />
===Community Gardens===<br />
Community gardens are a great way to increase food security by providing a healthy food source. Compost is often used in these gardens to fertilize plants and remediate soils that may contain heavy metals since community gardens are often utilized in city spaces where soils can be heavily contaminated. It is important to wear gloves and masks when handling contaminated soils.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11179
Composting
2023-05-12T16:38:58Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen<ref name = "UN">Misra, R. V., et al. On-Farm Composting Methods On-Farm Composting Methods. Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations, 2003.</ref> Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space<ref name = "WHO">Gotaas, Harold. “Composting: Sanitary Disposal and Reclamation of Organic Wastes.” World Health Organization Monograph Series, no. 31, Oct. 1956, pp. 57–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3506(56)80025-5.</ref> Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste<ref>Diakubama, Plamedi. Food Waste in American Households. Sept. 2021, pp. 1–12, scholarworks.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=alfie-conferences. Accessed 2022.</ref>Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases<ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does.[9] This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned ref name = "WHO"></ref>. Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose.[9] Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting.[12],[13] <br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens.[9] Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system<ref name = "barb">Pleasant, Barbara, and Deborah L Martin. The Complete Compost Gardening Guide. Storey Publishing, 1 Jan. 2008.</ref> E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines.[6] To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost<ref name = "barb></ref>.<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach.[9] This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchasedref name = "WHO"></ref>. With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests.[9]<br />
<br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun.[13]<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting.[8] Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease.[14]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Trench Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to do<br />
|Requires a lot of land space to dig trenches<br />
|-<br />
|Does not attract pests<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Helps plants' roots<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
Trench composting is easy to maintain and involves burying organic waste deep in the ground. This form of compost is odorless and doesn't attract pests since it is buried belowground. Meat products can also be included in this compost. Trench compost helps [[plant roots]] conserve water. This method isn't practical to be used often because a lot of land space is needed to constantly dig up holes.[9]<br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">In-vessel Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires knowledge of operating machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> In-vessel composting involves a large silo or drum where organic waste is added. It can store a lot more waste than other methods, but does require expensive machinery. The machinery also requires knowledge on operation of the equipment. This process is usually used in food processing plants and must be turned as well.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
==Uses for Compost==<br />
Compost is used as fertilizer or potting soils in gardens. It also provides a solution to limiting landfill use and turns waste into a valuable product. Composting has been more recently used to remediate soils that have been contaminated by hazardous waste or heavy metals.[10] Due to the microorganisms involved in compost and their decomposition abilities, compost is a useful remediation tool for degrading toxins.[5] Compost has shown to remediate heavy metals the best when in combination with another remediation method. For example, Kohler et. al (2015) found that when seedlings were grown in soils contaminated from mine tailings, they were inoculated with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and when combined with compost, plant biomass increased by 64% compared to separate treatments or without any treatment at all.[11]<br />
===Community Gardens===<br />
Community gardens are a great way to increase food security by providing a healthy food source. Compost is often used in these gardens to fertilize plants and remediate soils that may contain heavy metals since community gardens are often utilized in city spaces where soils can be heavily contaminated. It is important to wear gloves and masks when handling contaminated soils.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11170
Composting
2023-05-12T16:34:10Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen<ref name = "UN">Misra, R. V., et al. On-Farm Composting Methods On-Farm Composting Methods. Food and [[Agriculture]] Organization of the United Nations, 2003.</ref> Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space.[3] Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste<ref>Diakubama, Plamedi. Food Waste in American Households. Sept. 2021, pp. 1–12, scholarworks.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=alfie-conferences. Accessed 2022.</ref>Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases.[3] Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does.[9] This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned.[3] Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose.[9] Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting.[12],[13] <br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens.[9] Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system<ref name = "barb">Pleasant, Barbara, and Deborah L Martin. The Complete Compost Gardening Guide. Storey Publishing, 1 Jan. 2008.</ref> E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines.[6] To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost<ref name = "barb></ref>.<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach.[9] This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased.[3] With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it<ref name = "UN"></ref>. Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests.[9]<br />
<br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun.[13]<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting.[8] Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease.[14]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Trench Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to do<br />
|Requires a lot of land space to dig trenches<br />
|-<br />
|Does not attract pests<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Helps plants' roots<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
Trench composting is easy to maintain and involves burying organic waste deep in the ground. This form of compost is odorless and doesn't attract pests since it is buried belowground. Meat products can also be included in this compost. Trench compost helps [[plant roots]] conserve water. This method isn't practical to be used often because a lot of land space is needed to constantly dig up holes.[9]<br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">In-vessel Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires knowledge of operating machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> In-vessel composting involves a large silo or drum where organic waste is added. It can store a lot more waste than other methods, but does require expensive machinery. The machinery also requires knowledge on operation of the equipment. This process is usually used in food processing plants and must be turned as well.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
==Uses for Compost==<br />
Compost is used as fertilizer or potting soils in gardens. It also provides a solution to limiting landfill use and turns waste into a valuable product. Composting has been more recently used to remediate soils that have been contaminated by hazardous waste or heavy metals.[10] Due to the microorganisms involved in compost and their decomposition abilities, compost is a useful remediation tool for degrading toxins.[5] Compost has shown to remediate heavy metals the best when in combination with another remediation method. For example, Kohler et. al (2015) found that when seedlings were grown in soils contaminated from mine tailings, they were inoculated with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and when combined with compost, plant biomass increased by 64% compared to separate treatments or without any treatment at all.[11]<br />
===Community Gardens===<br />
Community gardens are a great way to increase food security by providing a healthy food source. Compost is often used in these gardens to fertilize plants and remediate soils that may contain heavy metals since community gardens are often utilized in city spaces where soils can be heavily contaminated. It is important to wear gloves and masks when handling contaminated soils.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Liverwort&diff=11146
Liverwort
2023-05-12T16:12:13Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Liverworts</b> are a class of terrestrial, non-vascular plants that can be found globally and consist of nearly 7000 species. They are primitive bryophytes which requires them to use diffusion for means of acquiring water. They most commonly grow in moist, shaded areas such as damp rocks, [[soil]], or tree trunks <ref name = "B"> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Apr. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. Liverworts absorb water through mucilage<ref name= "ANBG"> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> which can be produced externally in slime papillae or internally in slime cells. This occurs at the growing point to prevent them from getting dehydrated. Liverworts serve as a source of food for [[animals]] and aid in the decay of logs and rocks. <br />
<br />
Liverworts can be categorized into 2 groups: <b>thallose liverworts</b> or <b>leafy liverworts</b> <ref name = "LFG"> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on their growth form. All liverworts have chloroplasts and 90% have oil bodies <ref name = "ANBG"> </ref>. The functions of these oils bodies are widely unknown but vary in size and shape which makes for a great identification tool along with the specific aroma and taste they create. <br />
<br />
== Thallose Liverworts ==<br />
<b> Thallose liverworts </b> grow in a flat structure, with rubbery leaves and can be found on soils with high moisture or damp rocks. The structure is formed by <b> thallus </b> which is a mass of uniform flattened cells, except for the capsules which contain sporophytes. Early species had thick and opaque structures but currently, the appearance of thallose liverworts can vary from thick and opaque to thin and clear <ref name = "LFG"></ref> depending on the genus. In some species, the thallus can also form branches that grow in a 'Y' formation. <br />
<br />
=== Complex Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Complex thallose liverworts </b> have thalli where the thallus contains photosynthetic cells with tiny pores that lead to air chambers <ref name = "TH"> Thallose liverworts, Lepp, Heino. Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/liverwort-thalose.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. These pores are similar to stomata but are unable to be opened or closed and look like white dots on the upper thallus. Their main purpose is for gaseous exchange but cell functions within the thalli can be different depending on the species. <br />
The underside of the thallus is used to store water and nutrients, which makes these liverworts more drought-tolerant. Rhizoids are brown in color and are found on the center of the underside in packs<ref name = "BB">Basic Biology: An Introduction, Purcell, Adam. 19 May 2018.</ref>. They vary in shape but are essential for water absorption as they anchor the thallus.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom<br />
! Division<br />
! Class<br />
! Order<br />
! Family<br />
! Genus<br />
! Species<br />
! <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="5" | Plantae<br />
| rowspan="5" | Marchantiophyta<br />
| rowspan="5" | Marchantiopsida<br />
| rowspan="5" | Marchantiales<br />
| rowspan="3" | <i>Marchantiaceae</i><br />
| rowspan="3" | <i>Marchantia</i><br />
| <i> M. berteroana </i><br />
| [[File:Berteroana.jpeg|200px|Photo, Gordon KA Dickinson]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i> M. polymorpha </i><br />
| [[File:polymorpha.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i> M. tenella </i> <br />
| [[File:tenella.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i>Lunalariaceae</i><br />
| <i>Lunalaria</i><br />
| <i> L. cruciata </i><br />
| [[File:lunalaria.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i>Ricciaceae</i><br />
| <i>Riccia</i><br />
| <i> R. limbata </i><br />
| [[File:limbata.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Simple Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Simple thallose liverworts </b> have thin thalli (typically 1 cell thick) that can be translucent. They don't have any differentiation in cell function which is what makes them different from complex thallose liverworts. They also don't have raised gametangia as it's produced on the underside of the tissue.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom<br />
! Division<br />
! Class<br />
! Order<br />
! Family<br />
! Genus<br />
! Species<br />
! <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="4" | Plantae<br />
| rowspan="4" | Hepaticophyta<br />
| rowspan="4" | Jungermanniopsida<br />
| rowspan="3" | Jungermanniales<br />
| rowspan="2" | <i>Aneuraceae</i><br />
| rowspan="2" | <i>Riccardia</i><br />
| <i> R. latifrons </i><br />
| [[File:latifrons.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i> R. chamedryfolia </i><br />
| [[File:Chamedryfolia.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i>Pelliaceae</i><br />
| <i>Pellia</i><br />
| <i> P. epiphylla</i><br />
| [[File:Epiphylla.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| Blasiales<br />
| <i>Blasiaceae</i><br />
| <i>Blasia</i><br />
| <i> B. pusilla</i><br />
| [[File:pusilla.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|}<br />
== Leafy Liverworts == <br />
<b>Leafy liverworts </b> bear a similar resemblance to mosses and ferns as they have small leaves that overlap each other and grow in pairs on their stems. The leaves are quite small and are only ~1 mm in size with a single cell layer. The upper 2 layers of leaves are designed to be larger and are called <b> lateral leaves</b>. The <b>underleaves</b> are found on the underside and are smaller. Leafy liverworts are more common than thallose liverworts <ref name = "TH"> </ref> as they have more species and are often found in home gardens and public parks. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom<br />
! Division<br />
! Class<br />
! Order<br />
! Family<br />
! Genus<br />
! Species<br />
! <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="4" | Plantae<br />
| rowspan="4" | Hepaticophyta<br />
| rowspan="4" | Jungermanniopsida<br />
| rowspan="3" | Jungermanniales<br />
| rowspan="1" | <i>Geocalycaceae</i><br />
| rowspan="1" | <i>Geocalyx</i><br />
| <i> G. Graveolens </i><br />
| [[File:graveolens.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i>Scapaniaceae</i><br />
|<i>Scapania</i><br />
| <i> S. saxicola</i><br />
| [[File:saxicola.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
|<i>Lophocoleaceae</i><br />
|<i> Lophoecolea </i><br />
|<i> L. heterophylla </i><br />
| [[File:lophocolea.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| Ptilidiales<br />
| <i>Ptilidiaceae</i><br />
| <i> Ptilidium </i><br />
| <i>P. ciliare</i><br />
| [[File:ciliare.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Life Cycle ==<br />
Since liverworts do not have a vascular system, they reproduce through a small, ephemeral sporophyte <ref name = "ANBG"> </ref>. The sporophyte is a diploid, which is formed when the zygote is fertilized and separates mitotically <ref name = "PS"> Plant Systematics (Second Edition), Simpson, Michael G.. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374380-0.50003-8. Accessed May 07, 2023. </ref>. Haploid cells are released from the sporangium all at once and are distributed by wind or water, where they germinate into thalli gametophytes. <br />
<br />
The sporangia doesn't survive for much longer after dispersal. The gametophytes fall onto different plants, attaching themselves to individual plants, where male and female gametangia<Ref>Phephu, N. (2012, April). Marchantia berteroana . Pza.sanbi.org; South African National Biodiversity Institute. https://pza.sanbi.org/marchantia-berteroana</ref> develop as most liverworts are dioecious. Once developed, male gametes will fertilize the female gametangium to create a zygote. This zygote will stay attached to the parent while forming into a sporophyte and create it's own spore-producing cells. The sporangium has a protective case <ref> Campbell, Douglas Houghton. “The Classification of the Liverworts.” The American Naturalist, vol. 46, no. 551, Nov. 1912, pp. 684–695, https://doi.org/10.1086/279318. Accessed 1 May 2023.</ref>around it called a <b> calyptra </b> that only young plants typically retain. Once these cells undergo meiosis, they will form spores, and thus restart the cycle.<br />
<br />
Some thalloid liverworts reproduce asexually through gemmae cups. Gemmae cups produce gemmae which form new plants through diaspores. They are carried through water droplets when they fall into the gemmae cup. This will produce a plant that is identical to the parent plant.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Liverwort&diff=11092
Liverwort
2023-05-12T05:30:25Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Liverworts</b> are a class of terrestrial, non-vascular plants that can be found globally and consist of nearly 7000 species. They most commonly grow in moist, shaded areas such as damp rocks, [[soil]], or tree trunks <ref name = "B"> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Apr. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. Liverworts absorb water through mucilage<ref name= "ANBG"> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> which can be produced externally in slime papillae or internally in slime cells. This occurs at the growing point to prevent them from getting dehydrated. Liverworts serve as a source of food for [[animals]] and aid in the decay of logs and rocks. <br />
<br />
Liverworts can be categorized into 2 groups: <b>thallose liverworts</b> or <b>leafy liverworts</b> <ref name = "LFG"> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on their growth form. All liverworts have chloroplasts and 90% have oil bodies <ref name = "ANBG"> </ref>. The functions of these oils bodies are widely unknown but vary in size and shape which makes for a great identification tool along with the specific aroma and taste they create. <br />
<br />
== Thallose Liverworts ==<br />
<b> Thallose liverworts </b> grow in a flat structure, with rubbery leaves and can be found on soils with high moisture or damp rocks. The structure is formed by <b> thallus </b> which is a mass of uniform flattened cells, except for the capsules which contain sporophytes. Early species had thick and opaque structures but currently, the appearance of thallose liverworts can vary from thick and opaque to thin and clear <ref name = "LFG"></ref> depending on the genus. In some species, the thallus can also form branches that grow in a 'Y' formation. <br />
<br />
=== Complex Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Complex thallose liverworts </b> have thalli where the thallus contains photosynthetic cells with tiny pores that lead to air chambers <ref name = "TH"> Thallose liverworts, Lepp, Heino. Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/liverwort-thalose.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. These pores are similar to stomata but are unable to be opened or closed and look like white dots on the upper thallus. Their main purpose is for gaseous exchange but cell functions within the thalli can be different depending on the species. <br />
The underside of the thallus is used to store water and nutrients, which makes these liverworts more drought-tolerant. Rhizoids are brown in color and are found on the center of the underside in packs<ref name = "BB">Basic Biology: An Introduction, Purcell, Adam. 19 May 2018.</ref>. They vary in shape but are essential for water absorption as they anchor the thallus.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom<br />
! Division<br />
! Class<br />
! Order<br />
! Family<br />
! Genus<br />
! Species<br />
! <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="5" | Plantae<br />
| rowspan="5" | Marchantiophyta<br />
| rowspan="5" | Marchantiopsida<br />
| rowspan="5" | Marchantiales<br />
| rowspan="3" | <i>Marchantiaceae</i><br />
| rowspan="3" | <i>Marchantia</i><br />
| <i> M. berteroana </i><br />
| [[File:Berteroana.jpeg|200px|Photo, Gordon KA Dickinson]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i> M. polymorpha </i><br />
| [[File:polymorpha.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i> M. tenella </i> <br />
| [[File:tenella.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i>Lunalariaceae</i><br />
| <i>Lunalaria</i><br />
| <i> L. cruciata </i><br />
| [[File:lunalaria.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i>Ricciaceae</i><br />
| <i>Riccia</i><br />
| <i> R. limbata </i><br />
| [[File:limbata.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Simple Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Simple thallose liverworts </b> have thin thalli (typically 1 cell thick) that can be translucent. They don't have any differentiation in cell function which is what makes them different from complex thallose liverworts. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom<br />
! Division<br />
! Class<br />
! Order<br />
! Family<br />
! Genus<br />
! Species<br />
! <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="4" | Plantae<br />
| rowspan="4" | Hepaticophyta<br />
| rowspan="4" | Jungermanniopsida<br />
| rowspan="3" | Jungermanniales<br />
| rowspan="2" | <i>Aneuraceae</i><br />
| rowspan="2" | <i>Riccardia</i><br />
| <i> R. latifrons </i><br />
| [[File:latifrons.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i> R. chamedryfolia </i><br />
| [[File:Chamedryfolia.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i>Pelliaceae</i><br />
| <i>Pellia</i><br />
| <i> P. epiphylla</i><br />
| [[File:Epiphylla.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| Blasiales<br />
| <i>Blasiaceae</i><br />
| <i>Blasia</i><br />
| <i> B. pusilla</i><br />
| [[File:pusilla.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|}<br />
== Leafy Liverworts == <br />
<b>Leafy liverworts </b> bear a similar resemblance to mosses and ferns as they have small leaves that overlap each other and grow in pairs on their stems. The leaves are quite small and are only ~1 mm in size with a single cell layer. The upper 2 layers of leaves are designed to be larger and are called <b> lateral leaves</b>. The <b>underleaves</b> are found on the underside and are smaller. Leafy liverworts are more common than thallose liverworts <ref name = "TH"> </ref> as they have more species and are often found in home gardens and public parks. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom<br />
! Division<br />
! Class<br />
! Order<br />
! Family<br />
! Genus<br />
! Species<br />
! <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="4" | Plantae<br />
| rowspan="4" | Hepaticophyta<br />
| rowspan="4" | Jungermanniopsida<br />
| rowspan="3" | Jungermanniales<br />
| rowspan="1" | <i>Geocalycaceae</i><br />
| rowspan="1" | <i>Geocalyx</i><br />
| <i> G. Graveolens </i><br />
| [[File:graveolens.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| <i>Scapaniaceae</i><br />
|<i>Scapania</i><br />
| <i> S. saxicola</i><br />
| [[File:saxicola.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
|<i>Lophocoleaceae</i><br />
|<i> Lophoecolea </i><br />
|<i> L. heterophylla </i><br />
| [[File:lophocolea.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|-<br />
| Ptilidiales<br />
| <i>Ptilidiaceae</i><br />
| <i> Ptilidium </i><br />
| <i>P. ciliare</i><br />
| [[File:ciliare.jpeg|200px]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Life Cycle ==<br />
Since liverworts do not have a vascular system, they reproduce through a small, ephemeral sporophyte <ref name = "ANBG"> </ref>. The sporophyte is a diploid, which is formed when the zygote is fertilized and separates mitotically <ref name = "PS"> Plant Systematics (Second Edition), Simpson, Michael G.. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374380-0.50003-8. Accessed May 07, 2023. </ref>. Haploid cells are released from the sporangium all at once and are distributed by wind or water, where they germinate into thalli gametophytes. <br />
<br />
The sporangia doesn't survive for much longer after dispersal. The gametophytes fall onto different plants, attaching themselves to individual plants, where male and female gametangia<Ref>Phephu, N. (2012, April). Marchantia berteroana . Pza.sanbi.org; South African National Biodiversity Institute. https://pza.sanbi.org/marchantia-berteroana</ref> develop. Once developed, male gametes will fertilize the female gametangium to create a zygote. This zygote will stay attached to the parent while forming into a sporophyte and create it's own spore-producing cells. Once these cells undergo meiosis, they will form spores, and thus restart the cycle.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Saxicola.jpeg&diff=11091
File:Saxicola.jpeg
2023-05-12T05:28:43Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Ciliare.jpeg&diff=11090
File:Ciliare.jpeg
2023-05-12T05:16:43Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Graveolens.jpeg&diff=11089
File:Graveolens.jpeg
2023-05-12T05:11:12Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Lophocolea.jpeg&diff=11088
File:Lophocolea.jpeg
2023-05-12T05:08:01Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Pusilla.jpeg&diff=11087
File:Pusilla.jpeg
2023-05-12T04:59:43Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Limbata.jpeg&diff=11086
File:Limbata.jpeg
2023-05-12T04:51:19Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Lunalaria.jpeg&diff=11084
File:Lunalaria.jpeg
2023-05-12T04:47:47Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Epiphylla.jpeg&diff=11083
File:Epiphylla.jpeg
2023-05-12T04:39:33Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Chamedryfolia.jpeg&diff=11082
File:Chamedryfolia.jpeg
2023-05-12T04:28:31Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Latifrons.jpeg&diff=11081
File:Latifrons.jpeg
2023-05-12T04:25:21Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Tenella.jpeg&diff=11080
File:Tenella.jpeg
2023-05-12T04:01:41Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Polymorpha.jpeg&diff=11079
File:Polymorpha.jpeg
2023-05-12T03:57:31Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Berteroana.jpeg&diff=11078
File:Berteroana.jpeg
2023-05-12T03:41:38Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=11077
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-12T01:53:04Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> or <b> African lovegrass </b>,is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It favors areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands but can be found: alongside highways, railway lines, open woodlands, pastures, and coastal shores.<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-right:10px;"<br />
|+ Scientific Classification<br />
|-<br />
|<b> Kingdom:</b>|| Plantae<br />
|-<br />
|<b>Order:</b> || Poales <br />
|-<br />
|<b> Family: </b>|| Poaceae <br />
|-<br />
|<b>Genus: </b>|| Eragrostis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref name="NC"> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref name="WOA"> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch, where it appears lighter and curled <ref name = "DOAF"> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. <br />
[[File:Leaves.jpeg|300px|thumb|float|left|Photo, Sheldon Navie]]<br />
== Root System ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref name = "Gucker">Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref> where they typically fill the entire space. Roots can grow 2 inches a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The primary roots are the first roots to sprout from the seedlings and grow straight down with 30 - 60 rootlets per inch. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil. When temperatures consistently reach above 50° F, roots can start to grow rapidly. <br />
<br />
== Growth ==<br />
The inflorescence of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref name = "WOA"></ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|thumb|right|text-align:center|400px|<i>Eragrostis curvula</i>]]<br />
<br />
== Reproduction ==<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref name = "DOAF" ></ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. As they have no appendages, seeds are unable to be carried far and rely on winds to carry them short distances. This also prevents them from burrowing into the soil, as they are usually found within the top 2 inches of soil. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref name = "Gucker"></ref>. Seedlings are able to establish themselves quite easily and can rapidly increase ground cover. Favorable conditions for successful seedling establishment vary, however they do prefer moist soil but not extremely moist. <br />
<br />
== Impact ==<br />
[[File:Distribution.png|300px|thumb|float|left|Distribution in the Continental US as of 2021 Photo, ©Utah State University]]<br />
<br />
When spread to non-native areas, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can outcompete native vegetation, especially in pastures. Cattle and sheep can only feed on young plants <ref name = "EPPO"> EPPO. 2009. Mini data sheet on Eragrostis curvula (Poaceae)</ref> but is unpalatable and reduces the quality of pastures. After consumption, the tussock is left, which will shade out emerging vegetation. It is considered an 'aggressive' species <ref name = "Gucker"></ref> since it can reduce the growth of <i>Eragrostis intermedia</i> (native plains lovegrass) among other native shrubs and typically sprouts 2 - 4 weeks before native plants. It's also susceptible to fire because of its density and can intensify natural wildfires. It has spread alongside the Colorado River <ref name = "Lawrence">Stevens, Lawrence E.; Ayers, Tina. 2002. The biodiversity and distribution of exotic vascular plants and animals in the Grand Canyon region. In: Tellman, Barbara, ed. Invasive exotic species in the Sonoran region. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Studies in Natural History. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press; The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum: 241-265.</ref> which has called for management amongst concerns that it could spread rapidly if left alone.<br />
<br />
== Distribution in the US ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate highly acidic soils with heavy metal levels <ref name ="Gucker></ref>. This has allowed it to be planted near mine sites in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky, where they provided substantial ground cover. In New York, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> was planted alongside highways in Long Island by the Department of Transportation where it's become established since 2000. Vermont has also used <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> to restore degraded [[sand]] dune sites after multiple planting failures.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=11076
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-12T00:44:36Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> or <b> African lovegrass </b>,is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It favors areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands but can be found: alongside highways, railway lines, open woodlands, pastures, and coastal shores.<br />
<br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|300px|thumb|float|<b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>|<br />
{|class="wikitable"| style="margin:auto";<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom: | Plantae<br />
|-<br />
! Order:| Poales |<br />
|-<br />
!Family:| Poaceae |<br />
|-<br />
!Genus: |Eragrostis|<br />
|-<br />
|}]]<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref name="NC"> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref name="WOA"> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch, where it appears lighter and curled <ref name = "DOAF"> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. <br />
[[File:Leaves.jpeg|300px|thumb|float|left|Photo, Sheldon Navie]]<br />
== Root System ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref name = "Gucker">Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref> where they typically fill the entire space. Roots can grow 2 inches a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The primary roots are the first roots to sprout from the seedlings and grow straight down with 30 - 60 rootlets per inch. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil. When temperatures consistently reach above 50° F, roots can start to grow rapidly. <br />
<br />
== Growth ==<br />
The inflorescence of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref name = "WOA"></ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
<br />
== Reproduction ==<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref name = "DOAF" ></ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. As they have no appendages, seeds are unable to be carried far and rely on winds to carry them short distances. This also prevents them from burrowing into the soil, as they are usually found within the top 2 inches of soil. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref name = "Gucker"></ref>. Seedlings are able to establish themselves quite easily and can rapidly increase ground cover. Favorable conditions for successful seedling establishment vary, however they do prefer moist soil but not extremely moist. <br />
<br />
== Impact ==<br />
[[File:Distribution.png|300px|thumb|float|left|Distribution in the Continental US as of 2021 Photo, ©Utah State University]]<br />
<br />
When spread to non-native areas, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can outcompete native vegetation, especially in pastures. Cattle and sheep can only feed on young plants <ref name = "EPPO"> EPPO. 2009. Mini data sheet on Eragrostis curvula (Poaceae)</ref> but is unpalatable and reduces the quality of pastures. After consumption, the tussock is left, which will shade out emerging vegetation. It is considered an 'aggressive' species <ref name = "Gucker"></ref> since it can reduce the growth of <i>Eragrostis intermedia</i> (native plains lovegrass) among other native shrubs and typically sprouts 2 - 4 weeks before native plants. It's also susceptible to fire because of its density and can intensify natural wildfires. It has spread alongside the Colorado River <ref name = "Lawrence">Stevens, Lawrence E.; Ayers, Tina. 2002. The biodiversity and distribution of exotic vascular plants and animals in the Grand Canyon region. In: Tellman, Barbara, ed. Invasive exotic species in the Sonoran region. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Studies in Natural History. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press; The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum: 241-265.</ref> which has called for management amongst concerns that it could spread rapidly if left alone.<br />
<br />
== Distribution in the US ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate highly acidic soils with heavy metal levels <ref name ="Gucker></ref>. This has allowed it to be planted near mine sites in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky, where they provided substantial ground cover. In New York, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> was planted alongside highways in Long Island by the Department of Transportation where it's become established since 2000. Vermont has also used <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> to restore degraded [[sand]] dune sites after multiple planting failures.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=11075
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-12T00:44:19Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> or <b> African lovegrass </b>,is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It favors areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands but can be found: alongside highways, railway lines, open woodlands, pastures, and coastal shores.<br />
<br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|300px|thumb|float|<b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> align = top|<br />
{|class="wikitable"| style="margin:auto";<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom: | Plantae<br />
|-<br />
! Order:| Poales |<br />
|-<br />
!Family:| Poaceae |<br />
|-<br />
!Genus: |Eragrostis|<br />
|-<br />
|}]]<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref name="NC"> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref name="WOA"> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch, where it appears lighter and curled <ref name = "DOAF"> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. <br />
[[File:Leaves.jpeg|300px|thumb|float|left|Photo, Sheldon Navie]]<br />
== Root System ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref name = "Gucker">Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref> where they typically fill the entire space. Roots can grow 2 inches a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The primary roots are the first roots to sprout from the seedlings and grow straight down with 30 - 60 rootlets per inch. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil. When temperatures consistently reach above 50° F, roots can start to grow rapidly. <br />
<br />
== Growth ==<br />
The inflorescence of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref name = "WOA"></ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
<br />
== Reproduction ==<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref name = "DOAF" ></ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. As they have no appendages, seeds are unable to be carried far and rely on winds to carry them short distances. This also prevents them from burrowing into the soil, as they are usually found within the top 2 inches of soil. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref name = "Gucker"></ref>. Seedlings are able to establish themselves quite easily and can rapidly increase ground cover. Favorable conditions for successful seedling establishment vary, however they do prefer moist soil but not extremely moist. <br />
<br />
== Impact ==<br />
[[File:Distribution.png|300px|thumb|float|left|Distribution in the Continental US as of 2021 Photo, ©Utah State University]]<br />
<br />
When spread to non-native areas, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can outcompete native vegetation, especially in pastures. Cattle and sheep can only feed on young plants <ref name = "EPPO"> EPPO. 2009. Mini data sheet on Eragrostis curvula (Poaceae)</ref> but is unpalatable and reduces the quality of pastures. After consumption, the tussock is left, which will shade out emerging vegetation. It is considered an 'aggressive' species <ref name = "Gucker"></ref> since it can reduce the growth of <i>Eragrostis intermedia</i> (native plains lovegrass) among other native shrubs and typically sprouts 2 - 4 weeks before native plants. It's also susceptible to fire because of its density and can intensify natural wildfires. It has spread alongside the Colorado River <ref name = "Lawrence">Stevens, Lawrence E.; Ayers, Tina. 2002. The biodiversity and distribution of exotic vascular plants and animals in the Grand Canyon region. In: Tellman, Barbara, ed. Invasive exotic species in the Sonoran region. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Studies in Natural History. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press; The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum: 241-265.</ref> which has called for management amongst concerns that it could spread rapidly if left alone.<br />
<br />
== Distribution in the US ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate highly acidic soils with heavy metal levels <ref name ="Gucker></ref>. This has allowed it to be planted near mine sites in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky, where they provided substantial ground cover. In New York, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> was planted alongside highways in Long Island by the Department of Transportation where it's become established since 2000. Vermont has also used <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> to restore degraded [[sand]] dune sites after multiple planting failures.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=11074
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-12T00:36:26Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It favors areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands but can be found: alongside highways, railway lines, open woodlands, pastures, and coastal shores.<br />
<br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|300px|thumb|float|<br />
{|class="wikitable"| style="margin:auto";<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Order !! Family !! Genus<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Poales || Poaceae || Eragrostis<br />
|-<br />
|}]]<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref name="NC"> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref name="WOA"> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch, where it appears lighter and curled <ref name = "DOAF"> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. <br />
[[File:Leaves.jpeg|300px|thumb|float|left|Photo, Sheldon Navie]]<br />
== Root System ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref name = "Gucker">Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref> where they typically fill the entire space. Roots can grow 2 inches a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The primary roots are the first roots to sprout from the seedlings and grow straight down with 30 - 60 rootlets per inch. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil. When temperatures consistently reach above 50° F, roots can start to grow rapidly. <br />
<br />
== Growth ==<br />
The inflorescence of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref name = "WOA"></ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
<br />
== Reproduction ==<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref name = "DOAF" ></ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. As they have no appendages, seeds are unable to be carried far and rely on winds to carry them short distances. This also prevents them from burrowing into the soil, as they are usually found within the top 2 inches of soil. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref name = "Gucker"></ref>. Seedlings are able to establish themselves quite easily and can rapidly increase ground cover. Favorable conditions for successful seedling establishment vary, however they do prefer moist soil but not extremely moist. <br />
<br />
== Impact ==<br />
[[File:Distribution.png|300px|thumb|float|left|Distribution in the Continental US as of 2021 Photo, ©Utah State University]]<br />
<br />
When spread to non-native areas, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can outcompete native vegetation, especially in pastures. Cattle and sheep can only feed on young plants <ref name = "EPPO"> EPPO. 2009. Mini data sheet on Eragrostis curvula (Poaceae)</ref> but is unpalatable and reduces the quality of pastures. After consumption, the tussock is left, which will shade out emerging vegetation. It is considered an 'aggressive' species <ref name = "Gucker"></ref> since it can reduce the growth of <i>Eragrostis intermedia</i> (native plains lovegrass) among other native shrubs and typically sprouts 2 - 4 weeks before native plants. It's also susceptible to fire because of its density and can intensify natural wildfires. It has spread alongside the Colorado River <ref name = "Lawrence">Stevens, Lawrence E.; Ayers, Tina. 2002. The biodiversity and distribution of exotic vascular plants and animals in the Grand Canyon region. In: Tellman, Barbara, ed. Invasive exotic species in the Sonoran region. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Studies in Natural History. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press; The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum: 241-265.</ref> which has called for management amongst concerns that it could spread rapidly if left alone.<br />
<br />
== Distribution in the US ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate highly acidic soils with heavy metal levels <ref name ="Gucker></ref>. This has allowed it to be planted near mine sites in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky, where they provided substantial ground cover. In New York, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> was planted alongside highways in Long Island by the Department of Transportation where it's become established since 2000. Vermont has also used <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> to restore degraded [[sand]] dune sites after multiple planting failures.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Distribution.png&diff=11073
File:Distribution.png
2023-05-12T00:08:40Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=11072
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-11T21:38:35Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It occurs in areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands. <br />
<br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|300px|thumb|float|<br />
{|class="wikitable"| style="margin:auto";<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Order !! Family !! Genus<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Poales || Poaceae || Eragrostis<br />
|-<br />
|}]]<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref name="NC"> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref name="WOA"> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch, where it appears lighter and curled <ref name = "DOAF"> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. <br />
[[File:Leaves.jpeg|300px|thumb|float|left|Photo, Sheldon Navie]]<br />
== Root System ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref name = "Gucker">Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref> where they typically fill the entire space. Roots can grow 2 inches a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The primary roots are the first roots to sprout from the seedlings and grow straight down with 30 - 60 rootlets per inch. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil.<br />
<br />
== Growth ==<br />
Full light is optimal but <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate partial sun although it doesn't reproduce as fast. When temperatures consistently reach above 50° F, roots can start to grow rapidly. <br />
<br />
The inflorescence of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref name = "WOA"></ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
<br />
== Reproduction ==<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref name = "DOAF" ></ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref name = "Gucker"></ref>.<br />
<br />
== Impact ==<br />
<br />
When spread to non-native areas, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can outcompete native vegetation, especially in pastures. Cattle and sheep can only feed on young plants <ref name = "EPPO"> EPPO. 2009. Mini data sheet on Eragrostis curvula (Poaceae)</ref> but is unpalatable and reduces the quality of pastures. After consumption, the tussock is left, which will shade out emerging vegetation. It is considered an 'aggressive' species <ref name = "Gucker"></ref> since it can reduce the growth of <i>Eragrostis intermedia</i> (native plains lovegrass) among other native shrubs and typically sprouts 2 - 4 weeks before native plants. It has spread alongside the Colorado River <ref name = "Lawrence">Stevens, Lawrence E.; Ayers, Tina. 2002. The biodiversity and distribution of exotic vascular plants and animals in the Grand Canyon region. In: Tellman, Barbara, ed. Invasive exotic species in the Sonoran region. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Studies in Natural History. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press; The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum: 241-265.</ref> which has called for management amongst concerns that it could spread rapidly if left alone.<br />
<br />
== Distribution in the US ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate highly acidic soils with heavy metal levels <ref name ="Gucker></ref>. This has allowed it to be planted near mine sites in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky, where they provided substantial ground cover. In New York, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> was planted alongside highways in Long Island by the Department of Transportation where it's become established since 2000. Vermont has also used <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> to restore degraded [[sand]] dune sites after multiple planting failures.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=11069
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-11T20:44:26Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It occurs in areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands. <br />
<br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|300px|thumb|float|<br />
{|class="wikitable"| style="margin:auto";<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Order !! Family !! Genus<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Poales || Poaceae || Eragrostis<br />
|-<br />
|}]]<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref name="NC"> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref name="WOA"> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch, where it appears lighter and curled <ref name = "DOAF"> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. <br />
[[File:Leaves.jpeg|300px|thumb|float|left|Photo, Sheldon Navie]]<br />
== Growth ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref name = "Gucker">Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>. Roots can grow 2 inches a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil. Full light is optimal but <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate partial sun although it doesn't reproduce as fast. <br />
<br />
The inflorescence of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref name = "WOA"></ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref name = "DOAF" ></ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref name = "Gucker"></ref>.<br />
<br />
== Impact ==<br />
<br />
When spread to non-native areas, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can outcompete native vegetation, especially in pastures. Cattle and sheep can only feed on young plants <ref name = "EPPO"> EPPO. 2009. Mini data sheet on Eragrostis curvula (Poaceae)</ref> but is unpalatable and reduces the quality of pastures. After consumption, the tussock is left, which will shade out emerging vegetation. It is considered an 'aggressive' species <ref name = "Gucker"></ref> since it can reduce the growth of <i>Eragrostis intermedia</i> (native plains lovegrass) among other native shrubs. It has spread alongside the Colorado River <ref name = "Lawrence">Stevens, Lawrence E.; Ayers, Tina. 2002. The biodiversity and distribution of exotic vascular plants and animals in the Grand Canyon region. In: Tellman, Barbara, ed. Invasive exotic species in the Sonoran region. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Studies in Natural History. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press; The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum: 241-265.</ref> which has called for management amongst concerns that it could spread rapidly if left alone.<br />
<br />
== Distribution in the US ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate highly acidic soils with heavy metal levels <ref name ="Gucker></ref>. This has allowed it to be planted near mine sites in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky, where they provided substantial ground cover. In New York, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> was planted alongside highways in Long Island by the Department of Transportation where it's become established since 2000. Vermont has also used <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> to restore degraded [[sand]] dune sites after multiple planting failures.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Leaves.jpeg&diff=11067
File:Leaves.jpeg
2023-05-11T20:27:58Z
<p>Andreene: Sheldon Navie</p>
<hr />
<div>== Summary ==<br />
Sheldon Navie</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11042
Composting
2023-05-11T19:57:20Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen.[4] Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space.[3] Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste.[7] Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases.[3] Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does.[9] This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned.[3] Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose.[9] Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting.[12],[13] <br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens.[9] Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system.[2] E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines.[6] To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost.[2]<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach.[9] This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased.[3] With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process.[4] Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it.[4] Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests.[9]<br />
<br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun.[13]<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting.[8] Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease.[14]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Trench Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to do<br />
|Requires a lot of land space to dig trenches<br />
|-<br />
|Does not attract pests<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Helps plants' roots<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
Trench composting is easy to maintain and involves burying organic waste deep in the ground. This form of compost is odorless and doesn't attract pests since it is buried belowground. Meat products can also be included in this compost. Trench compost helps [[plant roots]] conserve water. This method isn't practical to be used often because a lot of land space is needed to constantly dig up holes.[9]<br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">In-vessel Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires knowledge of operating machinery<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> In-vessel composting involves a large silo or drum where organic waste is added. It can store a lot more waste than other methods, but does require expensive machinery. The machinery also requires knowledge on operation of the equipment. This process is usually used in food processing plants and must be turned as well.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
<br />
==Uses for Compost==<br />
Compost is used as fertilizer or potting soils in gardens. It also provides a solution to limiting landfill use and turns waste into a valuable product. Composting has been more recently used to remediate soils that have been contaminated by hazardous waste or heavy metals.[10] Due to the microorganisms involved in compost and their decomposition abilities, compost is a useful remediation tool for degrading toxins.[5] Compost has shown to remediate heavy metals the best when in combination with another remediation method. For example, Kohler et. al (2015) found that when seedlings were grown in soils contaminated from mine tailings, they were inoculated with [[Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi]] and when combined with compost, plant biomass increased by 64% compared to separate treatments or without any treatment at all.[11]<br />
===Community Gardens===<br />
Community gardens are a great way to increase food security by providing a healthy food source. Compost is often used in these gardens to fertilize plants and remediate soils that may contain heavy metals since community gardens are often utilized in city spaces where soils can be heavily contaminated. It is important to wear gloves and masks when handling contaminated soils.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11039
Composting
2023-05-11T19:51:26Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen.[4] Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space.[3] Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste.[7] Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases.[3] Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does.[9] This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned.[3] Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose.[9] Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting.[12],[13] <br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens.[9] Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system.[2] E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines.[6] To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost.[2]<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach.[9] This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased.[3] With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process.[4] Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it.[4] Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests.[9]<br />
<br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun.[13]<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting.[8] Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease.[14]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration.[14]</p><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Trench Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to do<br />
|Requires a lot of land space to dig trenches<br />
|-<br />
|Does not attract pests<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|Helps plants' roots<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
Trench composting is easy to maintain and involves burying organic waste deep in the ground. This form of compost is odorless and doesn't attract pests since it is buried belowground. Meat products can also be included in this compost. Trench compost helps [[plant roots]] conserve water. This method isn't practical to be used often because a lot of land space is needed to constantly dig up holes.[9]</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11038
Composting
2023-05-11T19:46:32Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen.[4] Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space.[3] Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste.[7] Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases.[3] Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does.[9] This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned.[3] Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose.[9] Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting.[12],[13] <br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens.[9] Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system.[2] E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines.[6] To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost.[2]<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach.[9] This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased.[3] With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process.[4] Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it.[4] Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests.[9]<br />
<br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun.[13]<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Vermicomposting</H4><br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|No spinning required<br />
|Worms require maintenance<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Only ideal for small-scale waste<br />
|}<br />
<p align= "right"> Vermicomposting uses worms to break down simple food scraps like food and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, and tea leaves and tea bags. Food waste that is thick or high in fats and oils is not good for vermicomposting. The composting bin should not be made out of metal because it can get too hot for the worms. [[Red wiggler worms]] thrive on this type of compost-soil and are great for vermicomposting.[8] Using a pound of worms can create castings or quality compost when they break down the material. These castings can be used as potting soil or plant fertilizer. </p><br />
<br />
====Aerated Windrow Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires a large amount of land<br />
|-<br />
|Animal byproducts can be composted<br />
|Requires spinning<br />
|}<br />
This type of composting is typically used by large organizations or local governments because it requires a lot of land space where windrows or rows of organic waste can be turned and aerated. Windrows should be large enough to create enough heat but small enough for oxygen flow (about 4-8 ft. high and 14-16 ft. tall). This is one of the few methods of composting where animal byproducts can be used along with grease.[14]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<H4 align = "right">Aerated Static Composting</H4><br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin: 0 0.5%;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Great for large scale waste<br />
|Requires expensive equipment<br />
|-<br />
|Does not require spinning<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<p align = "right"> Aerated static composting is when organic material, excluding animal byproducts and grease, is piled and layered using bulking agents. Bulking agents such as wood chips and newspaper clippings can help with aeration. More expensive forms of aerated static composting use air blowers or fans for aeration.[14]</p></div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11033
Composting
2023-05-11T19:13:26Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen.[4] Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space.[3] Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste.[7] Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases.[3] Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does.[9] This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned.[3] Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose.[9] Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting.[12],[13] <br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens.[9] Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system.[2] E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines.[6] To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost.[2]<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach.[9] This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased.[3] With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process.[4] Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it.[4] Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests.[9]<br />
<br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun.[13]</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11032
Composting
2023-05-11T19:12:08Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen.[4] Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
===The Importance of Composting ===<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space.[3] Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste.[7] Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases.[3] Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does.[9] This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned.[3] Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose.[9] Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting.[12],[13] <br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens.[9] Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system.[2] E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines.[6] To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost.[2]<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach.[9] This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased.[3] With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process.[4] Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it.[4] Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests.[9]<br />
<br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left;"<br />
!Benefits <br />
!Disadvantages<br />
|-<br />
|Easy to accomplish<br />
|Only ideal for small scale waste <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|Requires a great deal of time<br />
|}<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun.[13]</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Composting&diff=11031
Composting
2023-05-11T18:58:44Z
<p>Andreene: Created page with "<b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, soil, and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go throug..."</p>
<hr />
<div><b>Compost</b> is a collection of organic materials such as leaves, twigs, [[soil]], and food scraps among other materials that is turned into fertilizer. Compost has to go through a composting process before it can be useful. This process requires organic material, water, bacteria, and sometimes oxygen.[4] Composting is final once the material is completely broken-down with the help of [[microorganisms]]. There are two forms of composting: anaerobic and aerobic.<br />
<br />
==The Importance of Composting ==<br />
When organic material is sent to landfills, that could otherwise be composted, it contributes to methane emissions in the atmosphere and takes up land space.[3] Food waste is a major issue and 30-40% of the United States' food supply ends up as waste.[7] Although reducing waste from the start is crucial, compost can be used as a means to combat this issue.<br />
<br />
==Anaerobic Composting==<br />
Anaerobic composting does not require any oxygen. This process is comparable to the breakdown of waste in landfills, however this process emits much less greenhouse gases.[3] Anaerobic composting is also known as cold composting. Cold composting doesn't generate the heat that aerobic composting does.[9] This type of composting can be expensive because of the machinery that is needed to compost correctly. Cold composting needs a closed system so that any methane that is released can be trapped, stored, and later used for energy. This closed container is known as a digester. <br />
Although cold composting is more expensive, it requires less maintenance since it does not need to be churned.[3] Cold composting, in return, can take up to 2 years to fully breakdown and decompose.[9] Most municipal waste compost facilities utilize this method of composting.[12],[13] <br />
Pathogens can still be left in cold compost since it does not reach high enough temperatures to rid the organic material of pathogens.[9] Pathogens can occur from fungi or bacteria, and common pathogens in compost include Aspergillosis, farmer's lung, tetanus, and E. coli. <br />
Aspergillosis is a fungus that can affect the lungs and is found in rotting plants. It is typically not life threatening, but can be if an abundant amount of spores are inhaled. Farmer's lung can occur from bacteria or fungus and has similar symptoms to pneumonia. Tetanus is common in soil bacteria and can affect the central nervous system.[2] E. coli is a bacteria and affects the intestines.[6] To avoid contracting these pathogens, it is important to wear protective gear such as gloves and masks when spinning or working with compost. You should also always wash your hands after working with compost.[2]<br />
<br />
==Aerobic Composting ==<br />
Aerobic composting works at a much faster rate and is considered hot compost because of the high temperatures it can reach.[9] This type of composting requires oxygen, and therefore must be spun every few weeks or when new organic material is added. Aerobic composting is much more common for household-use because it is fairly in-expensive. Compost bins can be easily created at home or purchased.[3] With hot composting, it is important that moisture and oxygen level are kept balanced. Hot composting will not easily spread pathogens because they are killed off from the heat. By spinning the mixture and balancing the oxygen and water intake, microbial activity will increase and reach, at minimum, 60° C(140° F)[14].<br />
<br />
==Making Compost==<br />
Compost is very versatile as it can be made with many different organic waste materials, such as food, green, and manure waste. Food waste is most common for at-home-compost and consists of food scraps. Green waste comes from plants and manure-based compost as it’s gathered from animal fecal matter. The carbon to nitrogen ratio is important in making compost. Therefore, it is necessary to alternate between the "browns" and "greens" layers. The browns include dead leaves, soil, and twigs. This layer supplies the carbon needed and the greens layer supplies nitrogen. The greens layer can consist of plant material and food scraps. The layers should be 1:1 to produce the best compost. Increasing the surface area of the organic material, by chopping up or breaking into small pieces, speeds up the [[decomposition]] process.[4] Aerobic compost needs to be turned every few weeks or when new material is added as it supplies oxygen. Moisture is also key to a good compost mixture. Moisture creates a livable environment for microorganisms to thrive as water transports material around in the mixture so that it is accessible to microorganisms. If a mixture is too dry, water can be added manually or with rainfall.[14] If the mixture is too wet, spinning or adding more browns can improve it.[4] Meat scraps and animal feces should not be added to at-home compost since it creates pathogens that can not be dealt with by the generated heat and it can also attracts pests.[9]<br />
<br />
===Types of Compost===<br />
====Onsite Composting====<br />
Onsite composting requires little effort and should only be used for small amounts of yard or food waste. It is a longer process than most other types of composting, and it can take a few years to fully decompose. Most onsite composting is anaerobic, but can be aerobic if it is spun.[13]<br />
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|-<br />
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|}</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=10867
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-10T16:36:53Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It occurs in areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Order !! Family !! Genus<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Poales || Poaceae || Eragrostis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch, where it appears lighter and curled <ref> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. <br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|500px|thumb|]]<br />
<br />
== Growth ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>. Roots can grow 2 inches a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil. Full light is optimal but <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate partial sun although it doesn't reproduce as fast. <br />
<br />
The inflorescence of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Impact ==<br />
<br />
When spread to non-native areas, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can outcompete native vegetation, especially in pastures. Cattle and sheep can only feed on young plants <ref> EPPO. 2009. Mini data sheet on Eragrostis curvula (Poaceae)</ref> but is unpalatable and reduces the quality of pastures. After consumption, the tussock is left, which will shade out emerging vegetation. It is considered an 'aggressive' species <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref> since it can reduce the growth of <i>Eragrostis intermedia</i> (native plains lovegrass) among other native shrubs. It has spread alongside the Colorado River <ref> Stevens, Lawrence E.; Ayers, Tina. 2002. The biodiversity and distribution of exotic vascular plants and animals in the Grand Canyon region. In: Tellman, Barbara, ed. Invasive exotic species in the Sonoran region. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Studies in Natural History. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press; The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum: 241-265. [48667]</ref> which has called for management amongst concerns that it could spread rapidly if left alone.<br />
<br />
== Distribution in the US ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate highly acidic soils with heavy metal levels <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>. This has allowed it to be planted near mine sites in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky, where they provided substantial ground cover. In New York, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> was planted alongside highways in Long Island by the Department of Transportation where it's become established since 2000. Vermont has also used <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> to restore degraded [[sand]] dune sites after multiple planting failures.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=10865
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-10T16:35:51Z
<p>Andreene: /* Impact */</p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It occurs in areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Order !! Family !! Genus<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Poales || Poaceae || Eragrostis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch, where it appears lighter and curled <ref> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. <br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|500px|thumb|]]<br />
<br />
== Growth ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>. Roots can grow 2 inches a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil. Full light is optimal but <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate partial sun although it doesn't reproduce as fast. <br />
<br />
The inflorescence of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Impact ==<br />
<br />
When spread to non-native areas, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can outcompete native vegetation, especially in pastures. Cattle and sheep can only feed on young plants <ref> EPPO. 2009. Mini data sheet on Eragrostis curvula (Poaceae)</ref> but is unpalatable and reduces the quality of pastures. After consumption, the tussock is left, which will shade out emerging vegetation. It is considered an 'aggressive' species <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref> since it can reduce the growth of <i>Eragrostis intermedia</i> (native plains lovegrass) among other native shrubs. It has spread alongside the Colorado River <ref> Stevens, Lawrence E.; Ayers, Tina. 2002. The biodiversity and distribution of exotic vascular plants and animals in the Grand Canyon region. In: Tellman, Barbara, ed. Invasive exotic species in the Sonoran region. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Studies in Natural History. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press; The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum: 241-265. [48667]</ref> which has called for management amongst concerns that it could spread rapidly if left alone.<br />
<br />
== Distribution in the US ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate highly acidic soils with heavy metal levels <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>. This has allowed it to be planted near mine sites in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky, where they provided substantial ground cover. In New York, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> was planted alongside highways in Long Island where it's become established since 2000. Vermont has also used <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> to restore degraded [[sand]] dune sites after multiple planting failures.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=10855
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-10T16:26:21Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It occurs in areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Order !! Family !! Genus<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Poales || Poaceae || Eragrostis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch, where it appears lighter and curled <ref> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. <br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|500px|thumb|]]<br />
<br />
== Growth ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>. Roots can grow 2 inches a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil. Full light is optimal but <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate partial sun although it doesn't reproduce as fast. <br />
<br />
The inflorescence of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Impact ==<br />
<br />
When spread to non-native areas, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can outcompete native vegetation, especially in pastures. Cattle and sheep can only feed on young plants <ref> EPPO. 2009. Mini data sheet on Eragrostis curvula (Poaceae)</ref> but is unpalatable and reduces the quality of pastures. It is considered an 'aggressive' species <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref> since it can reduce the growth of <i>Eragrostis intermedia</i> (native plains lovegrass) among other native shrubs. It has spread alongside the Colorado River <ref> Stevens, Lawrence E.; Ayers, Tina. 2002. The biodiversity and distribution of exotic vascular plants and animals in the Grand Canyon region. In: Tellman, Barbara, ed. Invasive exotic species in the Sonoran region. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Studies in Natural History. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press; The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum: 241-265. [48667]</ref> which has called for management amongst concerns that it could spread rapidly if left alone. <br />
<br />
== Distribution in the US ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate highly acidic soils with heavy metal levels <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>. This has allowed it to be planted near mine sites in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky, where they provided substantial ground cover. In New York, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> was planted alongside highways in Long Island where it's become established since 2000. Vermont has also used <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> to restore degraded [[sand]] dune sites after multiple planting failures.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=10852
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-10T16:23:49Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It occurs in areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Order !! Family !! Genus<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Poales || Poaceae || Eragrostis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch. <br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|500px|thumb|]]<br />
<br />
== Growth ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>. Roots can grow 2 inches a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil. Full light is optimal but <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate partial sun although it doesn't reproduce as fast. <br />
<br />
The inflorescence of <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref> African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula. 2016. . Pages 1–20. Invasive plant risk assessment, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland.<br />
</ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Impact ==<br />
<br />
When spread to non-native areas, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can outcompete native vegetation, especially in pastures. Cattle and sheep can only feed on young plants <ref> EPPO. 2009. Mini data sheet on Eragrostis curvula (Poaceae)</ref> but is unpalatable and reduces the quality of pastures. It is considered an 'aggressive' species <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref> since it can reduce the growth of <i>Eragrostis intermedia</i> (native plains lovegrass) among other native shrubs. It has spread alongside the Colorado River <ref> Stevens, Lawrence E.; Ayers, Tina. 2002. The biodiversity and distribution of exotic vascular plants and animals in the Grand Canyon region. In: Tellman, Barbara, ed. Invasive exotic species in the Sonoran region. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Studies in Natural History. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona Press; The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum: 241-265. [48667]</ref> which has called for management amongst concerns that it could spread rapidly if left alone. <br />
<br />
== Distribution in the US ==<br />
<br />
<i>Eragrostis curvula</i> can tolerate highly acidic soils with heavy metal levels <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>. This has allowed it to be planted near mine sites in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky, where they provided substantial ground cover. In New York, <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> was planted alongside highways in Long Island where it's become established since 2000. Vermont has also used <i>Eragrostis curvula</i> to restore degraded [[sand]] dune sites after multiple planting failures.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Liverwort&diff=10836
Liverwort
2023-05-10T15:29:24Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Liverworts</b> are a class of terrestrial, non-vascular plants that can be found globally and consist of nearly 7000 species. They most commonly grow in moist, shaded areas such as damp rocks, [[soil]], or tree trunks <ref> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Apr. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. Liverworts absorb water through mucilage<ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> which can be produced externally in slime papillae or internally in slime cells. This occurs at the growing point to prevent them from getting dehydrated. Liverworts serve as a source of food for [[animals]] and aid in the decay of logs and rocks. <br />
<br />
Liverworts can be categorized into 2 groups: <b>thallose liverworts</b> or <b>leafy liverworts</b> <ref> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on their growth form. All liverworts have chloroplasts and 90% have oil bodies<ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. The functions of these oils bodies are widely unknown but vary in size and shape which makes for a great identification tool along with the specific aroma and taste they create. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Division !! Class<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Marchantiophyta || Hepaticae<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
[[File:Thallose.jpeg|200px|thumb|Thallose liverwort, ''Marchantia berteroana'' (Photo John Braggins)]]<br />
[[File:Leafy.jpeg|200px|thumb|Leafy liverwort, ''Bazzania adnexa'' (Photo, L Jensen)]]<br />
<br />
== Thallose Liverworts ==<br />
<b> Thallose liverworts </b> grow in a flat structure, with rubbery leaves and can be found on soils with high moisture or damp rocks <ref> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 April 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. The structure is formed by <b> thallus </b> which is a mass of uniform flattened cells, except for the capsules which contain sporophytes. Early species had thick and opaque structures but currently, the appearance of thallose liverworts can vary from thick and opaque to thin and clear <ref> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on the genus. In some species, the thallus can also form branches that grow in a 'Y' formation. <br />
<br />
=== Complex Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Complex thallose liverworts </b> have thalli where the thallus contains photosynthetic cells with tiny pores that lead to air chambers <ref> Thallose liverworts, Lepp, Heino. Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/liverwort-thalose.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. These pores are similar to stomata but are unable to be opened or closed and look like white dots on the upper thallus. Their main purpose is for gaseous exchange but cell functions within the thalli can be different depending on the species. <br />
The underside of the thallus is used to store water and nutrients, which makes these liverworts more drought-tolerant. Rhizoids are brown in color and are found on the center of the underside in packs<ref>Basic Biology: An Introduction, Purcell, Adam. 19 May 2018.</ref>. They vary in shape but are essential for water absorption as they anchor the thallus.<br />
=== Simple Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Simple thallose liverworts </b> have thin thalli (typically 1 cell thick) that can be translucent. They don't have any differentiation in cell function which is what makes them different from complex thallose liverworts. <br />
== Leafy Liverworts == <br />
<b>Leafy liverworts </b> bear a similar resemblance to mosses and ferns as they have small leaves that overlap each other and grow in pairs on their stems. The leaves are quite small and are only ~1 mm in size with a single cell layer. The upper 2 layers of leaves are designed to be larger and are called <b> lateral leaves</b>. The <b>underleaves</b> are found on the underside and are smaller. Leafy liverworts are more common than thallose liverworts <ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> as they have more species and are often found in home gardens and public parks. <br />
<br />
== Life Cycle ==<br />
Since liverworts do not have a vascular system, they reproduce through a small, ephemeral sporophyte <ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. The sporophyte is a diploid, which is formed when the zygote is fertilized and separates mitotically <ref> Plant Systematics (Second Edition), Simpson, Michael G.. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374380-0.50003-8. Accessed May 07, 2023. </ref>. Haploid cells are released from the sporangium all at once and are distributed by wind or water, where they germinate into thalli gametophytes. <br />
<br />
The sporangia doesn't survive for much longer after dispersal. The gametophytes fall onto different plants, attaching themselves to individual plants, where male and female gametangia develop. Once developed, male gametes will fertilize the female gametangium to create a zygote. This zygote will stay attached to the parent while forming into a sporophyte and create it's own spore-producing cells. Once these cells undergo meiosis, they will form spores, and thus restart the cycle.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Liverwort&diff=10824
Liverwort
2023-05-10T15:14:22Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Liverworts</b> are a class of terrestrial, non-vascular plants that can be found globally and consist of nearly 7000 species. They most commonly grow in moist, shaded areas such as damp rocks, [[soil]], or tree trunks <ref> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Apr. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. Liverworts absorb water through mucilage<ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> which can be produced externally in slime papillae or internally in slime cells. This occurs at the growing point to prevent them from getting dehydrated. Liverworts serve as a source of food for [[animals]] and aid in the decay of logs and rocks. <br />
<br />
Liverworts can be categorized into 2 groups: <b>thallose liverworts</b> or <b>leafy liverworts</b> <ref> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on their growth form. All liverworts have chloroplasts and 90% have oil bodies<ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. The functions of these oils bodies are widely unknown but vary in size and shape which makes for a great identification tool along with the specific aroma and taste they create. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Division !! Class<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Marchantiophyta || Hepaticae<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
[[File:Thallose.jpeg|200px|thumb|Thallose liverwort, ''Marchantia berteroana'' (Photo John Braggins)]]<br />
[[File:Leafy.jpeg|200px|thumb|Leafy liverwort, ''Bazzania adnexa'' (Photo, L Jensen)]]<br />
<br />
== Thallose Liverworts ==<br />
<b> Thallose liverworts </b> grow in a flat structure, with rubbery leaves and can be found on soils with high moisture or damp rocks <ref> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 April 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. The structure is formed by <b> thallus </b> which is a mass of uniform flattened cells, except for the capsules which contain sporophytes. Early species had thick and opaque structures but currently, the appearance of thallose liverworts can vary from thick and opaque to thin and clear <ref> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on the genus. In some species, the thallus can also form branches that grow in a 'Y' formation. <br />
<br />
=== Complex Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Complex thallose liverworts </b> have thalli where the thallus contains photosynthetic cells with tiny pores that lead to air chambers <ref> Thallose liverworts, Lepp, Heino. Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/liverwort-thalose.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. These pores are similar to stomata but are unable to be opened or closed and look like white dots on the upper thallus. Their main purpose is for gaseous exchange. <br />
The underside of the thallus is used to store water and nutrients, which makes these liverworts more drought-tolerant. Rhizoids are brown in color and are found on the center of the underside in packs<ref>Basic Biology: An Introduction, Purcell, Adam. 19 May 2018.</ref>. They vary in shape but are essential for water absorption as they anchor the thallus.<br />
=== Simple Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Simple thallose liverworts </b> have thin thalli that can be translucent. They don't have any differentiation in cell function which is what makes them different from complex thallose liverworts. <br />
== Leafy Liverworts == <br />
<b>Leafy liverworts </b> bear a similar resemblance to mosses and ferns as they have small leaves that overlap each other and grow in pairs on their stems. The leaves are quite small and are only ~1 mm in size with a single cell layer. The upper 2 layers of leaves are designed to be larger and are called <b> lateral leaves</b>. The <b>underleaves</b> are found on the underside and are smaller. Leafy liverworts are more common than thallose liverworts <ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> as they have more species and are often found in home gardens and public parks. <br />
<br />
== Life Cycle ==<br />
Since liverworts do not have a vascular system, they reproduce through a small, ephemeral sporophyte <ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. The sporophyte is a diploid, which is formed when the zygote is fertilized and separates mitotically <ref> Plant Systematics (Second Edition), Simpson, Michael G.. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374380-0.50003-8. Accessed May 07, 2023. </ref>. Haploid cells are released from the sporangium all at once and are distributed by wind or water, where they germinate into thalli gametophytes. <br />
<br />
The sporangia doesn't survive for much longer after dispersal. The gametophytes fall onto different plants, attaching themselves to individual plants, where male and female gametangia develop. Once developed, male gametes will fertilize the female gametangium to create a zygote. This zygote will stay attached to the parent while forming into a sporophyte and create it's own spore-producing cells. Once these cells undergo meiosis, they will form spores, and thus restart the cycle.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=10585
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-07T21:24:39Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It occurs in areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Order !! Family !! Genus<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Poales || Poaceae || Eragrostis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch. <br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|500px|thumb|]]<br />
<br />
== Growth ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>. Roots can grow 2 in a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil. Full light is optimal but <b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> can tolerate partial sun although it doesn't reproduce as fast. <br />
<br />
The inflorescence of <b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
<br />
<b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Eragrostis_curvula&diff=10584
Eragrostis curvula
2023-05-07T21:23:51Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i>, commonly known as <b> weeping lovegrass </b> is a perennial grass native to South Africa. <i> Eragrostis curvula </i> has been introduced to North America and Australia since the 20th century and is now widespread. It occurs in areas that have been recently disturbed such as after fires or overgrazed grasslands. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Order !! Family !! Genus<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Poales || Poaceae || Eragrostis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
<b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> can have a variable appearance ranging from 120 cm to 180 cm in height. The plant grows tufts of narrow leaves that can reach 1 ft in diameter and are bluish-green in color. The leaves can grow up to 2 ft <ref> Eragrostis curvula, North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox, https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/eragrostis-curvula/ Accessed 07 May 2023.</ref> and clump together in a drooping position at the base of the plant. The blades of each leaf, roll inwards <ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref> and have a rough texture that are attached to hairless stems. The leaves get narrower as they reach the tip of the branch. <br />
[[File:weeping_lovegrass.jpeg|thumb|500px|]<br />
<br />
== Growth ==<br />
<br />
The root system of <b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> is dense and fibrous, reaching up to 13 ft below the [[soil]] surface vertically, and up to 3 ft laterally<ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of [[Agriculture]], Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>. Roots can grow 2 in a day and create thick mats that aid in erosion control. The large root system makes it suitable for dryer soils such as in desert areas. It's hardiness and drought-tolerance also makes it easy to establish alongside highways or roadsides that have high salinity soil. Full light is optimal but <b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> can tolerate partial sun although it doesn't reproduce as fast. <br />
<br />
The inflorescence of <b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> starts as a tightly closed panicle but slowly opens up as it matures. At the base of the panicle, branches start to spread out that have green-grey or purple flower spikelets which turn paler in color as they flower<ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref>. The flower spikelets break open for seed dispersal which happens in the late summer/early fall season. <br />
<br />
<b><i>Eragrostis curvula</b></i> reproduces through seed dispersal via [[animals]], wind, and vehicles <ref> Eragrostis curvula, Weeds of Australia. 2016 https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/eragrostis_curvula.htm. Accessed 07 May 2023</ref>. Seeds are small in size (<1 cm) and have an ovular shape that can be a yellow-brown in color. Panicles can produce 300 - 1000 seeds, with factors such as high temperatures, high moisture levels, and low humidity increasing seed production <ref>Gucker, Corey L. 2009. Eragrostis curvula. In: Fire Effects Information System. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available: https://www.fs.usda.gov /database/feis/plants/graminoid/eracur/all.html [2023, May 7]</ref>.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Liverwort&diff=10581
Liverwort
2023-05-07T21:11:28Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Liverworts</b> are a class of terrestrial, non-vascular plants that can be found globally and consist of nearly 7000 species. They most commonly grow in moist, shaded areas such as damp rocks, [[soil]], or tree trunks <ref> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Apr. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. Liverworts absorb water through mucilage<ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> which can be produced externally in slime papillae or internally in slime cells. This occurs at the growing point to prevent them from getting dehydrated. Liverworts serve as a source of food for [[animals]] and aid in the decay of logs and rocks. <br />
<br />
Liverworts can be categorized into 2 groups: <b>thallose liverworts</b> or <b>leafy liverworts</b> <ref> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on their growth form. All liverworts have chloroplasts and 90% have oil bodies<ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. The functions of these oils bodies are widely unknown but vary in size and shape which makes for a great identification tool along with the specific aroma and taste they create. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Division !! Class<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Marchantiophyta || Hepaticae<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
[[File:Leafy.jpeg|200px|thumb|Leafy liverwort, ''Bazzania adnexa'' (Photo, L Jensen)]]<br />
[[File:Thallose.jpeg|200px|thumb|Thallose liverwort, ''Marchantia berteroana'' (Photo John Braggins)]]<br />
== Thallose Liverworts ==<br />
<b> Thallose liverworts </b> grow in a flat structure, with rubbery leaves and can be found on soils with high moisture or damp rocks <ref> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 April 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. The structure is formed by <b> thallus </b> which is a mass of uniform flattened cells, except for the capsules which contain sporophytes. Early species had thick and opaque structures but currently, the appearance of thallose liverworts can vary from thick and opaque to thin and clear <ref> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on the genus. In some species, the thallus can also form branches that grow in a 'Y' formation. <br />
<br />
=== Complex Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Complex thallose liverworts </b> have thalli where the thallus contains photosynthetic cells with tiny pores that lead to air chambers <ref> Thallose liverworts, Lepp, Heino. Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/liverwort-thalose.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. These pores are similar to stomata but are unable to be opened or closed and look like white dots on the upper thallus. Their main purpose is for gaseous exchange. <br />
The underside of the thallus is used to store water and nutrients, which makes these liverworts more drought-tolerant. Rhizoids are brown in color and are found on the center of the underside in packs<ref>Basic Biology: An Introduction, Purcell, Adam. 19 May 2018.</ref>. They vary in shape but are essential for water absorption as they anchor the thallus.<br />
=== Simple Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Simple thallose liverworts </b> have thin thalli that can be translucent. They don't have any differentiation in cell function which is what makes them different from complex thallose liverworts. <br />
== Leafy Liverworts == <br />
<b>Leafy liverworts </b> bear a similar resemblance to mosses and ferns as they have small leaves that overlap each other and grow in pairs on their stems. The leaves are quite small and are only ~1 mm in size with a single cell layer. The upper 2 layers of leaves are designed to be larger and are called <b> lateral leaves</b>. The <b>underleaves</b> are found on the underside and are smaller. Leafy liverworts are more common than thallose liverworts <ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> as they have more species and are often found in home gardens and public parks. <br />
<br />
== Life Cycle ==<br />
Since liverworts do not have a vascular system, they reproduce through a small, ephemeral sporophyte <ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. The sporophyte is a diploid, which is formed when the zygote is fertilized and separates mitotically <ref> Plant Systematics (Second Edition), Simpson, Michael G.. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374380-0.50003-8. Accessed May 07, 2023. </ref>. Haploid cells are released from the sporangium all at once and are distributed by wind or water, where they germinate into thalli gametophytes. <br />
<br />
The sporangia doesn't survive for much longer after dispersal. The gametophytes fall onto different plants, attaching themselves to individual plants, where male and female gametangia develop. Once developed, male gametes will fertilize the female gametangium to create a zygote. This zygote will stay attached to the parent while forming into a sporophyte and create it's own spore-producing cells. Once these cells undergo meiosis, they will form spores, and thus restart the cycle.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Liverwort&diff=10580
Liverwort
2023-05-07T21:10:06Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Liverworts</b> are a class of terrestrial, non-vascular plants that can be found globally and consist of nearly 7000 species. They most commonly grow in moist, shaded areas such as damp rocks, [[soil]], or tree trunks <ref> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Apr. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. Liverworts absorb water through mucilage<ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> which can be produced externally in slime papillae or internally in slime cells. This occurs at the growing point to prevent them from getting dehydrated. Liverworts serve as a source of food for [[animals]] and aid in the decay of logs and rocks. <br />
<br />
Liverworts can be categorized into 2 groups: <b>thallose liverworts</b> or <b>leafy liverworts</b> <ref> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on their growth form. All liverworts have chloroplasts and 90% have oil bodies<ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. The functions of these oils bodies are widely unknown but vary in size and shape which makes for a great identification tool along with the specific aroma and taste they create. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Division !! Class<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Marchantiophyta || Hepaticae<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
[[File:Leafy.jpeg|200px|thumb|Leafy liverwort, ''Bazzania adnexa'' (Photo, L Jensen)]]<br />
[[File:Thallose.jpeg|200px|thumb|Thallose liverwort, ''Marchantia berteroana'' (Photo John Braggins)]]<br />
== Thallose Liverworts ==<br />
<b> Thallose liverworts </b> grow in a flat structure, with rubbery leaves and can be found on soils with high moisture or damp rocks <ref> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 April 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. The structure is formed by <b> thallus </b> which is a mass of uniform flattened cells, except for the capsules which contain sporophytes. Early species had thick and opaque structures but currently, the appearance of thallose liverworts can vary from thick and opaque to thin and clear <ref> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on the genus. In some species, the thallus can also form branches that grow in a 'Y' formation. <br />
<br />
=== Complex Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Complex thallose liverworts </b> have thalli where the thallus contains photosynthetic cells with tiny pores that lead to air chambers <ref> Thallose liverworts, Lepp, Heino. Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/liverwort-thalose.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. These pores are similar to stomata but are unable to be opened or closed and look like white dots on the upper thallus. Their main purpose is for gaseous exchange. <br />
The underside of the thallus is used to store water and nutrients, which makes these liverworts more drought-tolerant. Rhizoids are brown in color and are found on the center of the underside in packs<ref>Basic Biology: An Introduction, Purcell, Adam. 19 May 2018.</ref>. They vary in shape but are essential for water absorption as they anchor the thallus.<br />
=== Simple Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Simple thallose liverworts </b> have thin thalli that can be translucent. They don't have any differentiation in cell function which is what makes them different from complex thallose liverworts. They contain <br />
== Leafy Liverworts == <br />
<b>Leafy liverworts </b> bear a similar resemblance to mosses and ferns as they have small leaves that overlap each other and grow in pairs on their stems. The leaves are quite small and are only ~1 mm in size with a single cell layer. The upper 2 layers of leaves are designed to be larger and are called <b> lateral leaves</b>. The <b>underleaves</b> are found on the underside and are smaller. Leafy liverworts are more common than thallose liverworts <ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> as they have more species and are often found in home gardens and public parks. <br />
<br />
== Life Cycle ==<br />
Since liverworts do not have a vascular system, they reproduce through a small, ephemeral sporophyte <ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. The sporophyte is a diploid, which is formed when the zygote is fertilized and separates mitotically <ref> Plant Systematics (Second Edition), Simpson, Michael G.. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374380-0.50003-8. Accessed May 07, 2023. </ref>. Haploid cells are released from the sporangium all at once and are distributed by wind or water, where they germinate into thalli gametophytes. <br />
<br />
The sporangia doesn't survive for much longer after dispersal. The gametophytes fall onto different plants, attaching themselves to individual plants, where male and female gametangia develop. Once developed, male gametes will fertilize the female gametangium to create a zygote. This zygote will stay attached to the parent while forming into a sporophyte and create it's own spore-producing cells. Once these cells undergo meiosis, they will form spores, and thus restart the cycle.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=Liverwort&diff=10579
Liverwort
2023-05-07T20:59:26Z
<p>Andreene: </p>
<hr />
<div><b>Liverworts</b> are a class of terrestrial, non-vascular plants that can be found globally and consist of nearly 7000 species. They most commonly grow in moist, shaded areas such as damp rocks, [[soil]], or tree trunks <ref> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Apr. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. Liverworts absorb water through mucilage<ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> which can be produced externally in slime papillae or internally in slime cells. This occurs at the growing point to prevent them from getting dehydrated. Liverworts serve as a source of food for [[animals]] and aid in the decay of logs and rocks. <br />
<br />
Liverworts can be categorized into 2 groups: <b>thallose liverworts</b> or <b>leafy liverworts</b> <ref> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on their growth form. All liverworts have chloroplasts and 90% have oil bodies<ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. The functions of these oils bodies are widely unknown but vary in size and shape which makes for a great identification tool along with the specific aroma and taste they create. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"<br />
|-<br />
! Kingdom !! Division !! Class<br />
|-<br />
| Plantae || Marchantiophyta || Hepaticae<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
[File:Leafy.jpeg|frameless|50px|Leafy liverwort, Bazzania adnexa (Photo, L Jensen)]<br />
[File:Thallose.jpeg|frameless|50px|Thallose liverwort, Marchantia berteroana (Photo John Braggins)]<br />
== Thallose Liverworts ==<br />
<b> Thallose liverworts </b> grow in a flat structure, with rubbery leaves and can be found on soils with high moisture or damp rocks <ref> Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "liverwort". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 April 2022, https://www.britannica.com/plant/liverwort. Accessed 2 April 2023. </ref>. The structure is formed by <b> thallus </b> which is a mass of uniform flattened cells, except for the capsules which contain sporophytes. Early species had thick and opaque structures but currently, the appearance of thallose liverworts can vary from thick and opaque to thin and clear <ref> Liverworts Field Guide, https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/liverworts. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> depending on the genus. In some species, the thallus can also form branches that grow in a 'Y' formation. <br />
<br />
=== Complex Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Complex thallose liverworts </b> have thalli where the thallus contains photosynthetic cells with tiny pores that lead to air chambers <ref> Thallose liverworts, Lepp, Heino. Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/liverwort-thalose.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. These pores are similar to stomata but are unable to be opened or closed and look like white dots on the upper thallus. Their main purpose is for gaseous exchange. <br />
The underside of the thallus is used to store water and nutrients, which makes these liverworts more drought-tolerant. Rhizoids are brown in color and are found on the center of the underside in packs<ref>Basic Biology: An Introduction, Purcell, Adam. 19 May 2018.</ref>. They vary in shape but are essential for water absorption as they anchor the thallus.<br />
=== Simple Thallose Liverworts ===<br />
<b> Simple thallose liverworts </b> have thin thalli that can be translucent. They don't have any differentiation in cell function which is what makes them different from complex thallose liverworts. They contain <br />
== Leafy Liverworts == <br />
<b>Leafy liverworts </b> bear a similar resemblance to mosses and ferns as they have small leaves that overlap each other and grow in pairs on their stems. The leaves are quite small and are only ~1 mm in size with a single cell layer. The upper 2 layers of leaves are designed to be larger and are called <b> lateral leaves</b>. The <b>underleaves</b> are found on the underside and are smaller. Leafy liverworts are more common than thallose liverworts <ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref> as they have more species and are often found in home gardens and public parks. <br />
<br />
== Life Cycle ==<br />
Since liverworts do not have a vascular system, they reproduce through a small, ephemeral sporophyte <ref> What is a liverwort?, Australian National Botanic Gardens and Australian National Herbarium. 15 April 2008, https://www.anbg.gov.au/bryophyte/what-is-liverwort.html. Accessed 2 April 2023 </ref>. The sporophyte is a diploid, which is formed when the zygote is fertilized and separates mitotically <ref> Plant Systematics (Second Edition), Simpson, Michael G.. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374380-0.50003-8. Accessed May 07, 2023. </ref>. Haploid cells are released from the sporangium all at once and are distributed by wind or water, where they germinate into thalli gametophytes. <br />
<br />
The sporangia doesn't survive for much longer after dispersal. The gametophytes fall onto different plants, attaching themselves to individual plants, where male and female gametangia develop. Once developed, male gametes will fertilize the female gametangium to create a zygote. This zygote will stay attached to the parent while forming into a sporophyte and create it's own spore-producing cells. Once these cells undergo meiosis, they will form spores, and thus restart the cycle.</div>
Andreene
https://soil.evs.buffalo.edu/index.php?title=File:Leafy.jpeg&diff=10578
File:Leafy.jpeg
2023-05-07T20:52:28Z
<p>Andreene: Leafy liverwort, Bazzania adnexa (Photo, L Jensen)</p>
<hr />
<div>== Summary ==<br />
Leafy liverwort, Bazzania adnexa (Photo, L Jensen)</div>
Andreene