Soil Ecology Wiki - User contributions [en]

Acorn ant

2025-05-09T18:53:51Z

Almonaco: /* Acorn Ant Description */

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Acorn Ant Taxonomy <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>'''
|-
!colspan="2"|[[File:Acorn ant.jpg| 300px]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hymenoptera
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Formicidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subfamily:
|style="min-width:6em; |Myrmicinae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Tribe:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crematogastrini
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Temnothorax
|-
|colspan="2" |Image Source: Bug Guide <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>
|}

== Acorn Ant Description ==

Acorn ants (''Temnothorax'' genus) are a well-studied species found in both rural and urban areas of the eastern United States. The common name, "acorn ant," results from the fact that an entire colony (which typically contains between 50 and 200 worker ants, along with several queens) can live in hollowed-out nuts, such as acorns <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>. Acorn ants are amber to yellow in color, darkening with age, and they have 11-segmented antennae, along with a curved propodeal spine. The middle part of the ant's body (mesosoma) is covered in rough ridges (rugae) <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. The ''Temnothorax'' genus has been notably studied for their social structures and behaviors, such as communication and responsibility within colonies <ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>.

== Habitat & Range ==

[[File:Acorn ant map.PNG|500px|thumb|Map of Acorn Ant Native Range <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>]]

Starting along the eastern United States coast, acorn ants' range extends as far north as Maine, as far south as Florida, and as far west as Arizona. They can also be found in parts of Canada, including Ontario <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>. They are likely to occupy temperate and subtropical northern forests <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>.

== Nesting Habits ==

In addition to hollowed-out nuts, acorn ant nests can be found in hollow stems, insect galls, puffballs, and pinecones. Nests may also be under rocks or in [[soil]], and they are usually found at lower elevations. Acorn ants are polydomous (they can inhabit several homes at the same time), which is useful in the event of a disturbance to a nest, as they can easily change where they reside <ref> Healey, Christiane I. M., and Pratt, Stephen C.. (2008). “The Effect of Prior Experience on Nest Site Evaluation by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Animal Behaviour. 76 (3): 893–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.02.016.</ref>. In the summer, sub-colonies can build new nests near their main population's. During the winter, sub-colonies coalesce back into one large colony. But, during the winter, about half of the colony is lost, as ants either die off or migrate to start or join a colony <ref> Pratt, Stephen C. (2005). "Behavioral mechanisms of collective nest-site choice by the ant Temnothorax curvispinosus." Insectes Sociaux. 52: 383–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-005-0823-z.</ref>.

== Reproduction ==

Acorn ants are polygynous, meaning one colony can have multiple queens <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. Male ants will reproduce with the queens in a colony, and larvae can be found inside a nest all year-round. After the eggs hatch into larvae, they will go through multiple molting stages. Eventually, larvae will metamorphose into a pupa and then grow into an adult ant. Female ants within a colony that are fed more when they are young grow to become queen ants. Queen and male ants have wings while worker ants (female) do not <ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>. Eventually, multiple queens will work together to form a new colony (this process is called pleometrosis). Queens can also be adopted into an existing colony <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.
[[File:Worker acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Worker Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Male acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Male Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Queen acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Queen Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]]

== Diet ==

Acorn ants are generalist feeders, but most commonly eat liquid sugars from tree and plant leaves. These ants may also eat small [[insects]] for protein, like spring tails and dipterans (flies). Acorn ants may also partake in [[foraging]], which is usually done in tandem. Foraging in tandem means that one ant will recruit another to follow and help them find and secure food. This recruited ant will recruit another to do the same, and the pattern continues. This strategy is particularly useful when there is a clumped food distribution. Foraging as a behavior for acorn ants is more common in the spring and summer <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.

== Adaption to Rising Temperatures ==

The development of urban spaces has caused a rapid rise in environmental temperatures, especially with impermeable surfaces. Acorn ants have shown plasticity in their physiological response to these rising temperatures, and it was found that colonies present in these urban areas have better adapted to this temperature increase. This finding was correlated with both faster rates of diurnal temperature rise in urban acorn ant nest sites and more rapid spatial changes in temperature across urban foraging areas <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>.

== References ==

<ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>
<ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>
<ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>

Epiphytes

2025-05-02T14:24:19Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

[[File:bromeliad10.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Bromeliad (''Tillandsia aeranthos'') Growing on a Tree in Argentina (Photographed by nicochimento, 2020) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]

Epiphytes, specifically vascular epiphytes, are those plants that germinate and take root on other plants. These plants generally exhibit commensal relationships with their host plants, and therefore epiphytes receive shelter and protection with no cost or benefit to their host plant <ref name= "naranjo">Naranjo, C., Iriondo, J., Riofrio, M., Lara-Romero, C.. (2019). "Evaluating the structure of commensalistic epiphyte–phorophyte networks: a comparative perspective of biotic interactions" AoB PLANTS. 11(2): plz011. https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/plz011.</ref>. Epiphytes can be both obligate and facultative <ref name= "zotz">Zotz, Gerhard. (12 Nov 2012). "The systematic distribution of vascular epiphytes – a critical update." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. The Linnean Society of London. 171: 453–481. https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/171/3/453/2416203.</ref>. Facultative epiphytes are plant species that grow terrestrially and epiphytically approximately the same amount of times across their distribution. If a species grows epiphytically at least 95 percent of the time, it is considered an obligate epiphyte <ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>. Plants that grow on other plants for only a portion of their life are referred to as "hemi-epiphytes" <ref name= "nieder">Nieder, J., Prosperi, J., Michaloud, G.. (2001). "Epiphytes and their contribution to canopy diveristy." Plant [[Ecology]]. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 153: 51-63. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226617674_Epiphytes_and_their_contribution_to_canopy_diversity.</ref>. Additionally "accidental epiphytes" can occur when a plant that does not usually grow epiphytically at any point in its life cycle does so due to a need or opportunity for resources <ref name= "zotz">Zotz, Gerhard. (12 Nov 2012). "The systematic distribution of vascular epiphytes – a critical update." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. The Linnean Society of London. 171: 453–481. https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/171/3/453/2416203.</ref>. Epiphytes account for approximately 10 percent of all plant [[diversity]]. It is estimated that over 24,000 vascular plants are considered to be epiphytes, and they are most commonly concentrated in tropical areas where they can provide significant [[Ecosystem Services|ecosystem services]] <ref name= "nieder">Nieder, J., Prosperi, J., Michaloud, G.. (2001). "Epiphytes and their contribution to canopy diveristy." Plant [[Ecology]]. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 153: 51-63. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226617674_Epiphytes_and_their_contribution_to_canopy_diversity.</ref>. Since epiphytes usually have no direct contact with soil, their most common threat is desiccation, thus these plants have many unique adaptations that allow them to conserve water and thrive <ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Ecologically, epiphytes exhibit opportunism, filling gaps in an ecosystem when possible and often growing in tree crowns. Most vascular plants can display epiphytic growth if they are in the appropriate conditions. For example, the aforementioned "accidental epiphytes" result from a usually terrestrial species taking advantage of beneficial conditions in its microhabitat. In these cases, a plant species may have a fundamental niche in which it can grow epiphytically but is usually not able to due to competition or lack of resources <ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>.

Therefore, evolutionarily, epiphytes have adapted to canopy conditions <ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>. Epiphytism is also thought to have led to the rapid diversification of certain plant families. For example, approximately 75 percent of the family Orchidaceae and 59 percent of the family Bromeliaceae are epiphytic, showing that this growth style has been beneficial in these families' life histories and has allowed them to grow quickly <ref name= "taylor">Taylor, A., Zotz G., Weigelt P., Cai L.,Karger D. N., König C., & Kreft H. (2022). "Vascular epiphytes contribute disproportionately to global centres of plant diversity." Global Ecology and Biogeography, 31: 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13411.</ref>.

With this growth style have come many unique adaptations in epiphytes that help them thrive in their environment and retain ecosystem stability. For instance, epiphyte habitats are usually considered to be discontinuous, and because of their common habitat in tree canopies, their seeds are usually dispersed via wind or birds. Additionally, these plants have roots that are specially designed to grow in areas that do not contain [[soil]]. This unique growth system also means that epiphytes need to be well-adapted to absorbing rainwater, as they cannot access this resource through soil. Epiphytes are also smaller and lighter in size and weight in order to not pressure the plant they grow on, possibly causing stress or dislodgement. Along with this, epiphytes have leaves adapted to light conditions of canopies and a structure that is able to retain water in times of stress <ref name= "hietz">Hietz, P., Wagner, K., Nunes Ramos, F.,Cabral, J. S., Agudelo, C., Benavides, A. M., Cach-Pérez, M. J.,Cardelús, C. L., Chilpa Galván, N., Erickson Nascimento daCosta, L., de Paula Oliveira, R., Einzmann, H. J. R., de PaivaFarias, R., Guzmán Jacob, V., Kattge, J., Kessler, M., Kirby, C.,Kreft, H., Krömer, T., … Zotz, G. (2022). "Putting vascular epiphytes on the traits map." Journal of Ecology, 110: 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13802.</ref>.
===Epiphytes & Soil===

Though epiphytic plants do not directly contact it, they have indirect effects on the soil of their microclimates. Soils beneath epiphyte host plants tend to absorb less water from rainfall and fog. Especially during wet seasons, epiphytes have a strong influence on the amount of water from precipitation retained by soil, which can affect the growth of their host plants <ref name= "stanton">Stanton, D., Huallpa Chávez, J., Villegas, L., Villasante, F., Armesto, J., Hedin, L., and Horn, H.. (2014). "Epiphytes improve host plant water use by microenvironment modification." Functional Ecology. British Ecological Society. 28: 1274-1283. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12249.</ref>.

== Common Vascular Epiphytes ==

===Orchids===

As stated, the orchid family (Orchidaceae) is one of incredible diversity. Across all orchids, though, with their variety of shapes, sizes, and growth strategies, they each have six waxy or velvety "petal-like parts" <ref name= "orchid">University of Wisonsin-Madison. (5 Nov 2010). "Orchids." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/orchids/.</ref>. These plants can either grow terrestrially or epiphytically (relying on trees for this growth). Higher precipitation and temperatures typically lead to the growth of epiphytic orchids. Therefore, they tend to display this growth strategy in the humid climate of tropical areas. When orchids display epiphytic growth, their leaves tend to become thick and their aerial roots become covered in a layer of dead skin cells. These adaptations help the plant to better conserve and absorb water. Other adaptations of epiphytic orchids include having pseudobulbs that help retain water and practicing Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) photosynthesis to conserve water <ref name= "keppel">Taylor, A., Keppel, G., Weigelt, P., Zotz, G., Kreft, H.. (2021). "Functional traits are key to understanding orchid diversity on islands." Ecography. 44: 703–714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecog.05410.</ref>.

[[File:orchid13.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Orchid (''Guarianthe skinneri'') Growing on a Tree in Mexico (Photographed by Alexis López Hernández, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]

[[File:orchid15.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Orchid (''Guarianthe skinneri'') Growing on a Tree in Mexico (Photographed by Alexis López Hernández, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]

===Bromeliads===

The bromeliad family (Bromeliaceae), is also very diverse, as discussed, and it contains about 2,500 species of which about half are epiphytes. These plants are native to the tropical areas of North and South America. Typically, bromeliads are stemless, and they display a rosette of leaves <ref name= "uw">University of Wisconsin-Madison. (2025). "Bromeliads." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/bromeliads/.</ref>. Out of all epiphytes, bromeliads are thought to be uniquely significant in their ecosystems. For instance, some bromeliads have overlapping leaves that provide areas of shelter for small [[animals]]. Additionally, bromeliads have reservoirs that store water, again helping small animals. The evaporation of water from this area can also affect the behavior of host tree species. Bromeliads provide nectar, flowers, and fruit for many animals as well. These plants absorb nutrients through both roots and aerial parts <ref name= "nievola">Nievola, C., Kanashiro, S., Tamaki, V., Guardia, M., Suzuki, R., Costa, J., Baptista, W., Cachenco,
M., Shidomi, Y., Santos Junior, N.. (2022). "Simultaneous relocation strategy of bromeliads as epiphytes or terricolous in the
Montane Dense Ombrophilous Forest of Parque Estadual da Cantareira, São Paulo State, Brazil." Hoehnea 49: e052022.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2236-8906-05-2022</ref>.

[[File:bromeliad12.jpg|1100px|thumb|center|Bromeliad (''Catopsis nutans'') Growing on a Tree in Mexico (Photographed by avocat, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]

===Ferns===

Ferns are one of Earth's oldest plant groups, and today this group has approximately 10,500 species, with its diversity only outnumbered by flowering plants <ref name= "pinson">Pinson, Jerald. (2021). "About Ferns." American Fern Society. https://www.amerfernsoc.org/about-ferns.</ref>. About 29 percent of ferns are epiphytic, and this growth style dates back to the Cretaceous period for ferns <ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>. Therefore, the [[fern]] gametophyte and sporophyte forms have uniquely and adequately adapted to this lifestyle. For example, epiphytic fern gametophytes are observed to have more dissection and branching in their morphology as compared to terrestrial fern gametophytes. This is useful in reproduction for epiphytic ferns, as they do not have to rely on the previously mentioned seed dispersion methods of wind and birds. A fern can grow and branch out far enough in order to reach another fern in order to reproduce <ref name= "pinson">Pinson, Jerald. (2021). "About Ferns." American Fern Society. https://www.amerfernsoc.org/about-ferns.</ref>.

The fern family Polypodiaceae has unique adaptations that allow its species to thrive epiphytically. One such adaptation is poikilohydry, which allows these plants to survive and recover from significant periods of dehydration. Additionally, species in this family have specialized methods that allow them to collect [[humus]] as an alternative way to obtain nutrients <ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>.

[[File:fern1.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Fern (''Pleopeltis polypodioides'') Growing on a Tree in Costa Rica (Photographed by meadowfawnie, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]

== References ==
<ref name= "zotz">Zotz, Gerhard. (12 Nov 2012). "The systematic distribution of vascular epiphytes – a critical update." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. The Linnean Society of London. 171: 453–481. https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/171/3/453/2416203.</ref>
<ref name= "nieder">Nieder, J., Prosperi, J., Michaloud, G.. (2001). "Epiphytes and their contribution to canopy diveristy." Plant [[Ecology]]. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 153: 51-63. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226617674_Epiphytes_and_their_contribution_to_canopy_diversity.</ref>
<ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>
<ref name= "taylor">Taylor, A., Zotz G., Weigelt P., Cai L.,Karger D. N., König C., & Kreft H. (2022). "Vascular epiphytes contribute disproportionately to global centres of plant diversity." Global Ecology and Biogeography, 31: 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13411.</ref>
<ref name= "hietz">Hietz, P., Wagner, K., Nunes Ramos, F.,Cabral, J. S., Agudelo, C., Benavides, A. M., Cach-Pérez, M. J.,Cardelús, C. L., Chilpa Galván, N., Erickson Nascimento daCosta, L., de Paula Oliveira, R., Einzmann, H. J. R., de PaivaFarias, R., Guzmán Jacob, V., Kattge, J., Kessler, M., Kirby, C.,Kreft, H., Krömer, T., … Zotz, G. (2022). "Putting vascular epiphytes on the traits map." Journal of Ecology, 110: 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13802.</ref>
<ref name= "keppel">Taylor, A., Keppel, G., Weigelt, P., Zotz, G., Kreft, H.. (2021). "Functional traits are key to understanding orchid diversity on islands." Ecography. 44: 703–714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecog.05410.</ref>
<ref name= "nievola">Nievola, C., Kanashiro, S., Tamaki, V., Guardia, M., Suzuki, R., Costa, J., Baptista, W., Cachenco,
M., Shidomi, Y., Santos Junior, N.. (2022). "Simultaneous relocation strategy of bromeliads as epiphytes or terricolous in the
Montane Dense Ombrophilous Forest of Parque Estadual da Cantareira, São Paulo State, Brazil." Hoehnea 49: e052022.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2236-8906-05-2022</ref>
<ref name= "uw">University of Wisconsin-Madison. (2025). "Bromeliads." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/bromeliads/.</ref>
<ref name= "orchid">University of Wisonsin-Madison. (5 Nov 2010). "Orchids." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/orchids/.</ref>
<ref name= "pinson">Pinson, Jerald. (2021). "About Ferns." American Fern Society. https://www.amerfernsoc.org/about-ferns.</ref>
<ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>
<ref name= "stanton">Stanton, D., Huallpa Chávez, J., Villegas, L., Villasante, F., Armesto, J., Hedin, L., and Horn, H.. (2014). "Epiphytes improve host plant water use by microenvironment modification." Functional Ecology. British Ecological Society. 28: 1274-1283. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12249.</ref>
<ref name= "naranjo">Naranjo, C., Iriondo, J., Riofrio, M., Lara-Romero, C.. (2019). "Evaluating the structure of commensalistic epiphyte–phorophyte networks: a comparative perspective of biotic interactions" AoB PLANTS. 11(2): plz011. https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/plz011.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Epiphytes

2025-05-02T14:23:33Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

[[File:bromeliad10.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Bromeliad (''Tillandsia aeranthos'') Growing on a Tree in Argentina (Photographed by nicochimento, 2020) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>].]

Epiphytes, specifically vascular epiphytes, are those plants that germinate and take root on other plants. These plants generally exhibit commensal relationships with their host plants, and therefore epiphytes receive shelter and protection with no cost or benefit to their host plant <ref name= "naranjo">Naranjo, C., Iriondo, J., Riofrio, M., Lara-Romero, C.. (2019). "Evaluating the structure of commensalistic epiphyte–phorophyte networks: a comparative perspective of biotic interactions" AoB PLANTS. 11(2): plz011. https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/plz011.</ref>. Epiphytes can be both obligate and facultative <ref name= "zotz">Zotz, Gerhard. (12 Nov 2012). "The systematic distribution of vascular epiphytes – a critical update." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. The Linnean Society of London. 171: 453–481. https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/171/3/453/2416203.</ref>. Facultative epiphytes are plant species that grow terrestrially and epiphytically approximately the same amount of times across their distribution. If a species grows epiphytically at least 95 percent of the time, it is considered an obligate epiphyte <ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>. Plants that grow on other plants for only a portion of their life are referred to as "hemi-epiphytes" <ref name= "nieder">Nieder, J., Prosperi, J., Michaloud, G.. (2001). "Epiphytes and their contribution to canopy diveristy." Plant [[Ecology]]. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 153: 51-63. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226617674_Epiphytes_and_their_contribution_to_canopy_diversity.</ref>. Additionally "accidental epiphytes" can occur when a plant that does not usually grow epiphytically at any point in its life cycle does so due to a need or opportunity for resources <ref name= "zotz">Zotz, Gerhard. (12 Nov 2012). "The systematic distribution of vascular epiphytes – a critical update." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. The Linnean Society of London. 171: 453–481. https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/171/3/453/2416203.</ref>. Epiphytes account for approximately 10 percent of all plant [[diversity]]. It is estimated that over 24,000 vascular plants are considered to be epiphytes, and they are most commonly concentrated in tropical areas where they can provide significant [[Ecosystem Services|ecosystem services]] <ref name= "nieder">Nieder, J., Prosperi, J., Michaloud, G.. (2001). "Epiphytes and their contribution to canopy diveristy." Plant [[Ecology]]. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 153: 51-63. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226617674_Epiphytes_and_their_contribution_to_canopy_diversity.</ref>. Since epiphytes usually have no direct contact with soil, their most common threat is desiccation, thus these plants have many unique adaptations that allow them to conserve water and thrive <ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Ecologically, epiphytes exhibit opportunism, filling gaps in an ecosystem when possible and often growing in tree crowns. Most vascular plants can display epiphytic growth if they are in the appropriate conditions. For example, the aforementioned "accidental epiphytes" result from a usually terrestrial species taking advantage of beneficial conditions in its microhabitat. In these cases, a plant species may have a fundamental niche in which it can grow epiphytically but is usually not able to due to competition or lack of resources <ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>.

Therefore, evolutionarily, epiphytes have adapted to canopy conditions <ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>. Epiphytism is also thought to have led to the rapid diversification of certain plant families. For example, approximately 75 percent of the family Orchidaceae and 59 percent of the family Bromeliaceae are epiphytic, showing that this growth style has been beneficial in these families' life histories and has allowed them to grow quickly <ref name= "taylor">Taylor, A., Zotz G., Weigelt P., Cai L.,Karger D. N., König C., & Kreft H. (2022). "Vascular epiphytes contribute disproportionately to global centres of plant diversity." Global Ecology and Biogeography, 31: 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13411.</ref>.

With this growth style have come many unique adaptations in epiphytes that help them thrive in their environment and retain ecosystem stability. For instance, epiphyte habitats are usually considered to be discontinuous, and because of their common habitat in tree canopies, their seeds are usually dispersed via wind or birds. Additionally, these plants have roots that are specially designed to grow in areas that do not contain [[soil]]. This unique growth system also means that epiphytes need to be well-adapted to absorbing rainwater, as they cannot access this resource through soil. Epiphytes are also smaller and lighter in size and weight in order to not pressure the plant they grow on, possibly causing stress or dislodgement. Along with this, epiphytes have leaves adapted to light conditions of canopies and a structure that is able to retain water in times of stress <ref name= "hietz">Hietz, P., Wagner, K., Nunes Ramos, F.,Cabral, J. S., Agudelo, C., Benavides, A. M., Cach-Pérez, M. J.,Cardelús, C. L., Chilpa Galván, N., Erickson Nascimento daCosta, L., de Paula Oliveira, R., Einzmann, H. J. R., de PaivaFarias, R., Guzmán Jacob, V., Kattge, J., Kessler, M., Kirby, C.,Kreft, H., Krömer, T., … Zotz, G. (2022). "Putting vascular epiphytes on the traits map." Journal of Ecology, 110: 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13802.</ref>.
===Epiphytes & Soil===

Though epiphytic plants do not directly contact it, they have indirect effects on the soil of their microclimates. Soils beneath epiphyte host plants tend to absorb less water from rainfall and fog. Especially during wet seasons, epiphytes have a strong influence on the amount of water from precipitation retained by soil, which can affect the growth of their host plants <ref name= "stanton">Stanton, D., Huallpa Chávez, J., Villegas, L., Villasante, F., Armesto, J., Hedin, L., and Horn, H.. (2014). "Epiphytes improve host plant water use by microenvironment modification." Functional Ecology. British Ecological Society. 28: 1274-1283. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12249.</ref>.

== Common Vascular Epiphytes ==

===Orchids===

As stated, the orchid family (Orchidaceae) is one of incredible diversity. Across all orchids, though, with their variety of shapes, sizes, and growth strategies, they each have six waxy or velvety "petal-like parts" <ref name= "orchid">University of Wisonsin-Madison. (5 Nov 2010). "Orchids." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/orchids/.</ref>. These plants can either grow terrestrially or epiphytically (relying on trees for this growth). Higher precipitation and temperatures typically lead to the growth of epiphytic orchids. Therefore, they tend to display this growth strategy in the humid climate of tropical areas. When orchids display epiphytic growth, their leaves tend to become thick and their aerial roots become covered in a layer of dead skin cells. These adaptations help the plant to better conserve and absorb water. Other adaptations of epiphytic orchids include having pseudobulbs that help retain water and practicing Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) photosynthesis to conserve water <ref name= "keppel">Taylor, A., Keppel, G., Weigelt, P., Zotz, G., Kreft, H.. (2021). "Functional traits are key to understanding orchid diversity on islands." Ecography. 44: 703–714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecog.05410.</ref>.

[[File:orchid13.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Orchid (''Guarianthe skinneri'') Growing on a Tree in Mexico (Photographed by Alexis López Hernández, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>].]

[[File:orchid15.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Orchid (''Guarianthe skinneri'') Growing on a Tree in Mexico (Photographed by Alexis López Hernández, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>].]

===Bromeliads===

The bromeliad family (Bromeliaceae), is also very diverse, as discussed, and it contains about 2,500 species of which about half are epiphytes. These plants are native to the tropical areas of North and South America. Typically, bromeliads are stemless, and they display a rosette of leaves <ref name= "uw">University of Wisconsin-Madison. (2025). "Bromeliads." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/bromeliads/.</ref>. Out of all epiphytes, bromeliads are thought to be uniquely significant in their ecosystems. For instance, some bromeliads have overlapping leaves that provide areas of shelter for small [[animals]]. Additionally, bromeliads have reservoirs that store water, again helping small animals. The evaporation of water from this area can also affect the behavior of host tree species. Bromeliads provide nectar, flowers, and fruit for many animals as well. These plants absorb nutrients through both roots and aerial parts <ref name= "nievola">Nievola, C., Kanashiro, S., Tamaki, V., Guardia, M., Suzuki, R., Costa, J., Baptista, W., Cachenco,
M., Shidomi, Y., Santos Junior, N.. (2022). "Simultaneous relocation strategy of bromeliads as epiphytes or terricolous in the
Montane Dense Ombrophilous Forest of Parque Estadual da Cantareira, São Paulo State, Brazil." Hoehnea 49: e052022.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2236-8906-05-2022</ref>.

[[File:bromeliad12.jpg|1100px|thumb|center|Bromeliad (''Catopsis nutans'') Growing on a Tree in Mexico (Photographed by avocat, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>].]

===Ferns===

Ferns are one of Earth's oldest plant groups, and today this group has approximately 10,500 species, with its diversity only outnumbered by flowering plants <ref name= "pinson">Pinson, Jerald. (2021). "About Ferns." American Fern Society. https://www.amerfernsoc.org/about-ferns.</ref>. About 29 percent of ferns are epiphytic, and this growth style dates back to the Cretaceous period for ferns <ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>. Therefore, the [[fern]] gametophyte and sporophyte forms have uniquely and adequately adapted to this lifestyle. For example, epiphytic fern gametophytes are observed to have more dissection and branching in their morphology as compared to terrestrial fern gametophytes. This is useful in reproduction for epiphytic ferns, as they do not have to rely on the previously mentioned seed dispersion methods of wind and birds. A fern can grow and branch out far enough in order to reach another fern in order to reproduce <ref name= "pinson">Pinson, Jerald. (2021). "About Ferns." American Fern Society. https://www.amerfernsoc.org/about-ferns.</ref>.

The fern family Polypodiaceae has unique adaptations that allow its species to thrive epiphytically. One such adaptation is poikilohydry, which allows these plants to survive and recover from significant periods of dehydration. Additionally, species in this family have specialized methods that allow them to collect [[humus]] as an alternative way to obtain nutrients <ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>.

[[File:fern1.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Fern (''Pleopeltis polypodioides'') Growing on a Tree in Costa Rica (Photographed by meadowfawnie, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>].]

== References ==
<ref name= "zotz">Zotz, Gerhard. (12 Nov 2012). "The systematic distribution of vascular epiphytes – a critical update." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. The Linnean Society of London. 171: 453–481. https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/171/3/453/2416203.</ref>
<ref name= "nieder">Nieder, J., Prosperi, J., Michaloud, G.. (2001). "Epiphytes and their contribution to canopy diveristy." Plant [[Ecology]]. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 153: 51-63. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226617674_Epiphytes_and_their_contribution_to_canopy_diversity.</ref>
<ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>
<ref name= "taylor">Taylor, A., Zotz G., Weigelt P., Cai L.,Karger D. N., König C., & Kreft H. (2022). "Vascular epiphytes contribute disproportionately to global centres of plant diversity." Global Ecology and Biogeography, 31: 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13411.</ref>
<ref name= "hietz">Hietz, P., Wagner, K., Nunes Ramos, F.,Cabral, J. S., Agudelo, C., Benavides, A. M., Cach-Pérez, M. J.,Cardelús, C. L., Chilpa Galván, N., Erickson Nascimento daCosta, L., de Paula Oliveira, R., Einzmann, H. J. R., de PaivaFarias, R., Guzmán Jacob, V., Kattge, J., Kessler, M., Kirby, C.,Kreft, H., Krömer, T., … Zotz, G. (2022). "Putting vascular epiphytes on the traits map." Journal of Ecology, 110: 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13802.</ref>
<ref name= "keppel">Taylor, A., Keppel, G., Weigelt, P., Zotz, G., Kreft, H.. (2021). "Functional traits are key to understanding orchid diversity on islands." Ecography. 44: 703–714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecog.05410.</ref>
<ref name= "nievola">Nievola, C., Kanashiro, S., Tamaki, V., Guardia, M., Suzuki, R., Costa, J., Baptista, W., Cachenco,
M., Shidomi, Y., Santos Junior, N.. (2022). "Simultaneous relocation strategy of bromeliads as epiphytes or terricolous in the
Montane Dense Ombrophilous Forest of Parque Estadual da Cantareira, São Paulo State, Brazil." Hoehnea 49: e052022.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2236-8906-05-2022</ref>
<ref name= "uw">University of Wisconsin-Madison. (2025). "Bromeliads." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/bromeliads/.</ref>
<ref name= "orchid">University of Wisonsin-Madison. (5 Nov 2010). "Orchids." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/orchids/.</ref>
<ref name= "pinson">Pinson, Jerald. (2021). "About Ferns." American Fern Society. https://www.amerfernsoc.org/about-ferns.</ref>
<ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>
<ref name= "stanton">Stanton, D., Huallpa Chávez, J., Villegas, L., Villasante, F., Armesto, J., Hedin, L., and Horn, H.. (2014). "Epiphytes improve host plant water use by microenvironment modification." Functional Ecology. British Ecological Society. 28: 1274-1283. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12249.</ref>
<ref name= "naranjo">Naranjo, C., Iriondo, J., Riofrio, M., Lara-Romero, C.. (2019). "Evaluating the structure of commensalistic epiphyte–phorophyte networks: a comparative perspective of biotic interactions" AoB PLANTS. 11(2): plz011. https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/plz011.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Acorn ant

2025-05-02T14:20:09Z

Almonaco:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Acorn Ant Taxonomy <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>'''
|-
!colspan="2"|[[File:Acorn ant.jpg| 300px]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hymenoptera
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Formicidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subfamily:
|style="min-width:6em; |Myrmicinae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Tribe:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crematogastrini
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Temnothorax
|-
|colspan="2" |Image Source: Bug Guide <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>
|}

== Acorn Ant Description ==

Acorn ants (temnothorax genus) are a well-studied species found in both rural and urban areas of the eastern United States. The common name, "acorn ant," results from the fact that an entire colony (which typically contains between 50 and 200 worker ants, along with several queens) can live in hollowed-out nuts, such as acorns <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>. Acorn ants are amber to yellow in color, darkening with age, and they have 11-segmented antennae, along with a curved propodeal spine. The middle part of the ant's body (mesosoma) is covered in rough ridges (rugae) <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. The ''Temnothorax'' genus has been notably studied for their social structures and behaviors, such as communication and responsibility within colonies <ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>.

== Habitat & Range ==

[[File:Acorn ant map.PNG|500px|thumb|Map of Acorn Ant Native Range <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>]]

Starting along the eastern United States coast, acorn ants' range extends as far north as Maine, as far south as Florida, and as far west as Arizona. They can also be found in parts of Canada, including Ontario <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>. They are likely to occupy temperate and subtropical northern forests <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>.

== Nesting Habits ==

In addition to hollowed-out nuts, acorn ant nests can be found in hollow stems, insect galls, puffballs, and pinecones. Nests may also be under rocks or in [[soil]], and they are usually found at lower elevations. Acorn ants are polydomous (they can inhabit several homes at the same time), which is useful in the event of a disturbance to a nest, as they can easily change where they reside <ref> Healey, Christiane I. M., and Pratt, Stephen C.. (2008). “The Effect of Prior Experience on Nest Site Evaluation by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Animal Behaviour. 76 (3): 893–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.02.016.</ref>. In the summer, sub-colonies can build new nests near their main population's. During the winter, sub-colonies coalesce back into one large colony. But, during the winter, about half of the colony is lost, as ants either die off or migrate to start or join a colony <ref> Pratt, Stephen C. (2005). "Behavioral mechanisms of collective nest-site choice by the ant Temnothorax curvispinosus." Insectes Sociaux. 52: 383–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-005-0823-z.</ref>.

== Reproduction ==

Acorn ants are polygynous, meaning one colony can have multiple queens <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. Male ants will reproduce with the queens in a colony, and larvae can be found inside a nest all year-round. After the eggs hatch into larvae, they will go through multiple molting stages. Eventually, larvae will metamorphose into a pupa and then grow into an adult ant. Female ants within a colony that are fed more when they are young grow to become queen ants. Queen and male ants have wings while worker ants (female) do not <ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>. Eventually, multiple queens will work together to form a new colony (this process is called pleometrosis). Queens can also be adopted into an existing colony <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.
[[File:Worker acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Worker Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Male acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Male Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Queen acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Queen Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]]

== Diet ==

Acorn ants are generalist feeders, but most commonly eat liquid sugars from tree and plant leaves. These ants may also eat small [[insects]] for protein, like spring tails and dipterans (flies). Acorn ants may also partake in [[foraging]], which is usually done in tandem. Foraging in tandem means that one ant will recruit another to follow and help them find and secure food. This recruited ant will recruit another to do the same, and the pattern continues. This strategy is particularly useful when there is a clumped food distribution. Foraging as a behavior for acorn ants is more common in the spring and summer <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.

== Adaption to Rising Temperatures ==

The development of urban spaces has caused a rapid rise in environmental temperatures, especially with impermeable surfaces. Acorn ants have shown plasticity in their physiological response to these rising temperatures, and it was found that colonies present in these urban areas have better adapted to this temperature increase. This finding was correlated with both faster rates of diurnal temperature rise in urban acorn ant nest sites and more rapid spatial changes in temperature across urban foraging areas <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>.

== References ==

<ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>
<ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>
<ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>

Acorn ant

2025-05-02T14:17:09Z

Almonaco:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Acorn Ant Taxonomy <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>'''
|-
!colspan="2"|[[File:Acorn ant.jpg| 300px]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hymenoptera
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Formicidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subfamily:
|style="min-width:6em; |Myrmicinae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Tribe:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crematogastrini
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Temnothorax
|-
|colspan="2" |Image Source: Bug Guide <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>
|}

== Acorn Ant Description ==

Species of the Temnothorax genus, or acorn ants, are a well-studied species found in both rural and urban areas of the eastern United States. Their common name, "acorn ant," results from the fact that an entire colony (which typically contains between 50 and 200 worker ants, along with several queens) can live in hollowed-out nuts, such as acorns <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>. Acorn ants are amber to yellow in color, darkening with age, and they have 11-segmented antennae, along with a curved propodeal spine. The middle part of the ant's body (mesosoma) is covered in rough ridges (rugae) <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. The ''Temnothorax'' genus has been notably studied for their social structures and behaviors, such as communication and responsibility within colonies <ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>.

== Habitat & Range ==

[[File:Acorn ant map.PNG|500px|thumb|Map of Acorn Ant Native Range <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>]]

Starting along the eastern United States coast, acorn ants' range extends as far north as Maine, as far south as Florida, and as far west as Arizona. They can also be found in parts of Canada, including Ontario <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>. They are likely to occupy temperate and subtropical northern forests <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>.

== Nesting Habits ==

In addition to hollowed-out nuts, acorn ant nests can be found in hollow stems, insect galls, puffballs, and pinecones. Nests may also be under rocks or in [[soil]], and they are usually found at lower elevations. Acorn ants are polydomous (they can inhabit several homes at the same time), which is useful in the event of a disturbance to a nest, as they can easily change where they reside <ref> Healey, Christiane I. M., and Pratt, Stephen C.. (2008). “The Effect of Prior Experience on Nest Site Evaluation by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Animal Behaviour. 76 (3): 893–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.02.016.</ref>. In the summer, sub-colonies can build new nests near their main population's. During the winter, sub-colonies coalesce back into one large colony. But, during the winter, about half of the colony is lost, as ants either die off or migrate to start or join a colony <ref> Pratt, Stephen C. (2005). "Behavioral mechanisms of collective nest-site choice by the ant Temnothorax curvispinosus." Insectes Sociaux. 52: 383–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-005-0823-z.</ref>.

== Reproduction ==

Acorn ants are polygynous, meaning one colony can have multiple queens <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. Male ants will reproduce with the queens in a colony, and larvae can be found inside a nest all year-round. After the eggs hatch into larvae, they will go through multiple molting stages. Eventually, larvae will metamorphose into a pupa and then grow into an adult ant. Female ants within a colony that are fed more when they are young grow to become queen ants. Queen and male ants have wings while worker ants (female) do not <ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>. Eventually, multiple queens will work together to form a new colony (this process is called pleometrosis). Queens can also be adopted into an existing colony <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.
[[File:Worker acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Worker Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Male acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Male Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Queen acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Queen Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]]

== Diet ==

Acorn ants are generalist feeders, but most commonly eat liquid sugars from tree and plant leaves. These ants may also eat small [[insects]] for protein, like spring tails and dipterans (flies). Acorn ants may also partake in [[foraging]], which is usually done in tandem. Foraging in tandem means that one ant will recruit another to follow and help them find and secure food. This recruited ant will recruit another to do the same, and the pattern continues. This strategy is particularly useful when there is a clumped food distribution. Foraging as a behavior for acorn ants is more common in the spring and summer <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.

== Adaption to Rising Temperatures ==

The development of urban spaces has caused a rapid rise in environmental temperatures, especially with impermeable surfaces. Acorn ants have shown plasticity in their physiological response to these rising temperatures, and it was found that colonies present in these urban areas have better adapted to this temperature increase. This finding was correlated with both faster rates of diurnal temperature rise in urban acorn ant nest sites and more rapid spatial changes in temperature across urban foraging areas <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>.

== References ==

<ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>
<ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>
<ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>

Acorn ant

2025-05-02T14:15:35Z

Almonaco:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Acorn Ant Taxonomy <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>'''
|-
!colspan="2"|[[File:Acorn ant.jpg| 300px]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hymenoptera
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Formicidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subfamily:
|style="min-width:6em; |Myrmicinae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Tribe:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crematogastrini
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Temnothorax
|-
|colspan="2" |Image Source: Bug Guide <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>
|}

== Species Description ==

''Temnothorax curvispinosus'', or the acorn ant, is a well-studied species found in both rural and urban areas of the eastern United States. Their common name, "acorn ant," results from the fact that an entire colony (which typically contains between 50 and 200 worker ants, along with several queens) can live in hollowed-out nuts, such as acorns <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>. Acorn ants are amber to yellow in color, darkening with age, and they have 11-segmented antennae, along with a curved propodeal spine. The middle part of the ant's body (mesosoma) is covered in rough ridges (rugae) <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. The ''Temnothorax'' genus has been notably studied for their social structures and behaviors, such as communication and responsibility within colonies <ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>.

== Habitat & Range ==

[[File:Acorn ant map.PNG|500px|thumb|Map of Acorn Ant Native Range <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>]]

Starting along the eastern United States coast, acorn ants' range extends as far north as Maine, as far south as Florida, and as far west as Arizona. They can also be found in parts of Canada, including Ontario <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>. They are likely to occupy temperate and subtropical northern forests <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>.

== Nesting Habits ==

In addition to hollowed-out nuts, acorn ant nests can be found in hollow stems, insect galls, puffballs, and pinecones. Nests may also be under rocks or in [[soil]], and they are usually found at lower elevations. Acorn ants are polydomous (they can inhabit several homes at the same time), which is useful in the event of a disturbance to a nest, as they can easily change where they reside <ref> Healey, Christiane I. M., and Pratt, Stephen C.. (2008). “The Effect of Prior Experience on Nest Site Evaluation by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Animal Behaviour. 76 (3): 893–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.02.016.</ref>. In the summer, sub-colonies can build new nests near their main population's. During the winter, sub-colonies coalesce back into one large colony. But, during the winter, about half of the colony is lost, as ants either die off or migrate to start or join a colony <ref> Pratt, Stephen C. (2005). "Behavioral mechanisms of collective nest-site choice by the ant Temnothorax curvispinosus." Insectes Sociaux. 52: 383–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-005-0823-z.</ref>.

== Reproduction ==

Acorn ants are polygynous, meaning one colony can have multiple queens <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. Male ants will reproduce with the queens in a colony, and larvae can be found inside a nest all year-round. After the eggs hatch into larvae, they will go through multiple molting stages. Eventually, larvae will metamorphose into a pupa and then grow into an adult ant. Female ants within a colony that are fed more when they are young grow to become queen ants. Queen and male ants have wings while worker ants (female) do not <ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>. Eventually, multiple queens will work together to form a new colony (this process is called pleometrosis). Queens can also be adopted into an existing colony <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.
[[File:Worker acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Worker Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Male acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Male Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Queen acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Queen Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]]

== Diet ==

Acorn ants are generalist feeders, but most commonly eat liquid sugars from tree and plant leaves. These ants may also eat small [[insects]] for protein, like spring tails and dipterans (flies). Acorn ants may also partake in [[foraging]], which is usually done in tandem. Foraging in tandem means that one ant will recruit another to follow and help them find and secure food. This recruited ant will recruit another to do the same, and the pattern continues. This strategy is particularly useful when there is a clumped food distribution. Foraging as a behavior for acorn ants is more common in the spring and summer <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.

== Adaption to Rising Temperatures ==

The development of urban spaces has caused a rapid rise in environmental temperatures, especially with impermeable surfaces. Acorn ants have shown plasticity in their physiological response to these rising temperatures, and it was found that colonies present in these urban areas have better adapted to this temperature increase. This finding was correlated with both faster rates of diurnal temperature rise in urban acorn ant nest sites and more rapid spatial changes in temperature across urban foraging areas <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>.

== References ==

<ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>
<ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>
<ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>

Acorn ant

2025-05-02T14:13:57Z

Almonaco:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Acorn Ant Taxonomy <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>'''
|-
!colspan="2"|[[File:Acorn ant.jpg| 300px]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hymenoptera
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Formicidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subfamily:
|style="min-width:6em; |Myrmicinae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Tribe:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crematogastrini
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Temnothorax
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |''Temnothorax curvispinosus''
|-
|colspan="2" |Image Source: Bug Guide <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>
|}

== Species Description ==

''Temnothorax curvispinosus'', or the acorn ant, is a well-studied species found in both rural and urban areas of the eastern United States. Their common name, "acorn ant," results from the fact that an entire colony (which typically contains between 50 and 200 worker ants, along with several queens) can live in hollowed-out nuts, such as acorns <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>. Acorn ants are amber to yellow in color, darkening with age, and they have 11-segmented antennae, along with a curved propodeal spine. The middle part of the ant's body (mesosoma) is covered in rough ridges (rugae) <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. The ''Temnothorax'' genus has been notably studied for their social structures and behaviors, such as communication and responsibility within colonies <ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>.

== Habitat & Range ==

[[File:Acorn ant map.PNG|500px|thumb|Map of Acorn Ant Native Range <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>]]

Starting along the eastern United States coast, acorn ants' range extends as far north as Maine, as far south as Florida, and as far west as Arizona. They can also be found in parts of Canada, including Ontario <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>. They are likely to occupy temperate and subtropical northern forests <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>.

== Nesting Habits ==

In addition to hollowed-out nuts, acorn ant nests can be found in hollow stems, insect galls, puffballs, and pinecones. Nests may also be under rocks or in [[soil]], and they are usually found at lower elevations. Acorn ants are polydomous (they can inhabit several homes at the same time), which is useful in the event of a disturbance to a nest, as they can easily change where they reside <ref> Healey, Christiane I. M., and Pratt, Stephen C.. (2008). “The Effect of Prior Experience on Nest Site Evaluation by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Animal Behaviour. 76 (3): 893–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.02.016.</ref>. In the summer, sub-colonies can build new nests near their main population's. During the winter, sub-colonies coalesce back into one large colony. But, during the winter, about half of the colony is lost, as ants either die off or migrate to start or join a colony <ref> Pratt, Stephen C. (2005). "Behavioral mechanisms of collective nest-site choice by the ant Temnothorax curvispinosus." Insectes Sociaux. 52: 383–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-005-0823-z.</ref>.

== Reproduction ==

Acorn ants are polygynous, meaning one colony can have multiple queens <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. Male ants will reproduce with the queens in a colony, and larvae can be found inside a nest all year-round. After the eggs hatch into larvae, they will go through multiple molting stages. Eventually, larvae will metamorphose into a pupa and then grow into an adult ant. Female ants within a colony that are fed more when they are young grow to become queen ants. Queen and male ants have wings while worker ants (female) do not <ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>. Eventually, multiple queens will work together to form a new colony (this process is called pleometrosis). Queens can also be adopted into an existing colony <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.
[[File:Worker acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Worker Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Male acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Male Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Queen acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Queen Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]]

== Diet ==

Acorn ants are generalist feeders, but most commonly eat liquid sugars from tree and plant leaves. These ants may also eat small [[insects]] for protein, like spring tails and dipterans (flies). Acorn ants may also partake in [[foraging]], which is usually done in tandem. Foraging in tandem means that one ant will recruit another to follow and help them find and secure food. This recruited ant will recruit another to do the same, and the pattern continues. This strategy is particularly useful when there is a clumped food distribution. Foraging as a behavior for acorn ants is more common in the spring and summer <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.

== Adaption to Rising Temperatures ==

The development of urban spaces has caused a rapid rise in environmental temperatures, especially with impermeable surfaces. Acorn ants have shown plasticity in their physiological response to these rising temperatures, and it was found that colonies present in these urban areas have better adapted to this temperature increase. This finding was correlated with both faster rates of diurnal temperature rise in urban acorn ant nest sites and more rapid spatial changes in temperature across urban foraging areas <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>.

== References ==

<ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>
<ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>
<ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>

Acorn ant

2025-05-02T14:12:33Z

Almonaco:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float:right; margin-left: 10px;
|+ !colspan="2" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|'''Acorn Ant Taxonomy <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>'''
|-
!colspan="2"|[[File:Acorn ant.jpg| 300px]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Kingdom:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Animals|Animalia]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Phylum:
|style="min-width:6em; |[[Arthropoda]]
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Class:
|style="min-width:6em; |Insecta
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Order:
|style="min-width:6em; |Hymenoptera
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Family:
|style="min-width:6em; |Formicidae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Subfamily:
|style="min-width:6em; |Myrmicinae
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Tribe:
|style="min-width:6em; |Crematogastrini
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Genus:
|style="min-width:6em; |Temnothorax
|-
!style="min-width:6em; |Species:
|style="min-width:6em; |Temnothorax curvispinosus
|-
|colspan="2" |Image Source: Bug Guide <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>
|}

== Species Description ==

''Temnothorax curvispinosus'', or the acorn ant, is a well-studied species found in both rural and urban areas of the eastern United States. Their common name, "acorn ant," results from the fact that an entire colony (which typically contains between 50 and 200 worker ants, along with several queens) can live in hollowed-out nuts, such as acorns <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>. Acorn ants are amber to yellow in color, darkening with age, and they have 11-segmented antennae, along with a curved propodeal spine. The middle part of the ant's body (mesosoma) is covered in rough ridges (rugae) <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. The ''Temnothorax'' genus has been notably studied for their social structures and behaviors, such as communication and responsibility within colonies <ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>.

== Habitat & Range ==

[[File:Acorn ant map.PNG|500px|thumb|Map of Acorn Ant Native Range <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>]]

Starting along the eastern United States coast, acorn ants' range extends as far north as Maine, as far south as Florida, and as far west as Arizona. They can also be found in parts of Canada, including Ontario <ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>. They are likely to occupy temperate and subtropical northern forests <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>.

== Nesting Habits ==

In addition to hollowed-out nuts, acorn ant nests can be found in hollow stems, insect galls, puffballs, and pinecones. Nests may also be under rocks or in [[soil]], and they are usually found at lower elevations. Acorn ants are polydomous (they can inhabit several homes at the same time), which is useful in the event of a disturbance to a nest, as they can easily change where they reside <ref> Healey, Christiane I. M., and Pratt, Stephen C.. (2008). “The Effect of Prior Experience on Nest Site Evaluation by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Animal Behaviour. 76 (3): 893–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.02.016.</ref>. In the summer, sub-colonies can build new nests near their main population's. During the winter, sub-colonies coalesce back into one large colony. But, during the winter, about half of the colony is lost, as ants either die off or migrate to start or join a colony <ref> Pratt, Stephen C. (2005). "Behavioral mechanisms of collective nest-site choice by the ant Temnothorax curvispinosus." Insectes Sociaux. 52: 383–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-005-0823-z.</ref>.

== Reproduction ==

Acorn ants are polygynous, meaning one colony can have multiple queens <ref name= "queen">Mackay, W. P.. (2000). "A review of the New World ants of the subgenus Myrafant, (genus Leptothorax) ([[Hymenoptera]]: [[Formicidae]])." Sociobiology. 36 (2): 265–434. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286112621_A_review_of_the_New_World_ants_of_the_subgenus_Myrafant_Genus_Leptothorax_Hymenoptera_Formicidae.</ref>. Male ants will reproduce with the queens in a colony, and larvae can be found inside a nest all year-round. After the eggs hatch into larvae, they will go through multiple molting stages. Eventually, larvae will metamorphose into a pupa and then grow into an adult ant. Female ants within a colony that are fed more when they are young grow to become queen ants. Queen and male ants have wings while worker ants (female) do not <ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>. Eventually, multiple queens will work together to form a new colony (this process is called pleometrosis). Queens can also be adopted into an existing colony <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.
[[File:Worker acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Worker Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Male acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Male Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]][[File:Queen acorn ant.jpg|200px|thumb|Queen Acorn Ant <ref name= "multiple">“Species ''Temnothorax Curvispinosus''.” BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/328106/tree. </ref>]]

== Diet ==

Acorn ants are generalist feeders, but most commonly eat liquid sugars from tree and plant leaves. These ants may also eat small [[insects]] for protein, like spring tails and dipterans (flies). Acorn ants may also partake in [[foraging]], which is usually done in tandem. Foraging in tandem means that one ant will recruit another to follow and help them find and secure food. This recruited ant will recruit another to do the same, and the pattern continues. This strategy is particularly useful when there is a clumped food distribution. Foraging as a behavior for acorn ants is more common in the spring and summer <ref name= "food"> Pratt, Stephen C. (2008). “Efficiency and Regulation of Recruitment During Colony Emigration by the Ant Temnothorax Curvispinosus.” Behavioral [[Ecology]] and Sociobiology. 62 (8): 1369–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-008-0565-9.</ref>.

== Adaption to Rising Temperatures ==

The development of urban spaces has caused a rapid rise in environmental temperatures, especially with impermeable surfaces. Acorn ants have shown plasticity in their physiological response to these rising temperatures, and it was found that colonies present in these urban areas have better adapted to this temperature increase. This finding was correlated with both faster rates of diurnal temperature rise in urban acorn ant nest sites and more rapid spatial changes in temperature across urban foraging areas <ref name= "Diamond">Diamond, Sarah E., Chick, Lacy D., Perez, Abe, Strickler, Stephanie A., Zhao, Crystal. (14 June 2018). "Evolution of plasticity in the city: urban acorn ants can better tolerate more rapid increases in environmental temperature." Conservation Physiology. 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy030.</ref>.

== References ==

<ref name= "cycle">Holbrook, Tate. (17 Dec 2009). "Individual Life Cycle of Ants." ASU - Ask A Biologist. ASU - Ask A Biologist. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/individual-life-cycle</ref>
<ref name= "wiki">“Temnothorax curvispinosus.” AntWiki, https://www.antwiki.org/wiki/Temnothorax_curvispinosus</ref>
<ref name= "structure">“Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis” Behavioral Ecology. (19 May 2009). 20 (5): 922-929. https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article-abstract/20/5/922/209417?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-30T19:41:13Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum !! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetles have four life stages: Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Adult. Eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, larvae are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity. Pupae form in early summer, and adults emerge starting in late July <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones can produce compounds to help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Along with their important ecological role, soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually grayish-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are also some of the largest soldier beetles at 8 to 15 millimeters long. They are yellow to orange, with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-30T19:38:58Z

Almonaco: /* Description & Overview */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum !! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetles have four life stages: Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Adult. Eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, larvae are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity. Pupae form in early summer, and adults emerge starting in late July <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones can produce compounds to help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Along with their important ecological role, soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually grayish-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are also some of the largest soldier beetles at 8 to 15 millimeters long. They are yellow to orange, with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Amphipods

2025-04-29T20:01:10Z

Almonaco:

Amphipods are a type of [[crustacean]] belonging groups such as crabs, lobsters, and shrimp [1]. Amphipods can be found in both marine and terrestrial environments, with currently 10,753 known species [1]. In aquatic environments, amphipods are often referred to as as scuds, shrimp, or side swimmers [1]. Terrestrial species may be called land hoppers or beach/sand flies [1]. Amphipods are often considered keystone species due to their high population densities and their significant role in food webs [3].
[[File:Amphipod_microscope.jpg|thumb|600px|right|Figure 1: Aquatic amphipod]]
==Taxonomy==
'''Class:''' Malacostraca
'''Subclass:''' Eumalacostraca
'''Phylum:''' Anthropoda
'''Order:''' Amphipoda
'''Family:''' Gammaridae
[[File:Amphipod_(2).jpg|thumb|600px|left|Figure 2: Amphipod Anatomical Diagram]]
==Description==
Amphipods can range from 1 to 340 millimeters long [2], with a laterally compressed, segmented body and prominent antennae [4]. Amphipods lack a carapace, which is the hard upper shell seen on crayfish or lobsters [5]. Amphipoda means "different feet", referring to their three pairs of pleopods and three pairs of uropods. Conversely, [[Isopods]], a related group of crustaceans, means "same feet" [1]. Most amphipods are [[detritivores]], feeding on decaying plant and animal matter. This feeding style plays a vital role in ecosystems, as it breaks down organic material [5]. Similar to crayfish, amphipods must periodically molt their exoskeleton in order to grow [6].

==Habitat==
'''Aquatic:''' Aquatic amphipods can be found in both marine and freshwater environments and are often found at the bottom of the given substrate [5]. Some aquatic amphipods may be seen burrowing in the substrate, creating small tunnels or depressions where they can hide from predators and forage for food [5]. In doing so, this behavior also plays a role in sediment turnover [5].

'''Terrestrial:''' Terrestrial amphipods live on the top half inch of [[soil]], relying heavily on its moisture to survive [6]. Amphipods do not contain a waxy layer on their exoskeleton, and are therefore prone to desiccation in dry environments. Significant changes in soil moisture or habitat disturbance can quickly impact their populations [6].
[[File:IMG_7670_(1)_(1).jpg|thumb|400px|right|Figure 3: Marine amphipod feeding on algae in substrate]]
==Life Cycle==
Most amphipod species complete their life cycle in one year or less [6]. Female amphipods can produce hundreds of eggs within a single brood [6]. These eggs are kept in a pouch called a marsupium, located on the underside of the female, offering protection as the eggs develop [7]. Depending on the species and water temperature, it may take 1 to 20 weeks for the eggs to fully develop [7]. Once the eggs hatch, the juvenile amphipods look like small versions of the adults and become sexually mature after growing and molting several times [6].

==Ecosystem Importance==
Amphipods are considered secondary producers within aquatic and terrestrial food webs [8]. They primarily feed on organic materials, such as [[algae]] and detritus, which helps recycle nutrients [8]. Additionally, amphipods serve as a major food source for certain juvenile fish species [8].

==References==
[1] Horton, T., Lowry, J., De Broyer, C., Bellan-Santini, D., Coleman, C. O., Daneliya, M., ... & Zeidler, W. (n.d.). World Amphipoda Database. World Register of Marine Species. https://www.marinespecies.org/amphipoda/#:~:text=The%20order%20Amphipoda%20is%20part,and%20three%20pairs%20of%20uropods.

[2] iNaturalist. (n.d.). Amphipoda. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/47628-Amphipoda

[3] Eawag. (2023, October 3). Amphipods: A miraculous increase in biodiversity. https://www.eawag.ch/en/info/portal/news/news-detail/amphipods-a-miraculous-increase-in-biodiversity/

[4] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipod. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/amphipod

[5] Missouri Department of Conservation. (n.d.). Scuds, sideswimmers (amphipods). https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/scuds-sideswimmers-amphipods#:~:text=Habitat%20and%20Conservation,at%20the%20bottom%20of%20ponds.

[6] Buss, L. W., & Bextine, B. (2009). Amphipods (Publication No. IN377). University of Florida IFAS Extension. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN377

[7] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipoda. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/amphipoda

[8] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipod. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002209812300117X

[9] Hudson River Park Trust. (n.d.). Amphipod. https://hudsonriverpark.org/the-park/parks-river-project/science/wetlab/invertebrates/amphipod/

Amphipods

2025-04-29T19:54:48Z

Almonaco:

Amphipods are a type of [[crustacean]] which includes groups such as crabs, lobsters and shrimp [1]. Amphipods can be found in both marine and terrestrial environments with currently 10,753 known species [1]. In aquatic environments, amphipods are often referred to as as scuds, shrimp, or side swimmers [1]. Terrestrial species may be called land hoppers or beach/sand flies [1]. Amphipods are often considered keystone species due to their high population densities and their significant role in food webs [3].
[[File:Amphipod_microscope.jpg|thumb|600px|right|Figure 1: Aquatic amphipod]]
==Taxonomy==
'''Class:''' Malacostraca
'''Subclass:''' Eumalacostraca
'''Phylum:''' Anthropoda
'''Order:''' Amphipoda
'''Family:''' Gammaridae
[[File:Amphipod_(2).jpg|thumb|600px|left|Figure 2: Amphipod Anatomical Diagram]]
==Description==
Amphipods can range from 1 to 340 millimeters [2] with a laterally compressed, segmented body and prominent antennae [4]. Amphipods lack a carapace which is the hard upper shell that be seen on crayfish or lobsters [5]. Amphipoda also means "different feet", referring to their three pairs of pleopods and three pairs of uropods, whereas [[Isopods]], a related group of crustaceans, means "same feet" [1]. Most amphipods are [[detritivores]], feeding on decaying plant and animal matter which plays a vital role in ecosystems by breaking down organic material [5]. Similar to crayfish and lobsters, amphipods must periodically molt their exoskeleton in order to grow [6].

==Habitat==
'''Aquatic:''' Aquatic amphipods can be found in both marine and freshwater environments and are often found at the bottom of the substrate [5]. Some of the aquatic species may be seen burrowing in the substrate, creating small tunnels or depressions where they can hide from predators and forage for food [5]. In doing so, this behavior also plays a role in sediment turnover [5].

'''Terrestrial:''' Terrestrial amphipods live on the top half inch of [[soil]], relying heavily on the moisture to survive [6]. Amphipods do not contain a waxy layer on their exoskeleton, therefore they are prone to desiccation in dry environments due to significant water losses[6]. Significant changes in soil moisture or habitat disturbance can quickly impact their populations.
[[File:IMG_7670_(1)_(1).jpg|thumb|400px|right|Figure 3: Marine amphipod feeding on algae in substrate]]
==Life Cycle==
Most amphipod species complete their life cycle in one year or less [6]. Female amphipods can produce hundreds of eggs within a single brood [6]. These eggs are kept in a pouch called a marsupium, located on the underside of the female offering protection as the eggs develop [7]. Depending on the species and water temperature, it may take 1 to 20 weeks for the eggs to fully develop [7]. Once the eggs hatch, the juvenile amphipods look like small versions of the adults and become sexually mature after growing and molting several times [6].

==Ecosystem Importance==
Amphipods are considered secondary producers within aquatic and terrestrial food webs [8]. They primarily feed on organic materials such as [[algae]] and detritus which helps recycle nutrients [8]. Additionally, amphipods serve as a major food source for certain juvenile fish species [8].

==References==
[1] Horton, T., Lowry, J., De Broyer, C., Bellan-Santini, D., Coleman, C. O., Daneliya, M., ... & Zeidler, W. (n.d.). World Amphipoda Database. World Register of Marine Species. https://www.marinespecies.org/amphipoda/#:~:text=The%20order%20Amphipoda%20is%20part,and%20three%20pairs%20of%20uropods.

[2] iNaturalist. (n.d.). Amphipoda. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/47628-Amphipoda

[3] Eawag. (2023, October 3). Amphipods: A miraculous increase in biodiversity. https://www.eawag.ch/en/info/portal/news/news-detail/amphipods-a-miraculous-increase-in-biodiversity/

[4] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipod. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/amphipod

[5] Missouri Department of Conservation. (n.d.). Scuds, sideswimmers (amphipods). https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/scuds-sideswimmers-amphipods#:~:text=Habitat%20and%20Conservation,at%20the%20bottom%20of%20ponds.

[6] Buss, L. W., & Bextine, B. (2009). Amphipods (Publication No. IN377). University of Florida IFAS Extension. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN377

[7] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipoda. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/amphipoda

[8] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipod. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002209812300117X

[9] Hudson River Park Trust. (n.d.). Amphipod. https://hudsonriverpark.org/the-park/parks-river-project/science/wetlab/invertebrates/amphipod/

Amphipods

2025-04-29T19:54:38Z

Almonaco:

Amphipods, are a type of [[crustacean]] which includes groups such as crabs, lobsters and shrimp [1]. Amphipods can be found in both marine and terrestrial environments with currently 10,753 known species [1]. In aquatic environments, amphipods are often referred to as as scuds, shrimp, or side swimmers [1]. Terrestrial species may be called land hoppers or beach/sand flies [1]. Amphipods are often considered keystone species due to their high population densities and their significant role in food webs [3].
[[File:Amphipod_microscope.jpg|thumb|600px|right|Figure 1: Aquatic amphipod]]
==Taxonomy==
'''Class:''' Malacostraca
'''Subclass:''' Eumalacostraca
'''Phylum:''' Anthropoda
'''Order:''' Amphipoda
'''Family:''' Gammaridae
[[File:Amphipod_(2).jpg|thumb|600px|left|Figure 2: Amphipod Anatomical Diagram]]
==Description==
Amphipods can range from 1 to 340 millimeters [2] with a laterally compressed, segmented body and prominent antennae [4]. Amphipods lack a carapace which is the hard upper shell that be seen on crayfish or lobsters [5]. Amphipoda also means "different feet", referring to their three pairs of pleopods and three pairs of uropods, whereas [[Isopods]], a related group of crustaceans, means "same feet" [1]. Most amphipods are [[detritivores]], feeding on decaying plant and animal matter which plays a vital role in ecosystems by breaking down organic material [5]. Similar to crayfish and lobsters, amphipods must periodically molt their exoskeleton in order to grow [6].

==Habitat==
'''Aquatic:''' Aquatic amphipods can be found in both marine and freshwater environments and are often found at the bottom of the substrate [5]. Some of the aquatic species may be seen burrowing in the substrate, creating small tunnels or depressions where they can hide from predators and forage for food [5]. In doing so, this behavior also plays a role in sediment turnover [5].

'''Terrestrial:''' Terrestrial amphipods live on the top half inch of [[soil]], relying heavily on the moisture to survive [6]. Amphipods do not contain a waxy layer on their exoskeleton, therefore they are prone to desiccation in dry environments due to significant water losses[6]. Significant changes in soil moisture or habitat disturbance can quickly impact their populations.
[[File:IMG_7670_(1)_(1).jpg|thumb|400px|right|Figure 3: Marine amphipod feeding on algae in substrate]]
==Life Cycle==
Most amphipod species complete their life cycle in one year or less [6]. Female amphipods can produce hundreds of eggs within a single brood [6]. These eggs are kept in a pouch called a marsupium, located on the underside of the female offering protection as the eggs develop [7]. Depending on the species and water temperature, it may take 1 to 20 weeks for the eggs to fully develop [7]. Once the eggs hatch, the juvenile amphipods look like small versions of the adults and become sexually mature after growing and molting several times [6].

==Ecosystem Importance==
Amphipods are considered secondary producers within aquatic and terrestrial food webs [8]. They primarily feed on organic materials such as [[algae]] and detritus which helps recycle nutrients [8]. Additionally, amphipods serve as a major food source for certain juvenile fish species [8].

==References==
[1] Horton, T., Lowry, J., De Broyer, C., Bellan-Santini, D., Coleman, C. O., Daneliya, M., ... & Zeidler, W. (n.d.). World Amphipoda Database. World Register of Marine Species. https://www.marinespecies.org/amphipoda/#:~:text=The%20order%20Amphipoda%20is%20part,and%20three%20pairs%20of%20uropods.

[2] iNaturalist. (n.d.). Amphipoda. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/47628-Amphipoda

[3] Eawag. (2023, October 3). Amphipods: A miraculous increase in biodiversity. https://www.eawag.ch/en/info/portal/news/news-detail/amphipods-a-miraculous-increase-in-biodiversity/

[4] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipod. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/amphipod

[5] Missouri Department of Conservation. (n.d.). Scuds, sideswimmers (amphipods). https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/scuds-sideswimmers-amphipods#:~:text=Habitat%20and%20Conservation,at%20the%20bottom%20of%20ponds.

[6] Buss, L. W., & Bextine, B. (2009). Amphipods (Publication No. IN377). University of Florida IFAS Extension. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN377

[7] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipoda. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/amphipoda

[8] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipod. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002209812300117X

[9] Hudson River Park Trust. (n.d.). Amphipod. https://hudsonriverpark.org/the-park/parks-river-project/science/wetlab/invertebrates/amphipod/

Amphipods

2025-04-29T19:54:15Z

Almonaco:

''Amphipods'', are a type of [[crustacean]] which includes groups such as crabs, lobsters and shrimp [1]. Amphipods can be found in both marine and terrestrial environments with currently 10,753 known species [1]. In aquatic environments, amphipods are often referred to as as scuds, shrimp, or side swimmers [1]. Terrestrial species may be called land hoppers or beach/sand flies [1]. Amphipods are often considered keystone species due to their high population densities and their significant role in food webs [3].
[[File:Amphipod_microscope.jpg|thumb|600px|right|Figure 1: Aquatic amphipod]]
==Taxonomy==
'''Class:''' Malacostraca
'''Subclass:''' Eumalacostraca
'''Phylum:''' Anthropoda
'''Order:''' Amphipoda
'''Family:''' Gammaridae
[[File:Amphipod_(2).jpg|thumb|600px|left|Figure 2: Amphipod Anatomical Diagram]]
==Description==
Amphipods can range from 1 to 340 millimeters [2] with a laterally compressed, segmented body and prominent antennae [4]. Amphipods lack a carapace which is the hard upper shell that be seen on crayfish or lobsters [5]. Amphipoda also means "different feet", referring to their three pairs of pleopods and three pairs of uropods, whereas [[Isopods]], a related group of crustaceans, means "same feet" [1]. Most amphipods are [[detritivores]], feeding on decaying plant and animal matter which plays a vital role in ecosystems by breaking down organic material [5]. Similar to crayfish and lobsters, amphipods must periodically molt their exoskeleton in order to grow [6].

==Habitat==
'''Aquatic:''' Aquatic amphipods can be found in both marine and freshwater environments and are often found at the bottom of the substrate [5]. Some of the aquatic species may be seen burrowing in the substrate, creating small tunnels or depressions where they can hide from predators and forage for food [5]. In doing so, this behavior also plays a role in sediment turnover [5].

'''Terrestrial:''' Terrestrial amphipods live on the top half inch of [[soil]], relying heavily on the moisture to survive [6]. Amphipods do not contain a waxy layer on their exoskeleton, therefore they are prone to desiccation in dry environments due to significant water losses[6]. Significant changes in soil moisture or habitat disturbance can quickly impact their populations.
[[File:IMG_7670_(1)_(1).jpg|thumb|400px|right|Figure 3: Marine amphipod feeding on algae in substrate]]
==Life Cycle==
Most amphipod species complete their life cycle in one year or less [6]. Female amphipods can produce hundreds of eggs within a single brood [6]. These eggs are kept in a pouch called a marsupium, located on the underside of the female offering protection as the eggs develop [7]. Depending on the species and water temperature, it may take 1 to 20 weeks for the eggs to fully develop [7]. Once the eggs hatch, the juvenile amphipods look like small versions of the adults and become sexually mature after growing and molting several times [6].

==Ecosystem Importance==
Amphipods are considered secondary producers within aquatic and terrestrial food webs [8]. They primarily feed on organic materials such as [[algae]] and detritus which helps recycle nutrients [8]. Additionally, amphipods serve as a major food source for certain juvenile fish species [8].

==References==
[1] Horton, T., Lowry, J., De Broyer, C., Bellan-Santini, D., Coleman, C. O., Daneliya, M., ... & Zeidler, W. (n.d.). World Amphipoda Database. World Register of Marine Species. https://www.marinespecies.org/amphipoda/#:~:text=The%20order%20Amphipoda%20is%20part,and%20three%20pairs%20of%20uropods.

[2] iNaturalist. (n.d.). Amphipoda. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/47628-Amphipoda

[3] Eawag. (2023, October 3). Amphipods: A miraculous increase in biodiversity. https://www.eawag.ch/en/info/portal/news/news-detail/amphipods-a-miraculous-increase-in-biodiversity/

[4] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipod. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/amphipod

[5] Missouri Department of Conservation. (n.d.). Scuds, sideswimmers (amphipods). https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/scuds-sideswimmers-amphipods#:~:text=Habitat%20and%20Conservation,at%20the%20bottom%20of%20ponds.

[6] Buss, L. W., & Bextine, B. (2009). Amphipods (Publication No. IN377). University of Florida IFAS Extension. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN377

[7] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipoda. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/amphipoda

[8] ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Amphipod. Elsevier. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002209812300117X

[9] Hudson River Park Trust. (n.d.). Amphipod. https://hudsonriverpark.org/the-park/parks-river-project/science/wetlab/invertebrates/amphipod/

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-29T19:50:39Z

Almonaco: /* Chauliognathus */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetles have four life stages: Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Adult. Eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, larvae are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity. Pupae form in early summer, and adults emerge starting in late July <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones can produce compounds to help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Along with their important ecological role, soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually grayish-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are also some of the largest soldier beetles at 8 to 15 millimeters long. They are yellow to orange, with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-29T19:49:38Z

Almonaco: /* Cantharis */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetles have four life stages: Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Adult. Eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, larvae are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity. Pupae form in early summer, and adults emerge starting in late July <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones can produce compounds to help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Along with their important ecological role, soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually grayish-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are 8 to 15 millimeters long, and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-29T19:47:55Z

Almonaco: /* Ecology & Evolution */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetles have four life stages: Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Adult. Eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, larvae are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity. Pupae form in early summer, and adults emerge starting in late July <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones can produce compounds to help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Along with their important ecological role, soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are 8 to 15 millimeters long, and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-29T19:47:06Z

Almonaco: /* Ecology & Evolution */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetles have four life stages: Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Adult. Eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, larvae are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity. Pupae form in early summer, and adults emerge starting in late July <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones can produce compounds to help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are 8 to 15 millimeters long, and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Epiphytes

2025-04-28T23:30:47Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

[[File:bromeliad10.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Bromeliad (''Tillandsia aeranthos'') Growing on a Tree in Argentina (Photographed by nicochimento, 2020). <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>]]

Epiphytes, specifically vascular epiphytes, are those plants that germinate and take root on other plants. These plants generally exhibit commensal relationships with their host plants, and therefore epiphytes receive shelter and protection with no cost or benefit to their host plant <ref name= "naranjo">Naranjo, C., Iriondo, J., Riofrio, M., Lara-Romero, C.. (2019). "Evaluating the structure of commensalistic epiphyte–phorophyte networks: a comparative perspective of biotic interactions" AoB PLANTS. 11(2): plz011. https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/plz011.</ref>. Epiphytes can be both obligate and facultative <ref name= "zotz">Zotz, Gerhard. (12 Nov 2012). "The systematic distribution of vascular epiphytes – a critical update." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. The Linnean Society of London. 171: 453–481. https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/171/3/453/2416203.</ref>. Facultative epiphytes are plant species that grow terrestrially and epiphytically approximately the same amount of times across their distribution. If a species grows epiphytically at least 95 percent of the time, it is considered an obligate epiphyte <ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>. Plants that grow on other plants for only a portion of their life are referred to as "hemi-epiphytes" <ref name= "nieder">Nieder, J., Prosperi, J., Michaloud, G.. (2001). "Epiphytes and their contribution to canopy diveristy." Plant [[Ecology]]. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 153: 51-63. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226617674_Epiphytes_and_their_contribution_to_canopy_diversity.</ref>. Additionally "accidental epiphytes" can occur when a plant that does not usually grow epiphytically at any point in its life cycle does so due to a need or opportunity for resources <ref name= "zotz">Zotz, Gerhard. (12 Nov 2012). "The systematic distribution of vascular epiphytes – a critical update." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. The Linnean Society of London. 171: 453–481. https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/171/3/453/2416203.</ref>. Epiphytes account for approximately 10 percent of all plant [[diversity]]. It is estimated that over 24,000 vascular plants are considered to be epiphytes, and they are most commonly concentrated in tropical areas where they can provide significant [[Ecosystem Services|ecosystem services]] <ref name= "nieder">Nieder, J., Prosperi, J., Michaloud, G.. (2001). "Epiphytes and their contribution to canopy diveristy." Plant [[Ecology]]. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 153: 51-63. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226617674_Epiphytes_and_their_contribution_to_canopy_diversity.</ref>. Since epiphytes usually have no direct contact with soil, their most common threat is desiccation, thus these plants have many unique adaptations that allow them to conserve water and thrive <ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Ecologically, epiphytes exhibit opportunism, filling gaps in an ecosystem when possible and often growing in tree crowns. Most vascular plants can display epiphytic growth if they are in the appropriate conditions. For example, the aforementioned "accidental epiphytes" result from a usually terrestrial species taking advantage of beneficial conditions in its microhabitat. In these cases, a plant species may have a fundamental niche in which it can grow epiphytically but is usually not able to due to competition or lack of resources <ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>.

Therefore, evolutionarily, epiphytes have adapted to canopy conditions <ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>. Epiphytism is also thought to have led to the rapid diversification of certain plant families. For example, approximately 75 percent of the family Orchidaceae and 59 percent of the family Bromeliaceae are epiphytic, showing that this growth style has been beneficial in these families' life histories and has allowed them to grow quickly <ref name= "taylor">Taylor, A., Zotz G., Weigelt P., Cai L.,Karger D. N., König C., & Kreft H. (2022). "Vascular epiphytes contribute disproportionately to global centres of plant diversity." Global Ecology and Biogeography, 31: 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13411.</ref>.

With this growth style have come many unique adaptations in epiphytes that help them thrive in their environment and retain ecosystem stability. For instance, epiphyte habitats are usually considered to be discontinuous, and because of their common habitat in tree canopies, their seeds are usually dispersed via wind or birds. Additionally, these plants have roots that are specially designed to grow in areas that do not contain [[soil]]. This unique growth system also means that epiphytes need to be well-adapted to absorbing rainwater, as they cannot access this resource through soil. Epiphytes are also smaller and lighter in size and weight in order to not pressure the plant they grow on, possibly causing stress or dislodgement. Along with this, epiphytes have leaves adapted to light conditions of canopies and a structure that is able to retain water in times of stress <ref name= "hietz">Hietz, P., Wagner, K., Nunes Ramos, F.,Cabral, J. S., Agudelo, C., Benavides, A. M., Cach-Pérez, M. J.,Cardelús, C. L., Chilpa Galván, N., Erickson Nascimento daCosta, L., de Paula Oliveira, R., Einzmann, H. J. R., de PaivaFarias, R., Guzmán Jacob, V., Kattge, J., Kessler, M., Kirby, C.,Kreft, H., Krömer, T., … Zotz, G. (2022). "Putting vascular epiphytes on the traits map." Journal of Ecology, 110: 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13802.</ref>.
===Epiphytes & Soil===

Though epiphytic plants do not directly contact it, they have indirect effects on the soil of their microclimates. Soils beneath epiphyte host plants tend to absorb less water from rainfall and fog. Especially during wet seasons, epiphytes have a strong influence on the amount of water from precipitation retained by soil, which can affect the growth of their host plants <ref name= "stanton">Stanton, D., Huallpa Chávez, J., Villegas, L., Villasante, F., Armesto, J., Hedin, L., and Horn, H.. (2014). "Epiphytes improve host plant water use by microenvironment modification." Functional Ecology. British Ecological Society. 28: 1274-1283. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12249.</ref>.

== Common Vascular Epiphytes ==

===Orchids===

As stated, the orchid family (Orchidaceae) is one of incredible diversity. Across all orchids, though, with their variety of shapes, sizes, and growth strategies, they each have six waxy or velvety "petal-like parts" <ref name= "orchid">University of Wisonsin-Madison. (5 Nov 2010). "Orchids." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/orchids/.</ref>. These plants can either grow terrestrially or epiphytically (relying on trees for this growth). Higher precipitation and temperatures typically lead to the growth of epiphytic orchids. Therefore, they tend to display this growth strategy in the humid climate of tropical areas. When orchids display epiphytic growth, their leaves tend to become thick and their aerial roots become covered in a layer of dead skin cells. These adaptations help the plant to better conserve and absorb water. Other adaptations of epiphytic orchids include having pseudobulbs that help retain water and practicing Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) photosynthesis to conserve water <ref name= "keppel">Taylor, A., Keppel, G., Weigelt, P., Zotz, G., Kreft, H.. (2021). "Functional traits are key to understanding orchid diversity on islands." Ecography. 44: 703–714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecog.05410.</ref>.

[[File:orchid13.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Orchid (''Guarianthe skinneri'') Growing on a Tree in Mexico (Photographed by Alexis López Hernández, 2025). <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>]]

[[File:orchid15.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Orchid (''Guarianthe skinneri'') Growing on a Tree in Mexico (Photographed by Alexis López Hernández, 2025). <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>]]

===Bromeliads===

The bromeliad family (Bromeliaceae), is also very diverse, as discussed, and it contains about 2,500 species of which about half are epiphytes. These plants are native to the tropical areas of North and South America. Typically, bromeliads are stemless, and they display a rosette of leaves <ref name= "uw">University of Wisconsin-Madison. (2025). "Bromeliads." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/bromeliads/.</ref>. Out of all epiphytes, bromeliads are thought to be uniquely significant in their ecosystems. For instance, some bromeliads have overlapping leaves that provide areas of shelter for small [[animals]]. Additionally, bromeliads have reservoirs that store water, again helping small animals. The evaporation of water from this area can also affect the behavior of host tree species. Bromeliads provide nectar, flowers, and fruit for many animals as well. These plants absorb nutrients through both roots and aerial parts <ref name= "nievola">Nievola, C., Kanashiro, S., Tamaki, V., Guardia, M., Suzuki, R., Costa, J., Baptista, W., Cachenco,
M., Shidomi, Y., Santos Junior, N.. (2022). "Simultaneous relocation strategy of bromeliads as epiphytes or terricolous in the
Montane Dense Ombrophilous Forest of Parque Estadual da Cantareira, São Paulo State, Brazil." Hoehnea 49: e052022.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2236-8906-05-2022</ref>.

[[File:bromeliad12.jpg|1100px|thumb|center|Bromeliad (''Catopsis nutans'') Growing on a Tree in Mexico (Photographed by avocat, 2025). <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>]]

===Ferns===

Ferns are one of Earth's oldest plant groups, and today this group has approximately 10,500 species, with its diversity only outnumbered by flowering plants <ref name= "pinson">Pinson, Jerald. (2021). "About Ferns." American Fern Society. https://www.amerfernsoc.org/about-ferns.</ref>. About 29 percent of ferns are epiphytic, and this growth style dates back to the Cretaceous period for ferns <ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>. Therefore, the [[fern]] gametophyte and sporophyte forms have uniquely and adequately adapted to this lifestyle. For example, epiphytic fern gametophytes are observed to have more dissection and branching in their morphology as compared to terrestrial fern gametophytes. This is useful in reproduction for epiphytic ferns, as they do not have to rely on the previously mentioned seed dispersion methods of wind and birds. A fern can grow and branch out far enough in order to reach another fern in order to reproduce <ref name= "pinson">Pinson, Jerald. (2021). "About Ferns." American Fern Society. https://www.amerfernsoc.org/about-ferns.</ref>.

The fern family Polypodiaceae has unique adaptations that allow its species to thrive epiphytically. One such adaptation is poikilohydry, which allows these plants to survive and recover from significant periods of dehydration. Additionally, species in this family have specialized methods that allow them to collect [[humus]] as an alternative way to obtain nutrients <ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>.

[[File:fern1.jpeg|1100px|thumb|center|Fern (''Pleopeltis polypodioides'') Growing on a Tree in Costa Rica (Photographed by meadowfawnie, 2025). <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>]]

== References ==
<ref name= "zotz">Zotz, Gerhard. (12 Nov 2012). "The systematic distribution of vascular epiphytes – a critical update." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. The Linnean Society of London. 171: 453–481. https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/171/3/453/2416203.</ref>
<ref name= "nieder">Nieder, J., Prosperi, J., Michaloud, G.. (2001). "Epiphytes and their contribution to canopy diveristy." Plant [[Ecology]]. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 153: 51-63. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226617674_Epiphytes_and_their_contribution_to_canopy_diversity.</ref>
<ref name= "hoeber">Hoeber, V. and Zotz, G.. (15 Mar 2022). "Accidental epiphytes: Ecological insights and evolutionary implications." Ecological Monographs. The Ecological Society of America. 92(4): e1527. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1527.</ref>
<ref name= "taylor">Taylor, A., Zotz G., Weigelt P., Cai L.,Karger D. N., König C., & Kreft H. (2022). "Vascular epiphytes contribute disproportionately to global centres of plant diversity." Global Ecology and Biogeography, 31: 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13411.</ref>
<ref name= "hietz">Hietz, P., Wagner, K., Nunes Ramos, F.,Cabral, J. S., Agudelo, C., Benavides, A. M., Cach-Pérez, M. J.,Cardelús, C. L., Chilpa Galván, N., Erickson Nascimento daCosta, L., de Paula Oliveira, R., Einzmann, H. J. R., de PaivaFarias, R., Guzmán Jacob, V., Kattge, J., Kessler, M., Kirby, C.,Kreft, H., Krömer, T., … Zotz, G. (2022). "Putting vascular epiphytes on the traits map." Journal of Ecology, 110: 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13802.</ref>
<ref name= "keppel">Taylor, A., Keppel, G., Weigelt, P., Zotz, G., Kreft, H.. (2021). "Functional traits are key to understanding orchid diversity on islands." Ecography. 44: 703–714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecog.05410.</ref>
<ref name= "nievola">Nievola, C., Kanashiro, S., Tamaki, V., Guardia, M., Suzuki, R., Costa, J., Baptista, W., Cachenco,
M., Shidomi, Y., Santos Junior, N.. (2022). "Simultaneous relocation strategy of bromeliads as epiphytes or terricolous in the
Montane Dense Ombrophilous Forest of Parque Estadual da Cantareira, São Paulo State, Brazil." Hoehnea 49: e052022.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2236-8906-05-2022</ref>
<ref name= "uw">University of Wisconsin-Madison. (2025). "Bromeliads." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/bromeliads/.</ref>
<ref name= "orchid">University of Wisonsin-Madison. (5 Nov 2010). "Orchids." Wisconsin [[Horticulture]]. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/orchids/.</ref>
<ref name= "pinson">Pinson, Jerald. (2021). "About Ferns." American Fern Society. https://www.amerfernsoc.org/about-ferns.</ref>
<ref name= "dubuisson">Dubuisson, J., Schneider, H., Hennequin, S.. (2009). "Epiphytism in ferns: diversity and history." C.R. Biologies. 332: 120-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2008.08.018.</ref>
<ref name= "stanton">Stanton, D., Huallpa Chávez, J., Villegas, L., Villasante, F., Armesto, J., Hedin, L., and Horn, H.. (2014). "Epiphytes improve host plant water use by microenvironment modification." Functional Ecology. British Ecological Society. 28: 1274-1283. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12249.</ref>
<ref name= "naranjo">Naranjo, C., Iriondo, J., Riofrio, M., Lara-Romero, C.. (2019). "Evaluating the structure of commensalistic epiphyte–phorophyte networks: a comparative perspective of biotic interactions" AoB PLANTS. 11(2): plz011. https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/plz011.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-17T15:07:05Z

Almonaco: /* Ecology & Evolution */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetles have four life stages: Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Adult. Eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, larvae are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity. Pupae form in early summer, and adults emerge starting in late July <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones are able to produce compounds which help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are 8 to 15 millimeters long, and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-17T15:05:00Z

Almonaco: /* Ecology & Evolution */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetles have four life stages: Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Adult. Eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones are able to produce compounds which help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are 8 to 15 millimeters long, and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-17T15:04:46Z

Almonaco: /* Ecology & Evolution */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetles have four life stages: Egg, Larvae, Pupa, and Adult. Eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones are able to produce compounds which help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are 8 to 15 millimeters long, and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-17T14:46:15Z

Almonaco: /* Chauliognathus */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones are able to produce compounds which help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are 8 to 15 millimeters long, and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-17T14:44:59Z

Almonaco: /* Ecology & Evolution */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption of soldier beetles is that select ones are able to produce compounds which help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-16T22:43:22Z

Almonaco: /* Podabrus */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption is that select soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' adults typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers and are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-16T22:42:45Z

Almonaco: /* Cantharis */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption is that select soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and adults can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' species typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers, and they are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-16T22:42:00Z

Almonaco: /* Cantharis */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption is that select soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' species typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers, and they are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-16T22:33:10Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption is that select soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' species typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers, and they are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-16T22:30:16Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. Larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. One notable adaption is that select soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae (such as dandelions and goldenrods). Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar and pollen <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' species typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers, and they are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-16T22:21:18Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. As adults, soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and are yellow, orange, brown, or black in color <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Though soldier beetles are sometimes considered pests, they are beneficial, as they are a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado [[Insects]]. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

Soldier beetles have been significant in evolutionary studies. Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in fossiliferous amber resin. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' species typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers, and they are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-16T21:05:59Z

Almonaco: /* Description & Overview */

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle (''Dysmorphocerus dilaticornis'') on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' species typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers, and they are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-16T20:53:31Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' species typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers, and they are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-15T20:02:53Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black <ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' species typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers, and they are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "wildlife">The Wildlife Trusts. (2025). Soldier beetle. The Wildlife Trusts. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/beetles/soldier-beetle.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-15T20:00:20Z

Almonaco: /* Cantharis */

== Description & Overview ==

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>. ''Cantharis'' species are some of the largest soldier beetles, and can be between 9 to 13 millimeters long. These beetles have a red pronotum (back of head) with a black marking in the center. The top of these beetles' heads, as well as their wing covers, are black

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' species typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers, and they are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-15T19:53:13Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>. ''Podabrus'' species typically range from 7 to 9 millimeters long. They tend to have leathery, flexible wing covers, and they are usually brownish-black with yellow to red sides and yellow faces <ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name="minnesota">MinnesotaSeasons.com. (2025). Wrinkled Soldier Beetle. MinnesotaSeasons.com. http://www.minnesotaseasons.com/Insects/wrinkled_soldier_beetle.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20rugosulus%20is%20a%20small,and%20rounded%20at%20the%20tip.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-15T19:35:04Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-15T00:35:15Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>. The larve of ''Podabrus'' genus are thought to reside in organic debris and the upper layers of soil <ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name="crowley">Crowley, L., Chua, P., & Kusy, D.. (2023). The genome sequence of a soldier beetle, Podabrus alpinus (Paykull, 1798). PubMed Central. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.18890.1.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-15T00:29:03Z

Almonaco: /* Cantharis */

== Description & Overview ==

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-15T00:28:42Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax. <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of [[Arthropod]] Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>. Like ''Cantharis'', ''Chauliognathus'' species are also commonly found in grasslands and forb fields <ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name="pelletier">Pelletier G. & Hebert, C. (2014). The Cantharidae of Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification. https://doi.org/10.3752/cjai.2014.25.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-15T00:25:54Z

Almonaco: /* Cantharis */

== Description & Overview ==

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax. <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Beetles in this genus are common in grasslands and forb fields.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-15T00:19:52Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. After winter, beetles emerge and are found moving through leaf litter, plant debris, and other areas of high humidity <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-15T00:15:53Z

Almonaco:

== Description & Overview ==

Soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are the second largest group in the beetle (Coleoptera) superfamily Elateroidea, containing approximatley 5,500 species. These beetles are common throughout the temperate region of the northern hemisphere <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>. Soldier beetle larvae tend to be darkly colored and look almost reptilian. Adult soldier beetles grow to about half of an inch long and vary from yellow, to orange, to brown, or to black in color. Some abdominal segments are exposed, as their wings do not entirely cover their body. These [[insects]] are beneficial, as they act as a pollinator species <ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>.

Currently, 25 species in 16 genera of soldier beetles have been discovered in the fossiliferous resin Burmese amber. The oldest soldier beetle fossil discovered comes from Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber <ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>.

Soldier beetles may be confused with certain species of blister beetles, fireflies, or glowworm beetles <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; background-color:#e9efda;
|+ !colspan="7" style="min-width:12em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)|Soldier Beetle Taxonomy <ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
!colspan="7"|[[File:beetle2.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Soldier Beetle on a Plant in Chile (Photographed by Claudio Maureira, 2019) <ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>.]]
|-
! Kingdom !! Phylum !! Subphylum!! Class !! Order !! Suborder !! Family
|-
| Animalia || Arthropoda || Hexapoda || Insecta || Coleoptera || Polyphaga || Cantharidae
|}
</center>

== Ecology & Evolution ==

From midsummer to early fall, soldier beetles tend to pollinate yellow flowers of the family Asteraceae. Some adult soldier beetles feed on nectar, pollen, and small [[arthropods]] <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>. Other adults may prey on aphids and other soft-bodied insects <ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>.

Soldier beetle eggs are laid from late August to early September. Though soldier beetle life history is not well known, larvae are assumed to predate on small [[invertebrates]] within the [[soil]]. Some soldier beetles are able to produce compounds that help stave off predators, like spiders <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

Based on molecular dating, the Cantharidae family is thought to have originated 156.3 million years ago <ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>.

== Common Soldier Beetle Genera ==

===Cantharis===

[[File:beetle3.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Rustic Soldier Beetle (''Cantharis rustica'') On a Plant in France (Photographed by dromensis, 2025)]]

''Cantharis'' species are usually gray-brown with a red or orange head and prothorax <ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>.

===Chauliognathus===

[[File:beetle4.jpg|501px|thumb|center|Plague Soldier Beetle (''Chauliognathus lugubris'') On a Plant in Australia (Photographed by zichen1, 2025)]]

Most ''Chauliognathus'' species are found in the western United States, Australia, and South America, excepting two species in the state of Virginia. Adults in this genus are medium in size (8 to 15 millimeters long), and they are yellow to orange with black coloration on their forewings and prothorax <ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>.

===Podabrus===

[[File:beetle6.jpeg|501px|thumb|center|Wrinkled Soldier Beetle (''Podabrus rugosulus'') On a Plant in South Carolina, USA (Photographed by xx7trey, 2024)]]

Species in the ''Podabrus'' genus tend to feed on aphids and soft-bodied insects <ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>.

== References ==
<ref name= "motyka">Motyka, M., Kusy, D., Biffi, G., Geiser, M., Kazantsev, S.V., Bilkova, R., Jahodarova, E., Vogler, A.P., Bocak, L.. (2023). Untangling the evolution of soldier beetles ([[Coleoptera]]: Cantharidae) and the evaluation of the morphological phylogenetic signal in a soft-bodied elateroid lineage. Cladistics. 39: 548-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12555.</ref>
<ref name= "hahn">Hahn, Jeffrey. (2023). Soldier beetles. University of Minnesota Extension. https://extension.umn.edu/yard-and-garden-insects/soldier-beetles#:~:text=Soldier%20beetles%20are%20beneficial%20insects&text=Because%20of%20their%20frequent%20contact,go%20away%20on%20their%20own.</ref>
<ref name= "colorado">Colorado State University. (2017). Soldier Beetle. Western Colorado Insects. https://wci.extension.colostate.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2017/03/SoldierBeetles.pdf.</ref>
<ref name= "bugguide">BugGuide. (2025). Family Cantharidae - Soldier Beetles. BugGuide. https://bugguide.net/node/view/118/tree.</ref>
<ref name="ucipm">UCIPM. (2025). Soldier Beetles. UCIPM. https://ipm.ucanr.edu/natural-enemies/soldier-beetles/#gsc.tab=0.</ref>
<ref name="esa">Entomology Today. New Soldier Beetle Species Found in 99-million-year-old Amber. Entomological Society of America. https://entomologytoday.org/2016/10/14/new-soldier-beetle-species-found-in-99-million-year-old-amber/.</ref>
<ref name="catron">Catron, K.A.. (2021). Biology of Chauliognathus spp. (Hentz) (Coleoptera: Cantharidae) in Virginia agroecosystems. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6f5fd1b-f813-4947-a14a-1b06d989fc18/content.</ref>
<ref name="podabrus">Montana State University. (2022). Podabrus sp. Montana State University. https://www.montana.edu/yellowstoneinsects/coleoptera/cantharidae/podabrus_sp.html#:~:text=Podabrus%20is%20a%20genus%20in,exclusively%20near%20bodies%20of%20water.</ref>
<ref name= "pics">iNaturalist. https://www.inaturalist.org/.</ref>

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-15T00:15:17Z

Almonaco: /* Ecology & Evolution */

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-14T23:59:27Z

Almonaco:

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-14T23:57:41Z

Almonaco: /* Podabrus */

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-14T23:54:43Z

Almonaco:

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-14T23:37:16Z

Almonaco: /* Podabrus */

Soldier Beetles

2025-04-14T23:36:59Z

Almonaco:

File:Beetle6.jpeg

2025-04-14T23:35:50Z

Almonaco:

File:Beetle4.jpg

2025-04-14T23:28:47Z

Almonaco: